Name[edit]

Marcus was born in Rome on 26 April 121. His name at birth was supposedly Marcus Annius
Verus,[12] but some sources assign this name to him upon his father's death and unofficial
adoption by his grandfather, upon his coming of age, [13][14][15] or at the time of his marriage.[16] He
may have been known as Marcus Annius Catilius Severus,[17] at birth or some point in his youth,[13]
[15]
 or Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus. Upon his adoption by Antoninus as heir to the
throne, he was known as Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar and, upon his ascension, he was
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus until his death; [18] Epiphanius of Salamis, in his chronology
of the Roman emperors On Weights and Measures, calls him Marcus Aurelius Verus.[19]

Family origins[edit]
Marcus's paternal family was of Roman Italo-Hispanic origins. His father was Marcus Annius
Verus (III).[20] The gens Annia was of Italian origins (with legendary claims of descendance
from Numa Pompilius) and a branch of it moved to Ucubi, a small town south east of Córdoba in
Iberian Baetica.[21][22] This branch of the Aurelii based in Roman Spain, the Annii Veri, rose to
prominence in Rome in the late 1st century AD. Marcus's great-grandfather Marcus Annius
Verus (I) was a senator and (according to the Historia Augusta) ex-praetor; his
grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II) was made patrician in 73–74.[23] Through his
grandmother Rupilia, Marcus was a member of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty; the
emperor Trajan's sororal niece Salonia Matidia was the mother of Rupilia and her half-sister,
Hadrian's wife Sabina.[24][25][note 1]
Marcus's mother, Domitia Lucilla Minor (also known as Domitia Calvilla), was the daughter of the
Roman patrician P. Calvisius Tullus and inherited a great fortune (described at length in one
of Pliny's letters) from her parents and grandparents. Her inheritance included large brickworks
on the outskirts of Rome – a profitable enterprise in an era when the city was experiencing a
construction boom – and the Horti Domitia Calvillae (or Lucillae), a villa on the Caelian hill of
Rome.[28][29] Marcus himself was born and raised in the Horti and referred to the Caelian hill as 'My
Caelian'.[30][31][32]
The adoptive family of Marcus was of Roman Italo-Gallic origins: the gens Aurelia, into which
Marcus was adopted at the age of 17, was a Sabine gens; Antoninus Pius, his adoptive father,
came from the Aurelii Fulvi, a branch of the Aurelii based in Roman Gaul.

Childhood[edit]
Marcus's sister, Annia Cornificia Faustina, was probably born in 122 or 123. [33] His father probably
died in 124, when Marcus was three years old during his praetorship. [34][note 2] Though he can hardly
have known his father, Marcus wrote in his Meditations that he had learnt 'modesty and
manliness' from his memories of his father and the man's posthumous reputation. [36] His mother
Lucilla did not remarry[34] and, following prevailing aristocratic customs, probably did not spend
much time with her son. Instead, Marcus was in the care of 'nurses', [37] and was raised after his
father's death by his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II), who had always retained the legal
authority of patria potestas over his son and grandson. Technically this was not an adoption, the
creation of a new and different patria potestas. Lucius Catilius Severus, described as Marcus's
maternal great-grandfather, also participated in his upbringing; he was probably the elder Domitia
Lucilla's stepfather.[15] Marcus was raised in his parents' home on the Caelian Hill, an upscale
area with few public buildings but many aristocratic villas. Marcus's grandfather owned a palace
beside the Lateran, where he would spend much of his childhood. [38] Marcus thanks his
grandfather for teaching him 'good character and avoidance of bad temper'. [39] He was less fond
of the mistress his grandfather took and lived with after the death of his wife Rupilia. [40] Marcus
was grateful that he did not have to live with her longer than he did. [41]
Marcus was educated at home, in line with contemporary aristocratic trends; [42] he thanks Catilius
Severus for encouraging him to avoid public schools. [43] One of his teachers, Diognetus, a
painting master, proved particularly influential; he seems to have introduced Marcus Aurelius to
the philosophic way of life.[44] In April 132, at the behest of Diognetus, Marcus took up the dress
and habits of the philosopher: he studied while wearing a rough Greek cloak, and would sleep on
the ground until his mother convinced him to sleep on a bed. [45] A new set of tutors –
the Homeric scholar Alexander of Cotiaeum along with Trosius Aper and Tuticius Proculus,
teachers of Latin[46][note 3] – took over Marcus's education in about 132 or 133. [48] Marcus thanks
Alexander for his training in literary styling.[49] Alexander's influence – an emphasis on matter over
style and careful wording, with the occasional Homeric quotation – has been detected in
Marcus's Meditations.[50]

