Journal of Destination Marketing & Management xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

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Journal of Destination Marketing & Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jdmm

Research Paper

The effects of architectural congruence perceptions on winery visitors’

emotions and behavioral intentions: The case of Marqués de Riscal
⁎
Diego Bufquin , Robin M. Back, Jeong-Yeol Park, Marco Nutta
Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, United States

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study examines the influence of the perceived congruence of a postmodernist hotel, which was built at one
Hotel architecture of Spain's oldest wineries, on visitors’ emotions and behavioral intentions. Due to the rather unpredictable nature
Wine tourism of Frank Gehry's architectural landmarks, the delight model was used to investigate the effects of congruence
Self-image perceptions – as related to the local landscape, visitors’ self-image and the winery's brand image – on arousal,
Brand image
delight and behavioral intentions. Data were collected from travelers who had visited a winery in Spain and
Congruence perceptions
structural equation modeling was used for analysis. The results suggest that the perceived congruence between
Arousal
Delight the hotel architecture, the local landscape and the winery's brand image positively affect visitors’ arousal and
Behavioral intentions delight. On the other hand, the perceived congruence between the hotel architecture and visitors' self-image only
improves arousal. Arousal also affects delight and both of these emotions significantly increase visitors’ beha-
vioral intentions. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed in detail.

1. Introduction
The hospitality industry has constantly been evolving over the past
decades and is currently reaching new heights with the development of
unique products, processes, and brands, among other types of innova-
tion (Vila, Enz, & Costa, 2012). The goal of these innovations is mainly
to avoid falling into the trap of commoditization, which contains such
elements as product homogeneity, industry stability, switching costs,
and price sensitivity (Beldona, Miller, Francis, & Kher, 2015). Of the
aforementioned factors, hotel executives perceive product homogeneity
as the element that contributes the most to commoditization. Therefore,
to avoid such product homogeneity, hospitality companies are doing
their best to differentiate themselves with the creation of unique pro-
ducts that allow them to surpass customer expectations and deliver
memorable experiences.
An example of such product innovations was led by Marqués de
Riscal, one of Spain's oldest wineries, with the conception of its 'City of
Wine' in 2006. This project, which comprises an astonishing post-
modernist hotel incorporating a wine therapy spa and a Michelin-
starred restaurant, was designed by world-renown architect Frank
Gehry and built in the heart of this historic wine estate. In addition to
the Gehry-designed hotel, the facilities also include a modern con-
ference center and two retail stores for visitors. Like its iconic neighbor,
the Guggenheim museum in Bilbao, which was also designed by Frank
Gehry, the objective of the 'City of Wine' was to attract as much
attention as possible and to benefit from increased tourism and wine
sales (Michael, 2015, April 30). Despite the project's total investment of
€70 million, the Hotel Marqués de Riscal enjoys months-long waiting
lists and the total number of visitors to the Rioja region rose by 68%
during the project's first year of operation (Instituto Nacional de
Estadística, 2010; IREA, 2008).
Although the 'Gehry effect' (i.e. the power of Frank Gehry's buildings
to transform an entire city) is undeniable, the juxtaposition of historic
and postmodernist architecture has not yet been investigated in the
hospitality or servicescape literature (Meagher, 2014; Vila et al., 2012).
Frank Gehry's architectural landmarks, which are known to disrupt the
local landscape, are at times a source of controversy. For instance, the
Guggenheim museum in Bilbao generated a fair share of criticism for
being too imposing and spectacular (Hedgecoe & Whittle, 2012), while
the new Louis Vuitton Foundation, which he also designed, was accused
of being a grotesque imposition on the eyes of local residents from the
Bois de Boulogne near Paris, France (Wainwright, 2014). Hence, be-
cause of the disruptive nature of Frank Gehry's buildings, further re-
search needs to be performed in order to better understand how such
architectural disruptions affect visitors’ emotions and behavioral in-
tentions.
Because of the historic origins of the Marqués de Riscal winery,
which was inaugurated in 1858 in the ancient town of Elciego, it would
also be interesting to understand how a postmodernist hotel may affect
the brand perceptions of one of the region's oldest wineries. As Kelly

