Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Explained

In 1623, William Shakespeare wrote, “one man in his time plays many
parts, his acts being seven ages,” from screaming infant to the finality of
oblivion.

Three hundred years later, the psychologist Erik Erikson offered a more
modern, and less sexually biased (equality was very much an issue in Tudor
England), take on psychological transformation.

In Childhood and Society, Erikson (1950) examined and mapped the

personal development of humans throughout their lifetime.

Erikson, a psychoanalyst and professor at Harvard, produced what was to

become psychology’s most popular and influential theory of human
development. His model – including eight stages of psychosocial growth –
replaced Freud’s controversial theory centered on psychosexual
development.

Perhaps most importantly, each stage – influenced by biological,

psychological, and social factors – was sequential, from birth to infancy,
childhood into adulthood, middle age into, finally, old age.

And, unlike other theories, the personality transformation did not end with
adolescence but, arising from conflict, continued through to finality.

This article explores the eight stages that make up Erikson’s developmental
theory before discussing subsequent criticisms and our own resources for
supporting growth and building strengths.

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This article contains:

 Stages of Psychosocial Development
 Stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust
 Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt
 Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt
  Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority
 Stage 5: Identity Versus Role Confusion
 Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation
 Stage 7: Generativity Versus Stagnation
 Stage 8: Integrity Versus Despair
 Criticisms of Erikson’s Theory
 5 Books on the Topic
 Relevant PositivePsychology.com Resources
 A Take-Home Message
 References
Stages of Psychosocial Development
Erik Erikson’s (1958, 1963) psychosocial development theory proposes that
our personality develops through eight stages, from infancy to old age.

He argued that social experience was valuable throughout life, with each
stage recognizable by the specific conflict we encounter between our
psychological needs and the surrounding social environment.

To become fully functional, confident members of society, we must

successfully complete each stage and resolve two conflicting states; for
example, those of trust versus mistrust and autonomy versus shame.

When successful, we acquire basic human virtues and a healthy

personality; we become well adjusted and better prepared for challenges
later in life.

Failure, on the other hand, leads to difficulty navigating our future and a
profound impact on our sense of self, our personality. We are left feeling
inadequate.

The diagram below represents Erikson’s eight psychological stages and the
tensions most relevant at particular stages of the lifespan (modified from
Syed & McLean, 2018).
Note that the age ranges below are indicative of the stages described by
Erikson and vary across the literature.

Stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust
In the first stage of Erikson’s psychosocial model, infancy is crucial to our
psychosocial development.

During our initial 18 months, we are uncertain about the world in which we
find ourselves and must develop basic trust.

After all, we are entirely reliant on our caregivers for warmth, love, stability,
and nurturing. If reliable and predictable, we gain confidence, a sense of
security, and a feeling of safety in the world (Syed & McLean, 2018).

If care is inconsistent and unreliable, then trust will fail. For example, when
caregivers reject us, fail to meet our needs, or are emotionally detached, we
may conclude that we cannot rely on adults.

Failure in stage one results in the development of fear, mistrust, suspicion,

anxiety, and, ultimately, a belief that the world is unpredictable. We may
become anxious, believing we have no control or influence on our
environment.

A good balance between trust and mistrust means we remain open to

experience and yet aware of the potential for danger. After all, it is unlikely
and ill advised for a child to become entirely trusting or entirely lacking in
trust.

Success within stage one leads to the virtue of hope – the sense that
whatever crisis we meet, there will be someone around to provide support
and help.

Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt
Stage two focuses on early childhood – 18 months to three years – when we
are gaining independence and an increased perception of control over our
physical skills (Erikson, 1958, 1963).

Though early on in development, we begin to develop a heightened sense of

personal control and acquire feelings of independence.

Typically around this time, parents, teachers, and caregivers begin giving
children some degree of choice, letting them perform actions on their own.
Therefore, we become increasingly mobile and develop physically, asserting
our independence, putting on clothes, and playing with other children and
toys.

According to Erikson, potty training is crucial to learning physical control

and, ultimately, the development of autonomy.

Success over bodily functions and taking control of simple choices leads to
a sense of personal power, feelings of autonomy, increased independence,
and a greater sense of being able to survive in the world.

During stage two, parents should expect and encourage their child to explore
limits, gently stretching them, while avoiding criticism when they fail. The
resulting feeling of security and confidence are crucial for our progress in
subsequent stages and leads to the virtue of will.

However, if we are overly criticized and controlled, or prevented from

asserting ourselves, we may feel unable to survive, lacking in self-esteem,
and excessively dependent on others. Indeed, feeling a sense of shame over
toilet accidents can impact our sense of personal control and increase levels
of doubt.