Succession to Hadrian[edit]

Coin (136–138 AD) of Hadrian (obverse) and his adoptive son, Lucius Aelius (reverse). Hadrian is wearing
the laurel crown. Inscription: HADRIANVS ... / LVCIVS CAESAR.
In late 136, Hadrian almost died from a hemorrhage. Convalescent in his villa at Tivoli, he
selected Lucius Ceionius Commodus, Marcus's intended father-in-law, as his successor
and adopted son,[51] according to the biographer 'against the wishes of everyone'. [52] While his
motives are not certain, it would appear that his goal was to eventually place the then-too-young
Marcus on the throne.[53] As part of his adoption, Commodus took the name, Lucius Aelius
Caesar. His health was so poor that, during a ceremony to mark his becoming heir to the throne,
he was too weak to lift a large shield on his own. [54] After a brief stationing on the Danube frontier,
Aelius returned to Rome to make an address to the Senate on the first day of 138. However, the
night before the speech, he grew ill and died of a hemorrhage later in the day. [55][note 4]
On 24 January 138, Hadrian selected Aurelius Antoninus, the husband of Marcus's aunt Faustina
the Elder, as his new successor.[57] As part of Hadrian's terms, Antoninus, in turn, adopted
Marcus and Lucius Commodus, the son of Lucius Aelius. [58] Marcus became M. Aelius Aurelius
Verus, and Lucius became L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus. At Hadrian's request, Antoninus's
daughter Faustina was betrothed to Lucius.[59] Marcus reportedly greeted the news that Hadrian
had become his adoptive grandfather with sadness, instead of joy. Only with reluctance did he
move from his mother's house on the Caelian to Hadrian's private home. [60]
At some time in 138, Hadrian requested in the senate that Marcus be exempt from the law
barring him from becoming quaestor before his twenty-fourth birthday. The senate complied, and
Marcus served under Antoninus, the consul for 139. [61] Marcus's adoption diverted him from the
typical career path of his class. If not for his adoption, he probably would have become triumvir
monetalis, a highly regarded post involving token administration of the state mint; after that, he
could have served as tribune with a legion, becoming the legion's nominal second-in-command.
Marcus probably would have opted for travel and further education instead. As it was, Marcus
was set apart from his fellow citizens. Nonetheless, his biographer attests that his character
remained unaffected: 'He still showed the same respect to his relations as he had when he was
an ordinary citizen, and he was as thrifty and careful of his possessions as he had been when he
lived in a private household'.[62]
After a series of suicide attempts, all thwarted by Antoninus, Hadrian left for Baiae, a seaside
resort on the Campanian coast. His condition did not improve, and he abandoned the diet
prescribed by his doctors, indulging himself in food and drink. He sent for Antoninus, who was at
his side when he died on 10 July 138. [63] His remains were buried quietly at Puteoli.[64] The
succession to Antoninus was peaceful and stable: Antoninus kept Hadrian's nominees in office
and appeased the senate, respecting its privileges and commuting the death sentences of men
charged in Hadrian's last days.[65] For his dutiful behaviour, Antoninus was asked to accept the
name 'Pius'.[66]

Heir to Antoninus Pius (138–145)[edit]

Sestertius of Antoninus Pius (AD 140–144). It celebrates the betrothal of Marcus Aurelus and Faustina the
Younger in 139, pictured below Antoninus, who is holding a statuette of Concordia and clasping hands
with Faustina the Elder. Inscription: ANTONINVS AVG. PIVS P. P., TR. P., CO[N]S. III / CONCORDIAE
S.C.[67]