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: Diego.Bufquin@ucf.edu (D. Bufquin), Robin.Back@ucf.edu (R.M. Back), Jeong-Yeol.Park@ucf.edu (J.-Y. Park), marconutta@gmail.com (M. Nutta).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2017.10.005
Received 1 June 2017; Received in revised form 20 October 2017; Accepted 26 October 2017
2212-571X/ Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Please cite this article as: Bufquin, D., Journal of Destination Marketing & Management (2017), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2017.10.005
D. Bufquin et al.
(2003) points out, corporate identity has become an increasingly im-
portant part of commercial architectural design projects, with iconic
commercial buildings used to redefine older brands. Yet, despite the
literature on the relationship between architecture and brand identity
(e.g. Balmer, 2001; Brauer, 2002; Kelly, 2003), no research has been
found within the extant literature exploring the perceived congruence
between commercial architectural design and the brands they re-
present.
Furthermore, to the authors’ knowledge, no investigation has been
done so far with regard to the perceived congruence between winery
visitors’ self-image and the architectural style that characterizes such
postmodernist landmarks. As Solomon (1983) explains, consumers
frequently purchase products not solely for their functionality, but also
for their symbolic or social significance, with the formation of a 'self-
brand connection' (Escalas & Bettman, 2005). Because Frank Gehry's
buildings are known to be somewhat controversial, the current study
will also examine how the perceived congruence between visitors’ self-
image and hotel architecture affects winery tourists’ emotional and
behavioral responses.
In order to measure the aforementioned relationships, Oliver, Rust,
and Varki (1997) delight model will be taken into consideration, as it
shows that surprise and performance act as antecedents of customer
emotions (i.e., arousal and delight) and behavioral intentions. The use
of this model will allow academics and hoteliers to better understand
how a surprise factor, such as Frank Gehry's postmodernist architecture,
affects winery visitors, as no study thus far has used disruptive hotel
architecture as an 'excitement' element that could improve visitors’
arousal, delight and behavioral intentions. This study will also help
investors and marketers to assess the value of such product innovation,
which many hospitality companies have been recently adopting in
order to differentiate their products from the competition.
2. Literature review
2.1. The winery destination
While the term 'wine tourism' originally concerned mainly visitation
to wineries for the purpose of tasting and/or purchasing wine and
perhaps to see how wine was produced, it has become accepted that
wine tourists now desire much more from their wine tourism experi-
ence (Brown, Havitz, & Getz, 2006; Bruwer & Alant, 2009; Cohen &
Ben-Nun, 2009). This has resulted in many wineries adding additional
facilities beyond the wine experience. While there is little academic
research on this phenomenon, Marqués de Riscal is one such example
with the inauguration of its 'City of Wine' in 2006, covering a 23-acre
site. Besides the preexisting historic winery and tasting room and the
aforementioned Gehry-designed hotel with its spa and Michelin-starred
restaurant, Marqués de Riscal also added a museum, two shops, a coffee
bar, a second restaurant, and conference/event facilities. With the Rioja
region in which Marqués de Riscal's “City of Wine” is located having
received a 68% increase in visitors in the year following its inaugura-
tion, there is no doubt that the “City of Wine” is a major tourist draw.
There are various understandings as to what constitutes a tourist
destination, including a collection of attractions and services (Framke,
2010) and the reason for traveling, with the attractions at the desti-
nation generating the visit (Cooper, Fletcher, Gilbert, & Wanhill, 1993).
Given the increase in visitors generated by the 'City of Wine,' the
number of facilities and experiences offered, with this being the main or
sole reason for many visitors traveling to the area, and with many
visitors spending one or more days at Marqués de Riscal, the authors
feel safe in contending that Marqués de Riscal's “City of Wine” con-
stitutes a destination in its own right, while still forming part of the
greater Rioja wine region.
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Journal of Destination Marketing & Management xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
2.2. Servicescape and hotel architecture
Bitner (1992) defines servicescape as the manmade or built en-
vironment (i.e. physical surroundings) affecting consumers and em-
ployees in service organizations. This physical or built environment can
include facility aesthetics, building design and décor, as well as exterior
factors (Kottasz, 2006; Wakefield & Blodgett, 1996, 1999). Although
previous studies about the physical environment of hotels have just
begun exploring the use of elements such as nature, art, performance,
and local culture (Chang, 2016; Countryman & Jang, 2006), more
empirical research needs to be done in order to assess the effects of
physical attributes on consumers’ emotions and behavioral intentions.
This suggestion is supported by a study from Wakefield and Blodgett
(1994), which argued that for leisure providers, which include upscale
restaurants and resorts where consumers spend longer periods of time,
servicescape is more likely to influence consumers’ attitudes toward
service provision. Thus, service providers should recognize the im-
portant role of servicescape as a marketing strategy, while academics
need to further investigate the effects of unique servicescape elements,
such as hotels’ architecture and design, on consumers’ attitudinal and
behavioral outcomes.
Inspired by the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao and its significant
effects on the local economy and tourism, a number of traditional
Spanish wineries have sought to incorporate unusual building projects
designed by celebrity architects (i.e. 'starchitecture') at their wineries
(Ponzini, 2014). Such product innovation, they hoped, would attract
more visitors and thereby generate additional revenue (Michael, 2015,
April 30). Along these lines, Marqués de Riscal, one of Spain's oldest
wineries, inaugurated its 'City of Wine' in 2006, a project that gained
international exposure thanks to the help of Canadian-born American
architect Frank Gehry, who created a unique hotel concept within this
old winery property, using the deconstructivist and postmodernist style
that characterizes his architectural landmarks. Although research has
shown that the product innovation led by Marqués de Riscal has re-
sulted in a considerable tourism revival in the Rioja wine region, with
the total number of visitors increasing by 68% during the 'City of
Wine's' first year of operation (Vila et al., 2012), few studies thus far
have measured the effects of such architectural cues and product in-
novations on winery visitors’ affect and behavioral outcomes (Lin,
2004).
2.3. Perceived incongruence between hotel architecture and local landscape
The Hotel Marqués de Riscal, managed by the Luxury Collection
Hotels and Resorts, was constructed at one of Spain's oldest and most
traditional wineries (Vila et al., 2012). Accordingly, the Marqués de
Riscal winery, which is located in the historic town of Elciego, was
founded in 1858 and is recognized as being the oldest winery in the
region. Interestingly, such juxtaposition or incongruence between his-
toric and postmodernist architecture (i.e. the town of Elciego and the
Hotel Marqués de Riscal) has not yet been investigated in the hospi-
tality or servicescape literature. Although the 'Gehry effect' has already
proven to produce noticeable and positive effects on tourism in cities
such as Bilbao, Paris, Los Angeles and Prague, further research needs to
be accomplished in order to measure the effects of such architectural
contrasts on visitors’ emotions and behavioral intentions (Meagher,