An appropriate balance between shame, doubt, and autonomy is essential to

the virtue of will – the child believing they can act with intention, rather than
experience a sense of inadequacy and doubt.
 

Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt
Erikson’s third stage of psychosocial development occurs during preschool,
between the ages of three and five years.

At this point in our psychosocial development – when conflict occurs

between initiative and guilt – we learn to assert ourselves and typically
begin to direct play and social interactions.

To our parents, our behavior may seem vigorous, overly assertive, or even
aggressive, and yet we are exploring our interpersonal skills.

If overly restricted from such exploration – either by parental control or

through increased criticism – we can develop a sense of guilt. Similarly,
while constant questioning in this stage can be tiring at times, if it is
curtailed by caregivers, we may see ourselves as a nuisance, inhibiting our
interactions with others.

And yet, if we are successful in stage three, we learn to feel capable, secure,
and able to use our initiative.

If we fail, we may suffer guilt and self-doubt and become less likely to lead.

Success in stage three is vital to building the virtue of purpose as opposed to

feelings of guilt. However, a balance between initiative and guilt remains
key to developing a healthy mindset.

Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority
In stage four of Erikson’s psychosocial theory – ages 5 to 12 years – we are
immersed in a world of education, learning to read, write, and solve math
puzzles (Erikson, 1958, 1963).

Teachers play an essential role in our continued growth within this stage. At
the same time, peer groups and social interactions are increasingly relevant
in the development of our self-esteem, and feelings of pride arise as we
successfully perform or complete tasks.

Indeed, winning approval is a motivating factor, and we soon learn to

associate it with displaying specific competencies valued by our peers and
adults.
Over these years, demands on us increase considerably; it becomes essential
for us to learn how to handle the many social and academic expectations
(Syed & McLean, 2018).

If successful, development leads to the virtue of competence, while failure

can result in a sense of inferiority, where we feel unable to perform specific
skills.

Balance in stage four leads to a sense of accomplishment and competence,

and we start to believe in our ability to handle existing and novel situations.

Indeed, learning to fail can be a crucial element in our maturation – leading

to the development of modesty – while success meets our
basic psychological need for feelings of competence (Ryan & Deci, 2018).

Stage 5: Identity Versus Role Confusion

Teenage years can be daunting, both to the adolescents and parents.

New opportunities, experiences, and changes to the body and mind in stage

five are crucial to our sense of who we are and have a considerable bearing
on our adult years.

These formative years – ages 12 to 18 – provide a valuable and in-depth

exploration of beliefs, goals, and values while searching for personal
identity and a sense of self.

The transition between childhood and adulthood is crucial. We become

increasingly independent and begin to consider careers, family, friends, and
our place in society.

According to Erikson (1963), the fifth stage of psychosocial development

exists “between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be
developed by the adult.”

As such, it is vital for young adults to learn the roles that we may adopt once
mature – including sexually – as our body image transforms.

Success leads to the belief that we are staying true to who we are, expressed
by virtue of fidelity. Erikson claims that we grow into our bodies and begin
to form our identity as a result of our ongoing explorations. And, with
appropriate encouragement and reinforcement, we move toward increasing
independence and a stronger sense of control and self (Marcia, 2010).
Otherwise, our inability to create a sense of identity within society (“Who
am I? I don’t know what I want to do when I am older”) results
in confusion and a poor sense of self. This failure can only lead to insecurity
and unsureness of ourselves, our future, and where we fit.

Success in stage five, according to Erikson, leads to fidelity – alignment

with the standards and expectations of the social group to which we belong.
After all, our conscious sense of self results from this social interaction and
is crucial in our balance between identity and confusion.

Ultimately identity provides us with our integrated sense of self – avoiding

identity crisis – that will last throughout our lives, guiding how we behave
and what we believe.

Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation
As young adults, we are motivated to explore personal relationships and our
desire to form intimate relationships.

In the sixth stage of Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, young

adulthood takes place between the ages of 18 and 40. During this time,
major conflict can arise as we attempt to form longer term commitments
outside of our family, with varying degrees of success.

And yet, positive outcomes result in healthy, happy relationships that are

secure and enduring, developing the virtue of love. Erikson’s (1963) view is
that the ability to love marks the ultimate success of stage six – when
relationships are meaningful and lasting.

Failure – whether beyond or within our control – to form appropriate bonds

or the avoidance of intimacy may result in loneliness, a sense of isolation,
and depression.

Those with a poor sense of self are typically emotionally isolated and less
committed to relationships.

The intimacy versus isolation stage builds upon the success or failure of

stage five. After all, a strong sense of personal identity is crucial to
developing relationships that are intimate and strong.