Denarius of Antoninus Pius (AD 139), with a portrait of Marcus Aurelius on the reverse. Inscription:
ANTONINVS AVG. PIVS P. P. / AVRELIVS CAES. AVG. PII F. CO[N]S. DES. [68]
Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his
marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus's betrothal to Ceionia Fabia would be annulled,
and he would be betrothed to Faustina, Antoninus's daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to
Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to
Antoninus's proposal.[69] He was made consul for 140 with Antoninus as his colleague, and was
appointed as a seviri, one of the knights' six commanders, at the order's annual parade on 15
July 139. As the heir apparent, Marcus became princeps iuventutis, head of the equestrian order.
He now took the name Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar. [70] Marcus would later caution
himself against taking the name too seriously: 'See that you do not turn into a Caesar; do not be
dipped into the purple dye – for that can happen'.[71] At the senate's request, Marcus joined all the
priestly colleges (pontifices, augures, quindecimviri sacris faciundis, septemviri epulonum, etc.);
[72]
 direct evidence for membership, however, is available only for the Arval Brethren.[73]
Antoninus demanded that Marcus reside in the House of Tiberius, the imperial palace on the
Palatine, and take up the habits of his new station, the aulicum fastigium or 'pomp of the court',
against Marcus's objections.[72] Marcus would struggle to reconcile the life of the court with his
philosophic yearnings. He told himself it was an attainable goal – 'Where life is possible, then it is
possible to live the right life; life is possible in a palace, so it is possible to live the right life in a
palace'[74] – but he found it difficult nonetheless. He would criticize himself in the Meditations for
'abusing court life' in front of company.[75]
As quaestor, Marcus would have had little real administrative work to do. He would read imperial
letters to the senate when Antoninus was absent and would do secretarial work for the senators.
[76]
 But he felt drowned in paperwork and complained to his tutor, Marcus Cornelius Fronto: 'I am
so out of breath from dictating nearly thirty letters'. [77] He was being 'fitted for ruling the state', in
the words of his biographer.[78] He was required to make a speech to the assembled senators as
well, making oratorical training essential for the job. [79]
On 1 January 145, Marcus was made consul a second time. Fronto urged him in a letter to have
plenty of sleep 'so that you may come into the Senate with a good colour and read your speech
with a strong voice'.[80] Marcus had complained of an illness in an earlier letter: 'As far as my
strength is concerned, I am beginning to get it back; and there is no trace of the pain in my chest.
But that ulcer [...][note 5] I am having treatment and taking care not to do anything that interferes with
it'.[81] Never particularly healthy or strong, Marcus was praised by Cassius Dio, writing of his later
years, for behaving dutifully in spite of his various illnesses. [82] In April 145, Marcus married
Faustina, legally his sister, as had been planned since 138. [83] Little is specifically known of the
ceremony, but the biographer calls it 'noteworthy'. [84] Coins were issued with the heads of the
couple, and Antoninus, as Pontifex Maximus, would have officiated. Marcus makes no apparent
reference to the marriage in his surviving letters, and only sparing references to Faustina. [85]

Fronto and further education[edit]