2014; Vila et al., 2012). Accordingly, most studies related to perceived
servicescape congruence were either performed in other sectors (e.g.
restaurants), or did not include several exterior elements (e.g. hotel
architecture and local landscape) in their analyses.
For instance, a study by Lin and Mattila (2010), which examined the
relative impact of physical surroundings and customer-employee in-
teractions on restaurant customers’ emotions and satisfaction, found
that perceived congruence (i.e. matching the restaurant theme with
food served, and matching the exterior look with the interior décor) has
a positive impact on pleasure, while such impact on arousal is minimal.
D. Bufquin et al.
Fig. 1. Hotel Marqués de Riscal I-Escape.com. (n.d.).
To the authors’ knowledge, Lin and Mattila (2010) is the only hospi-
tality study that has actually measured the impact of perceived servi-
cescape congruence on consumers’ emotions and attitudes. Further-
more, because most studies linking the effect of servicescape to
customer emotions have mainly been conducted in a laboratory setting
(Mehrabian & Russell, 1974; Turley & Milliman, 2000), Kerlinger and
Lee (2000) suggest that these effects should be tested in a real-life
setting. As a result, the juxtaposition between Frank Gehry's post-
modernist architecture and the historic landscape of Elciego (see Fig. 1)
offers a unique opportunity for researchers to better understand how
these environmental contrasts affect actual winery visitors’ emotional
and behavioral responses.
2.4. Perceived congruence between hotel architecture and winery brand
image
Architectural design has always played a prominent role in tourism,
especially with regard to hotel design, being significant in terms of both
the positioning and branding of properties. Modern day hotel guests
seek more than just a room and board in an anonymous building, they
are also looking for style, authenticity and an overall ambience that is
often communicated through design and architectural features
(Mustapić & Vlahov, 2015). As architecture becomes an important
medium for concept communication (Labus, 2009), hotels may become
attractions in their own right, drawing tourists to destinations that they
may not otherwise have considered, and even defining a destination.
Architecture and brand identity have been examined in terms of
prestige corporate buildings, especially in the realms of financial in-
stitutions, corporate headquarters, and public institutions (Brauer,
2002). Visual identity, defined by Balmer (2001, 2006) as 'the creation
of favorable public images via visual means,' (quoted in Glendinning,
2004, p. 10) has led to buildings starting to take on the role of mar-
keting objects in the late 20th century and to become part of a com-
pany's brand identity, particularly in the retail sector (Kirby & Kent,
2010).
Along these lines, corporate identity has become an increasingly
important part of many commercial architectural design projects (Kelly,
2003), with iconic commercial buildings used to redefine older brands.
The iconic Frank Gehry designed Hotel Marqués de Riscal in Elciego is
now the major draw to this almost 160-year-old winery, while the fu-
turistic design of the brand new 'La Cité du Vin' cultural wine center is
intended to be the new icon of the ancient city of Bordeaux (Cusin &
Passebois-Ducros, 2016). Yet, despite the literature on the relationship
between architecture and brand identity, albeit limited, no articles have
been found within the extant literature exploring the perceived con-
gruence between commercial architectural design and the brands they
represent.
2.5. Perceived congruence between hotel architecture and visitor self-image
'Self-image congruence' is defined as the match between a
3
Journal of Destination Marketing & Management xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
consumer's self-concept and the user image of a specific brand, product
or store (Kressmann et al., 2006). It has become generally accepted that
consumers frequently purchase products not solely for their function-
ality, but also for their symbolic or social significance (Solomon, 1983),
with the formation of a 'self-brand connection' being based on the
congruence between the consumer's self-image and the brand image
(Escalas & Bettman, 2005). While no specific literature could be located
on the relationship between self-image and architectural congruence, it
has been shown that architecture can be used to communicate brand
identity (Kirby & Kent, 2010), with hotel design used as both a brand-
builder and a signifier of physical location (Beck, 2010). The iconic and
deconstructivist style of architecture of well-known architects such as
Frank Gehry is instantly recognizable, and thus may be considered to be
a 'brand' within its own right, thereby playing a significant role in the
appeal of a winery (Colombini, 2015).
There are a number of different definitions of servicescape, mostly
relating to the environment in which the service takes place. As men-
tioned earlier, Bitner (1992) defined servicescape as the overall con-
struct of environmental dimensions, while Namasivayama and Lin
(2008) included organization, décor and design in their definition. It
may be argued that in the case of iconic modern architectural design,
the exterior design forms part of the servicescape, which has been
shown to have a positive effect on image perceptions (Durna, Dedeoglu,
& Balikçioglu, 2015). Conceptually, therefore, one may logically deduce
that self-image and architectural congruence may play a role in an in-
dividual's evaluation of an architectural style, especially in the case of
an unusual and iconic building such as the Hotel Marqués de Riscal.
2.6. Customer delight
Customer delight, which is created during the process of service
delivery (Kwong & Yau, 2002), involves a stronger emotional state than
satisfaction, and entails a pleasurable and intense service experience to
customers (Patterson, 1997). Accordingly, customer delight was shown
to have a more significant effect on affective loyalty (Kim, 2011), re-
petitive purchase behaviors (Wang, 2011) and competitive advantages
(Torres & Kline, 2006) than customer satisfaction. This is why re-
searchers suggest that companies improve their end products and ser-
vice delivery processes in order to achieve customer delight, rather than
simply attaining customer satisfaction (Skogland & Siguaw, 2004).
The literature on customer emotions demonstrates a significant in-
fluence of emotions on behavioral intentions (Kim, Vogt, & Knutson,
2015; Loureiro & Kastenholz, 2011; Oliver et al., 1997). For instance, in
a study carried out by Loureiro and Kastenholz (2011) in rural ac-
commodations in Portugal, customers’ arousal had a positive effect on
delight, which then affected loyalty. In another study by Kim et al.
(2015), resort customers' delight was found to influence cognitive, af-
fective, and conative loyalty. On the other hand, the effect of arousal on
behavioral intentions is somewhat contradictory (Ellen & Zhang, 2014;
Loureiro, 2014). For example, while a study by andZhang,2014 did not
find any relationship between arousal and behavioral intentions in a
restaurant setting, a study performed by Loureiro (2014) found that
pleasant arousal affects behavioral intentions for individuals experien-
cing rural holidays. Hence, more empirical research needs to be per-
formed in order to evaluate the influence of arousal on behavioral in-
tentions.
The rationale behind these relationships is mainly supported by
Oliver et al.'s (1997) delight model, which hypothesizes that delight
and arousal are a function of a surprisingly high positive consumption.
Accordingly, based on data obtained from park patrons and symphony
goers, structural equation results supported the proposition that un-
expected high levels of satisfaction or performance have an effect on
arousal and delight. Interestingly, the effect of delight on behavioral
intentions showed mixed results (i.e., only symphony goers’ behavioral
intentions were affected by delight).Given that Oliver et al.'s (1997)
model hypothesizes that surprise acts as an antecedent of emotions and
D. Bufquin et al. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