 
Stage 7: Generativity Versus Stagnation

The seventh stage of psychosocial development occurs between 40 and 65

years of age.

During middle adulthood, we display our need for longevity, not necessarily

in a physical sense, but as life’s continuation in our children or the long-
term impact we have on others.

We aim to make a mark on the world, to nurture things that will outlive us.
We may look for ways to be more productive and valuable to our society,
with an eye on the bigger picture.

Success is exemplified by virtue of care – the feeling of being useful in life,

accomplishing something, and contributing to society. We are proud of who
we are, what we have achieved, our children and who they have become,
and the strong relationship we have with our partner.

Failure looks quite different. We feel we have had little impact on the world,
failing to make that dent in the universe as the late Steve Jobs described. If
so, we feel unproductive, uninvolved, disillusioned, and disconnected from
the world in which we live.

Stage 8: Integrity Versus Despair
Unlike previous theories, Erikson’s model covered the entirety of life ‘from
the cradle to the grave.’

Our final stage of psychosocial development takes us from 65 years of age

to death – known as maturity.

This stage is one of reflection. We slow down, are less productive, and
spend time reviewing our accomplishments throughout life.

Success is in the belief that we have achieved our goals and found
happiness, leading to the feeling of integrity, “a sense of coherence and
wholeness” (Erikson, 1982). We feel we have achieved much and are ready
to meet our end with a sense of peace. Success leads to the virtue
of wisdom – a sense of completeness.
On the other hand, failure may be experienced as despair and regret over
things not done, completed, or mistakes made. We are bitter about the past
and present, frightened about coming to the end of our life without a sense
of having lived well.

Criticisms of Erikson’s Theory

While Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development theory has been
incredibly influential, it has received several challenges, including (Marcia,
2010; McCrae & Costa, 1997; Brown & Lowis, 2003; Orenstein, 2020):

 Stages may not be sequential or play out in the order described.

 The age range for each stage may not be correct.

 Stage eight suggests a move from activity to passivity, but many

people are highly productive, active members of the community in
their later years.

 Searching for identity may occur many times throughout our lives,
not only during adolescence.

 The development processes involved in each stage are unclear.

 How does the individual resolve the conflicts and move on to the
next stage? A single, universal mechanism seems unlikely.

 How do we truly define success? After all, the idea of balance will
vary between individuals, cultures, and, over time, within ourselves.

 How do we resolve such conflicts later in life?

In Insight and Responsibility, Erikson (1964) himself acknowledges some of

the above points. He suggests that the theory offers a descriptive overview
of psychosocial development and does not attempt to define the detailed
mechanisms or steps involved.

 
5 Books on the Topic
Erik Erikson had a long career and left an extensive legacy. Below is a
reduced list of his key works, along with other guides to his theory.

 Childhood and Society – Erik Erikson (Amazon)

 Insight and Responsibility – Erik Erikson (Amazon)
 Identity: Youth and Crisis – Erik Erikson (Amazon)
 Identity’s Architect: A Biography of Erik H. Erikson – Lawrence
Friedman (Amazon)
 The Oxford Handbook of Identity Development – Kate McLean and
Moin Syed (Amazon)
 The SAGE Encyclopedia of Intellectual and Developmental Disorders –
Ellen Braaten (editor) (Amazon)

Relevant PositivePsychology.com Resources

We have many resources at PositivePsychology.com that will help you to
explore personal development:

 Learn to focus on your strengths rather than your weaknesses

by Identifying Limiting Beliefs About Personal Strengths.
 Recognize and grow the strengths required to protect your family
using the Family Tree of Strengths worksheet.
 Use the Exploring Character Strengths guide to identify and reflect
on your character strengths.
 20 Guidelines for Developing a Growth Mindset provides an
excellent tool to perceive challenges as a way to grow.

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A Take-Home Message
Erikson’s psychosocial model extends the idea of personal development
across our lifetime from our early years as a baby to old age.
His work was ground breaking. The staged psychosocial theory led to a
reconceptualization of how we develop as humans and an awareness that we
continue to grow throughout life, not only in our early years.

Nevertheless, we must be aware that the model is a helpful tool rather than a
testable theory; it provides a lens through which we can review our lifelong
transformation rather than a prescribed set of steps.

And yet, the model’s greatest strength is its ability to connect our
psychological transformation from physical birth to death, overcoming
conflicts along the way.

While we may question whether the stages are a good fit personally, we
recognize the stages, the progression of our development, and how we carry
forward learnings into later life.

Use Erikson’s model alongside the personal development tools provided as

a way of looking at human growth over time, offering insightful analysis
and a focus for dialogue and self-discovery.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download three
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