After taking the toga virilis in 136, Marcus probably began his training in oratory.[86] He had three
tutors in Greek – Aninus Macer, Caninius Celer, and Herodes Atticus – and one in Latin – Fronto.
The latter two were the most esteemed orators of their time, [87] but probably did not become his
tutors until his adoption by Antoninus in 138. The preponderance of Greek tutors indicates the
importance of the Greek language to the aristocracy of Rome. [88] This was the age of the Second
Sophistic, a renaissance in Greek letters. Although educated in Rome, in his Meditations, Marcus
would write his inmost thoughts in Greek.[89]
Atticus was controversial: an enormously rich Athenian (probably the richest man in the eastern
half of the empire), he was quick to anger and resented by his fellow Athenians for his
patronizing manner.[90] Atticus was an inveterate opponent of Stoicism and philosophic
pretensions.[91] He thought the Stoics' desire for apatheia was foolish: they would live a 'sluggish,
enervated life', he said.[92] In spite of the influence of Atticus, Marcus would later become a Stoic.
He would not mention Herodes at all in his Meditations, in spite of the fact that they would come
into contact many times over the following decades.[93]
Fronto was highly esteemed: in the self-consciously antiquarian world of Latin letters, [94] he was
thought of as second only to Cicero, perhaps even an alternative to him.[95][note 6] He did not care
much for Atticus, though Marcus was eventually to put the pair on speaking terms. Fronto
exercised a complete mastery of Latin, capable of tracing expressions through the literature,
producing obscure synonyms, and challenging minor improprieties in word choice.[95]
A significant amount of the correspondence between Fronto and Marcus has survived. [99] The pair
were very close, using intimate language such as 'Farewell my Fronto, wherever you are, my
most sweet love and delight. How is it between you and me? I love you and you are not here' in
their correspondence.[100] Marcus spent time with Fronto's wife and daughter, both named Cratia,
and they enjoyed light conversation. [101]
He wrote Fronto a letter on his birthday, claiming to love him as he loved himself, and calling on
the gods to ensure that every word he learnt of literature, he would learn 'from the lips of Fronto'.
[102]
 His prayers for Fronto's health were more than conventional, because Fronto was frequently
ill; at times, he seems to be an almost constant invalid, always suffering [103] – about one-quarter of
the surviving letters deal with the man's sicknesses.[104] Marcus asks that Fronto's pain be inflicted
on himself, 'of my own accord with every kind of discomfort'. [105]
Fronto never became Marcus's full-time teacher and continued his career as an advocate. One
notorious case brought him into conflict with Atticus.[106] Marcus pleaded with Fronto, first with
'advice', then as a 'favour', not to attack Atticus; he had already asked Atticus to refrain from
making the first blows.[107] Fronto replied that he was surprised to discover Marcus counted Atticus
as a friend (perhaps Atticus was not yet Marcus's tutor), and allowed that Marcus might be
correct,[108] but nonetheless affirmed his intent to win the case by any means necessary: '[T]he
charges are frightful and must be spoken of as frightful. Those in particular that refer to the
beating and robbing I will describe so that they savour of gall and bile. If I happen to call him an
uneducated little Greek it will not mean war to the death'. [109] The outcome of the trial is unknown.
[110]