behavioral intentions, it would be interesting to understand how a H3a. Congruence perceptions between visitors’ self-image and the hotel
unique surprise factor, such as Frank Gehry's postmodernist archi- architecture will have a positive impact on winery visitors’ arousal.
tecture, could affect visitors’ emotions and behavioral intentions. Ac-
H3b. Congruence perceptions between visitors’ self-image and the hotel
cordingly, no study so far has used disruptive hotel architecture or
architecture will have a positive impact on winery visitors’ delight.
design as a surprise element that could affect winery visitors' emotional
and behavioral outcomes. The following section goes into more detail
about the proposed hypotheses and model.
2.7.4. Interrelationships among winery visitors’ arousal, delight and
behavioral intentions
2.7. Research hypotheses
According to Oliver et al.’s (1997) delight model, a surprising sa-
tisfaction or performance initiates an arousal = > delight sequence.
2.7.1. Effect of incongruence perceptions between local landscape and hotel
When it comes to symphony goers, their model also demonstrated that
architecture on winery visitors’ arousal and delight
delight has a positive effect on behavioral intentions. Likewise, some
As previously mentioned, the juxtaposition between Frank Gehry's
studies showed that arousal has a positive effect on behavioral inten-
postmodernist architecture and the historic landscape of the town of
tions (Loureiro, 2014). Therefore, the following hypotheses are pro-
Elciego offers a unique opportunity for researchers to better understand
posed:
how such environmental contrasts or incongruence could affect winery
visitors’ emotional and behavioral responses. Based on the principles of H4. Winery visitors’ arousal will have a positive impact on delight.
the delight theory (Oliver et al., 1997), which hypothesizes that sur-
H5. Winery visitors’ arousal will have a positive impact on behavioral
prise and disconfirmation act as antecedents of emotions, it is predicted
intentions.
that the juxtaposition between novel (i.e., the Hotel Marqués de Riscal)
and older architecture (i.e. the historic town of Elciego) will sig- H6. Winery visitors’ delight will have a positive impact on behavioral
nificantly increase visitors’ arousal and delight. Just like the Guggen- intentions.
heim Museum in Bilbao, we believe that the disruptive nature of the
The proposed conceptual relationships are depicted in Fig. 2.
Hotel Marqués de Riscal will act as a surprise element, thus enhancing
customers’ emotions. As a result, the following hypotheses are sug-
gested: 3. Methodology