By the age of twenty-five (between April 146 and April 147), Marcus had grown disaffected with
his studies in jurisprudence, and showed some signs of general malaise. His master, he writes to
Fronto, was an unpleasant blowhard, and had made 'a hit at' him: 'It is easy to sit yawning next to
a judge, he says, but to be a judge is noble work'.[111] Marcus had grown tired of his exercises, of
taking positions in imaginary debates. When he criticized the insincerity of conventional
language, Fronto took to defend it.[112] In any case, Marcus's formal education was now over. He
had kept his teachers on good terms, following them devotedly. It 'affected his health adversely',
his biographer writes, to have devoted so much effort to his studies. It was the only thing the
biographer could find fault with in Marcus's entire boyhood. [113]
Fronto had warned Marcus against the study of philosophy early on: 'It is better never to have
touched the teaching of philosophy...than to have tasted it superficially, with the edge of the lips,
as the saying is'.[114] He disdained philosophy and philosophers and looked down on Marcus's
sessions with Apollonius of Chalcedon and others in this circle.[99] Fronto put an uncharitable
interpretation of Marcus's 'conversion to philosophy': 'In the fashion of the young, tired of boring
work', Marcus had turned to philosophy to escape the constant exercises of oratorical training.
[115]
 Marcus kept in close touch with Fronto, but would ignore Fronto's scruples. [116]
Apollonius may have introduced Marcus to Stoic philosophy, but Quintus Junius Rusticus would
have the strongest influence on the boy.[117][note 7] He was the man Fronto recognized as having
'wooed Marcus away' from oratory.[119] He was older than Fronto and twenty years older than
Marcus. As the grandson of Arulenus Rusticus, one of the martyrs to the tyranny of Domitian (r.
81–96), he was heir to the tradition of 'Stoic Opposition' to the 'bad emperors' of the 1st century;
[120]
 the true successor of Seneca (as opposed to Fronto, the false one). [121] Marcus thanks
Rusticus for teaching him 'not to be led astray into enthusiasm for rhetoric, for writing on
speculative themes, for discoursing on moralizing texts.... To avoid oratory, poetry, and 'fine
writing''.[122]
Philostratus describes how even when Marcus was an old man, in the latter part of his reign, he
studied under Sextus of Chaeronea:
The Emperor Marcus was an eager disciple of Sextus the Boeotian philosopher, being often in
his company and frequenting his house. Lucius, who had just come to Rome, asked the
Emperor, whom he met on his way, where he was going to and on what errand, and Marcus
answered, ' it is good even for an old man to learn; I am now on my way to Sextus the
philosopher to learn what I do not yet know.' And Lucius, raising his hand to heaven, said, ' O
Zeus, the king of the Romans in his old age takes up his tablets and goes to school.' [123]
Births and deaths[edit]
On 30 November 147, Faustina gave birth to a girl named Domitia Faustina. She was the first of
at least thirteen children (including two sets of twins) that Faustina would bear over the next
twenty-three years. The next day, 1 December, Antoninus gave Marcus the tribunician power
and the imperium – authority over the armies and provinces of the emperor. As tribune, he had
the right to bring one measure before the senate after the four Antoninus could introduce. His
tribunician powers would be renewed with Antoninus's on 10 December 147. [124] The first mention
of Domitia in Marcus's letters reveals her as a sickly infant. 'Caesar to Fronto. If the gods are
willing we seem to have a hope of recovery. The diarrhea has stopped, the little attacks of fever
have been driven away. But the emaciation is still extreme and there is still quite a bit of
coughing'. He and Faustina, Marcus wrote, had been 'pretty occupied' with the girl's care.
[125]
 Domitia would die in 151.[126]
The Mausoleum of Hadrian, where the children of Marcus and Faustina were buried
In 149, Faustina gave birth again, to twin sons. Contemporary coinage commemorates the event,
with crossed cornucopiae beneath portrait busts of the two small boys, and the legend temporum
felicitas, 'the happiness of the times'. They did not survive long. Before the end of the year,
another family coin was issued: it shows only a tiny girl, Domitia Faustina, and one boy baby.
Then another: the girl alone. The infants were buried in the Mausoleum of Hadrian, where their
epitaphs survive. They were called Titus Aurelius Antoninus and Tiberius Aelius Aurelius.
[127]
 Marcus steadied himself: 'One man prays: 'How I may not lose my little child', but you must
pray: 'How I may not be afraid to lose him'.[128] He quoted from the Iliad what he called the 'briefest
and most familiar saying...enough to dispel sorrow and fear': [129]
 leaves,
the wind scatters some on the face of the ground;
like unto them are the children of men.
– Iliad vi.146[129]
Another daughter was born on 7 March 150, Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla. At some time between
155 and 161, probably soon after 155, Marcus's mother Domitia Lucilla died. [130] Faustina
probably had another daughter in 151, but the child, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, might not
have been born until 153.[131] Another son, Tiberius Aelius Antoninus, was born in 152. A coin
issue celebrates fecunditati Augustae, 'the Augusta's fertility', depicting two girls and an infant.
The boy did not survive long, as evidenced by coins from 156, only depicting the two girls. He
might have died in 152, the same year as Marcus's sister Cornificia. [132] By 28 March 158, when
Marcus replied, another of his children was dead. Marcus thanked the temple synod, 'even
though this turned out otherwise'. The child's name is unknown. [133] In 159 and 160, Faustina gave
birth to daughters: Fadilla and Cornificia, named respectively after Faustina's and Marcus's dead
sisters.[134]