H1a. Incongruence perceptions between the local landscape and the
hotel architecture will have a positive impact on winery visitors’
arousal.
H1b. Incongruence perceptions between the local landscape and the
hotel architecture will have a positive impact on winery visitors’
delight.
2.7.2. Effect of congruence perceptions between brand image and hotel
architecture on winery visitors’ arousal and delight
There has been a recent trend by wineries towards a more experi-
ential approach to wine marketing, using not just the product itself but
also the architectural design of winery buildings and facilities by fa-
mous architects such as Piano, Hadid and Gehry (Levasseur, 2014). This
approach seeks to give the visitor a unique brand experience com-
prising product, landscape, and architecture (Virtuani & Zucchella,
2008). In this way, wineries seek to leverage architectural design in
order to create a unique brand image, with customers associating the
winery brand not only with the product, but also with the stunning
architecture that forms part of the servicescape. Over time, the brand
and architecture become synonymous, thereby resulting in an enhanced
brand image. Hence, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H2a. Congruence perceptions between the winery brand and the hotel
architecture will have a positive impact on winery visitors’ arousal.
H2b. Congruence perceptions between the winery brand and the hotel
architecture will have a positive impact on winery visitors’ delight.
3.1. Data
The main purpose of this study is to identify the influence of con-
gruence perceptions on visitors’ arousal and delight, which should af-
fect behavioral intentions. To fulfill this objective, this study defined
the population as visitors to Marqués de Riscal. The target sample was
defined as visitors who had visited the Marqués de Riscal winery in
Elciego at least once since the inauguration of its 'City of Wine' in 2006.
Due to the fact that the Marqués de Riscal winery is located in Spain,
the survey was constructed both in English and Spanish. Prior to dis-
tributing the survey, the languages used in the survey were back-
translated and compared by two experts in these languages. A small
pilot study to pretest the survey instrument was then conducted, with
37 responses obtained. Subsequently, a link to the online survey was
distributed to previous winery visitors via email by the Marqués de
Riscal winery. Before starting to answer survey questions, participants
were asked to indicate their preferred language (i.e. English or
Spanish). Screening questions were included to ensure that participants
had visited Marqués de Riscal since the construction of the Gehry-de-
signed Hotel Marqués de Riscal, and that they were over 18 years of
age. Respondents who did not meet these requirements were redirected
to the end of the survey without further questions being asked. Upon
the completion of the survey, participants could elect to be included in
a random prize draw conducted by the winery. A total of 10,500 sur-
veys were distributed and 1320 surveys were collected between March
10 and April 25, 2017. Because of the voluntary nature of online

2.7.3. Effect of congruence perceptions between self-image and hotel

architecture on winery visitors’ arousal and delight
Drawing on the constructs of self-image congruence (Kressmann
et al., 2006), self-concept (Sirgy, 1982) and self-congruity (Sirgy et al.,
2005), the iconic and deconstructivist style of architecture of well-
known architects, such as Frank Gehry, will have a psychological sig-
nificance beyond its functionality. The aforementioned constructs sug-
gest that the meaning communicated by such structures, in the form of
social or symbolic significance, will have an effect on visitors’ emo-
tional responses. Based on this literature, the following hypotheses are
Fig. 2. Hypothesized model.
suggested:

4
D. Bufquin et al. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

questionnaires, many participants did not complete the survey or 4. Results

skipped a few questions. Thus, after eliminating errors and missing
values, 737 usable responses were used for analysis (i.e. 55.8% usable 4.1. Sample profile
response rate).
Among the 737 respondents, 57.67% were male and 42.33% were
female, and the average age of respondents was 43.7 years. Regarding
3.2. Research instruments
their education level, 44.2% of the sample graduated with an under-
graduate degree, and 17.9% graduated from a two-year college pro-
This study utilized various constructs adopted from previous lit-
gram. In terms of the nationality of respondents, 81.0% were Spanish,
erature in order to examine the influence of different congruence di-
4.3% were from the United States, and 2.0% were from the United
mensions on winery visitors’ arousal and delight, which were then
Kingdom. 73.5% of participants visited Marqués de Riscal once, 18.7%
hypothesized to affect behavioral intentions. In order to measure con-
visited twice, and 7.7% visited three or more times.
gruence perceptions, three different dimensions were adapted from
previous literature: perceived (in)congruence between (1) the hotel
4.2. Measurement model
architecture and the local landscape; (2) the hotel architecture and the
winery's brand image; and (3) the hotel architecture and winery visi-
In order to assess the overall fit of the measurement model, CFA was
tors' self-image. Although measurement scales for self-congruence
conducted. In general, it is known that model χ2 is sensitive to the
(Cowart, Fox, & Wilson, 2008), brand congruence (Drengner, Jahn, &
sample size (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). Since this study
Zanger, 2011) and servicescape congruence (Lin & Mattila, 2010) exist,
analyzed more than 700 responses, χ2 value was significant at a 1%
no exact scales were found to measure the aforementioned congruence
level (χ2120 = 561.201, p < 0.01; χ2/df = 4.677). Thus, it was neces-
perceptions.
sary to consider other goodness-of-fit indices. First of all, the root mean
As a result, this study modified an existing scale that was utilized by
square error of approximation (RMSEA), which is generally utilized to
Lin and Mattila (2010) in order to measure congruence perceptions
correct for the tendency of the χ2 goodness-of-fit test statistic to reject
between the hotel architecture and the local landscape. Three mea-
models with a large sample or a large number of observed variables,
surement items were thus created for architectural incongruence, i.e.
was 0.071. According to previous literature, RMSEA values between
'the architecture of this hotel does not have any resemblance with the
0.05 and 0.08 provide a good fit (Chen, Curran, Bollen, Kirby, & Paxton,
architecture found in the area,' 'the architecture of this hotel is unlike
2008; Hair et al., 2010). Additionally, the normed fit index (NFI), which
any other building in this area,' and 'the architecture of this hotel
is a ratio of the difference in the χ2 value between the fitted model and
transforms its surrounding area.' Brand congruence was measured by
a null model divided by the χ2 value for the null model, was 0.945. The
four items that were adapted by Drengner et al., 2011 study, i.e. 'the
comparative fit index (CFI) was 0.956. In sum, goodness of fit indicators
architecture of this hotel matches the Marqués de Riscal brand,' 'there is
(i.e., RMSEA, NFI, and CFI) suggested that the proposed model fit the
a logical connection between the architecture of this hotel and the
data properly.
Marqués de Riscal brand,' 'the architecture of this hotel and the image
Convergent validity was then tested. First, the values of factor
of the Marqués de Riscal brand fit together well,' and 'overall, the ar-
loadings were examined. Only measurement items that had factor
chitecture of this hotel and the brand Marqués de Riscal stand for si-
loadings greater than 0.65 were included. After eliminating measure-
milar things.' Self-congruence was measured by four items, i.e., 'the
ment items with low factor loadings, standardized factor loadings
architecture of this hotel reflects who I am,' 'people similar to me would
ranged from 0.680 to 0.935, implying that the measurements had
appreciate the architecture of this hotel,' 'the architecture of this hotel is
convergent validity suggested by Anderson and Gerbing (1988).
consistent with how I see myself,' and 'the architecture of this hotel is a
Second, the average variance extracted (AVE) was calculated. The re-
mirror image of my personality.' All three congruence dimensions were
sults showed that the AVEs ranged from 0.505 to 0.839, which are
measured using a seven-point Likert-type scale (1 = 'Strongly Disagree',
higher than the suggested 0.5 cutoff value (Hair et al., 2010). Third, the
7 = 'Strongly Agree').
value for the construct reliability (CR) was calculated. All CR values
Second, emotional responses were measured by two constructs,
were greater than 0.7, ranging from 0.730 to 0.954. Additionally, to
arousal and delight. Measurements for both constructs were adapted
check for internal consistency, this study utilized Cronbach's α. All
from Finn (2005). Arousal was measured by three measurement items,
alpha values were greater than the proposed 0.7 cutoff value (Nunnally,
i.e. 'stimulated, excited, enthused.' To measure delight, three mea-
1978). In summary, convergent validity for each construct was con-
surement items were used, i.e. 'gleeful, elated, delighted.' A seven-point
firmed (Table 1).
Likert-type scale was used to measure both of these emotions (1 = 'Not
Discriminant validity, which tests whether a construct is distinct
at all', 7 = 'Extremely'). Lastly, measurement items for behavioral in-
from other constructs, was examined by comparing the squared corre-
tentions were adapted from Jang and Namkung (2009). Three different
lations of other constructs to the AVEs (Fornell and Larker, 1981). The
measurement items were used, i.e., 'I would like to come back to this
results suggested that all AVEs were greater than the squared correla-
winery in the future,' 'I would recommend this winery to my friends or
tions between each construct, indicating that discriminant validity was
others,' and 'I would say positive things about this winery to others.' All
confirmed (Table 2).
three items were measured by a seven-point Likert-type scale (1 =
'Strongly Disagree', 7 = 'Strongly Agree').
4.3. Structural model

3.3. Analysis method
In order to examine the proposed conceptual relationships, this
study followed the two-step approach suggested by Anderson and
Gerbing (1988, 1992). In the first step, the model fit and validity of
each construct were tested by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Once
the validity of all constructs was confirmed, structural equation mod-
eling (SEM) was utilized to evaluate the overall fit of the proposed
model and test the proposed hypotheses. For all analyses, AMOS 22.0
was used.
Structural equation modeling was used to test the proposed hy-
potheses. The goodness-of-fit indices of the proposed model suggested
that the model reasonably fits the data (χ2123 = 607.364, p < 0.01; χ2/
df = 4.938; NFI = 0.940; TLI = 0.940; CFI = 0.951; RMSEA = 0.073).
The structural results of the model with standardized path coefficients
are presented in Table 3. Congruence dimensions had significant posi-
tive influences on arousal (γArchitectural → Arousal = 0.153, p < 0.01;
γBrand → Arousal = 0.348, p < 0.01; γSelf → Arousal = 0.322, p < 0.01).
These results confirmed H1a, H2a, and H3a. Not all congruence dimen-
sions increased delight. Specifically, incongruence perceptions between

5
D. Bufquin et al. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 1
Confirmatory factor analysis results.

Measurement Mean SD Std. Loading t-value AVE CR Cronbach's α

Arch cong1 5.980 1.446 0.704 0.505 0.754 0.753

Arch cong2 5.999 1.462 0.736 14.800***
Arch cong3 5.239 1.493 0.691 14.477***
Brand cong1 5.582 1.277 0.904 0.839 0.954 0.954
Brand cong2 5.374 1.332 0.912 39.975***
Brand cong3 5.665 1.263 0.928 41.809***
Brand cong4 5.446 1.306 0.920 40.881***
Self cong1 4.985 1.275 0.886 0.733 0.761 0.910
Self cong2 5.801 1.191 0.680 21.850***
Self cong3 4.961 1.282 0.935 38.903***
Self cong4 4.714 1.349 0.901 36.073***
B. Intentions1 5.748 1.259 0.904 0.732 0.761 0.876
B. Intentions2 5.977 1.150 0.907 32.856***
B. Intentions3 6.453 0.874 0.741 24.451***
Arousal1 5.453 1.104 0.821 0.692 0.730 0.817
Arousal2 5.376 1.173 0.843 21.145***
Delight1 5.919 0.972 0.842 0.699 0.735 0.823
Delight2 5.738 1.012 0.830 21.768***

Model fit: χ2120 = 561.201, p < 0.01; χ2/df = 4.677; NFI = 0.945; TLI = 0.944; CFI = 0.956; RMSEA = 0.071.
*** denotes p < 0.01.

Table 2
Discriminant validity.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Architectural incongruence (0.505)

Brand congruence 0.138 (0.839)
Self-image congruence 0.168 0.299 (0.733)
Behavioral intentions 0.168 0.323 0.317 (0.730)
Arousal 0.223 0.318 0.267 0.513 (0.692)
Delight 0.110 0.230 0.230 0.267 0.316 (0.699)

Note: The diagonal numbers in parentheses represent average variance extracted (AVE).
The remaining numbers show squared correlations. Fig. 3. SEM results Model fit: χ2123 = 607.364, p < 0.01; χ2/df = 4.938; NFI = 0.940;
TLI = 0.940; CFI = 0.951; RMSEA = 0.073 Note: *** p < 0.01.

the hotel architecture and the local landscape significantly increased

delight (γArchitectural → Delight = 0.173, < 0.01). Also, congruence per-
ceptions between the hotel architecture and the winery's brand image
had a significant positive influence on delight (γBrand → Delight = 0.192,
p < 0.01). However, congruence perceptions between the hotel archi-
tecture and visitors' self-image had no significant influence on delight
(γSelf → Delight = 0.076, p > 0.05). Therefore, H1b and H2b were sup-
ported, but H3b was rejected.
H4 proposed that arousal would increase delight. As hypothesized,
results suggested that arousal significantly increases delight (γArousal =
0.491, p < 0.01), implying that H4 was supported. It was hypothesized
that both arousal and delight would have positive influences on beha-
vioral intentions (H5 and H6). Results revealed that arousal had a sig-
nificant positive influence on behavioral intentions (γArousal = 0.253,
p < 0.01). Further, delight also had a positive influence on behavioral
intentions (γDelight = 0.402, p < 0.01). These results supported H5, and
H6. The results of the structural model are depicted in Fig. 3.
5. Conclusions and implications
5.1. Conclusions
Using actual visitors to Marqués de Riscal's “City of Wine” in Spain,
this is the first study to empirically investigate: (1) how incongruence
perceptions between postmodernist hotel architecture and surrounding
historic landscape affect winery visitors’ emotions and behavioral in-
tentions; (2) how congruence perceptions between a winery's brand
image and the hotel architecture impact visitors' emotional and

Table 3
SEM results.

Std. Coef. S.E. t-value Results

H1a Architectural incongruence → Arousal 0.153 0.039 3.461 ***

Supported
H2a Brand congruence → Arousal 0.348 0.034 8.040*** Supported
H3a Self-image congruence → Arousal 0.322 0.036 7.213*** Supported
H1b Architectural incongruence → Delight 0.173 0.034 4.050*** Supported
H2b Brand congruence → Delight 0.192 0.031 4.405*** Supported
H3b Self-image congruence → Delight 0.076 0.032 1.727 Not Supported
H4 Arousal → Delight 0.491 0.048 9.143*** Supported
H5 Arousal → Behavioral Intentions 0.253 0.078 4.095*** Supported
H6 Satisfaction → Behavioral Intentions 0.402 0.088 6.419*** Supported

Model fit: χ2123 =607.364, p < 0.01; χ2/df = 4.938; NFI = 0.940; TLI = 0.940; CFI = 0.951; RMSEA = 0.073.
*** denotes p < 0.01.

6
D. Bufquin et al.
behavioral outcomes; and (3) how congruence perceptions between the
hotel architecture and winery visitors’ self-image influence winery
visitors' arousal, delight, and behavioral intentions. The interrelation-
ships between arousal, delight and behavioral intentions were also
examined.
5.2. Theoretical implications
The current study shows that the perceived incongruence between a
postmodernist hotel architecture and its surrounding historic buildings
positively affects winery visitors' arousal and delight. While incon-
gruence is usually deemed to be a negative construct resulting in ne-
gative effects, the extreme contrast between the hotel architecture and
the local landscape is rather astonishing, thus creating a 'surprise' ele-
ment or 'wow factor' that has a significant positive impact on visitors'
emotions. The study therefore demonstrates that perceived archi-
tectural incongruence can act as a positive rather than a negative
construct, specifically in a hospitality setting where striking modern
hotel architecture is viewed against a historic backdrop. Thus, this
study extends the existing literature and shows the importance of in-
congruence perceptions, between a postmodernist hotel and its historic
surroundings on winery visitors’ arousal and delight.
Furthermore, congruence perceptions between the hotel archi-
tecture and the Marqués de Riscal winery's brand image increase winery
visitors' arousal and delight. Among the three exogenous variables,
congruence perceptions between the hotel architecture and the winery's
brand image have the highest influence on visitors' emotions. Thus,
when winery visitors believe that the hotel architecture matches the
winery's brand, their arousal and delight levels increase as a result. This
is particularly interesting considering that, prior to the construction of
the Gehry-designed hotel, the Marqués de Riscal brand image was
somewhat staid. In the ten plus years since the hotel was constructed,
however, the brand image has changed as it has become associated with
the striking modern architecture in the minds of consumers. This is
rather good news for the owners of Marqués de Riscal, whose intention
had been to enhance their brand image and afford visitors a unique
experience through the construction of this stunning architectural
landmark. This study is believed to be the first to examine the perceived
congruence between a hotel architecture and a winery brand, and ex-
tends the literature by empirically demonstrating the positive impact of
congruence perceptions on consumers' arousal and delight in a winery
setting.
Congruence perceptions between visitors’ self-image and the hotel
architecture, on the other hand, affected arousal, but did not influence
delight. While 'self-image congruence' has previously been examined in
respect of a consumer's self-image and the user image of a specific
brand, it has not been studied in terms of the image of notable archi-
tectural design, especially when that design represents and thereby
impacts the image of a specific brand. While this study demonstrates
that congruence perceptions between self-image and hotel architecture
positively affect arousal, further research is required to show whether
such perceived congruence also mediates the emotional reactions to the
brand represented by such architecture.
As no prior study has measured the effects of such congruence
perceptions on customers' emotions in a hospitality setting, these
findings are important in extending the literature. Moreover, the cur-
rent study also confirms the significant effect of arousal on delight
shown in prior studies (Loureiro & Kastenholz, 2011; Oliver et al.,
1997). Lastly, arousal and delight were also found to significantly im-
prove winery visitors' behavioral intentions, meaning that both emo-
tions lead them to: (a) spread positive word-of-mouth, (b) recommend
the winery and (c) desire to visit the winery again in the future.
5.3. Managerial implications
While the effects of architecture on brand image and the ability of
7
Journal of Destination Marketing & Management xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
architecture to rejuvenate and transform entire cities and regions is
already known, the current study has important implications for both
hotel operators and for wineries or other consumer experience tourism
(CET) enterprises (i.e. tourist attractions where consumers experience a
product in its brand home, of which wineries are the largest subset).
In the case of hotel operators, this study demonstrates the im-
portance of taking into account the physical aspects of exterior archi-
tectural design as elements of the servicescape, rather than con-
centrating solely on the interior elements as is so often the case. Guests
who identify with the design (i.e., there is congruence between their
self-image and that of the architecture) will feel aroused which, in turn,
is shown to lead to delight. Further, while there has been considerable
movement to ensure that new buildings blend into their surrounding
environment rather than disrupting it, this study shows that a hotel
design that is incongruent with its surroundings may have a positive
effect on visitors’ emotions, thereby increasing the desirability of the
hotel. Hotel operators designing new hotels should therefore consider
the importance of architectural design and how striking and unusual
architecture with a considerable 'surprise' factor may be more beneficial
to them than the many standard “cookie cutter” hotel designs that
abound. While there is certainly merit to designing new buildings that
blend into historic surroundings, which may also be a requirement of
local planning regulations in certain locales, disrupting the landscape
with iconic, impactful architecture may have a much greater impact on
visitor emotions and indeed draw visitors in greater numbers. The in-
creased spend on this type of design and construction may therefore be
more than compensated for through higher visitor numbers, reputation
and word-of-mouth.
In the case of wineries and other CET operators, this study de-
monstrates the ability of iconic architecture to transform and redefine
the image of a brand with which it is connected, although it may have
had a quite different image prior to the building's construction. While
this would not have necessarily been surprising if, for example, the
effects of hotel architecture on the perceptions of a hotel brand was
being investigated, the current study shows the ability of hotel archi-
tecture to transform the image of a wine brand with which that ar-
chitecture is associated in the eyes of the consumer, by virtue of sharing
a brand name and ownership and being located on the same property.
Thus, businesses should consider how their brand may be transformed
by the architecture of a building that is associated with that brand, even
if it is used for a different purpose altogether.
The aforementioned congruence perceptions between the archi-
tecture and brand image may, in turn, have a positive effect on visitors’
emotions. As a result, wineries would be well advised to carefully
consider the architectural design of any new buildings, taking into ac-
count the multiple effects that such architecture may have on both their
brand(s) and visitors' emotions, and should ensure that such designs are
congruent or will become congruent with the brands with which they
are associated or that they represent.
6. Limitations and future research
This study was designed to identify the influence of congruence
dimensions on travelers’ emotional responses (i.e., arousal and delight),
which would then influence their behavioral intentions. The findings of
this research provide significant theoretical and empirical implications,
but this study is not free from limitations. First of all, the scope of the
study is limited to only one of Frank Gehry's architectural landmarks.
There exist other notable Frank Gehry architectural projects, such as
the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, the Art Gallery of Ontario, and the
Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles. The application of the current
model to different architectural pieces would therefore be valuable in
terms of enhancing the generalizability of the findings. Second, this
study considered (in)congruence dimensions as exogenous variables.
However, there may be other important variables as well, such as
consumption experience, perceived quality (Loureiro & Kastenholz,
D. Bufquin et al.
2011), or place attachment (Loureiro, 2014) influencing consumers'
emotions and behavioral intentions. Thus, it is suggested that future
studies consider additional constructs within their models. Last but not
least, there may be potential moderators in the relationship between
congruence dimensions and positive affect. Hence, the inclusion of
additional constructs and potential moderators may contribute to en-
hancing the findings of this study.
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