Microbiological Research 215 (2018) 76–88

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Microbiological Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/micres

Matricaria genus as a source of antimicrobial agents: From farm to pharmacy T

and food applications
Mehdi Sharifi-Rada, Jolanta Nazarukb, Letizia Politoc, Maria Flaviana Bezerra Morais-Bragad,
⁎⁎
Janaína Esmeraldo Rochad, Henrique Douglas Melo Coutinhod, Bahare Salehie,f, ,
Giulia Tabanellig, Chiara Montanarig, María del Mar Contrerash, Zubaida Yousafi,
⁎⁎⁎ ⁎
William N. Setzerj, Deepa R. Vermak, Miquel Martorelll, , Antoni Suredam, Javad Sharifi-Radn,o,
a
Department of Medical Parasitology, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, 61663-335, Iran
b
Department of Pharmacognosy, Medical University of Bialystok, Mickiewicza 2a, 15-089, Bialystok, Poland
c
Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine-DIMES, General Pathology Unit, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Via San Giacomo 14,
40126, Bologna, Italy
d
Laboratory of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Department of Biological Chemistry, Universidade Regional do Cariri – URCA, Crato, CE, Brazil
e
Medical Ethics and Law Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
f
Student Research Committee, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
g
Centro Interdipartimentale di Ricerca Industriale Agroalimentare, Università degli Studi di Bologna, Cesena, Italy
h
Departamento de Ingeniería Química, Ambiental y de los Materiales, Universidad de Jaén, Spain
i
Department of Botany, Lahore College for Women University, Jail Road Lahore, Pakistan
j
Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL, 35899, USA
k
Department of Botany & Postgraduate Department, Biological Sciences, VIVA College of Arts, Science & Commerce, Virar (w), 401303, Maharashtra, India
l
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile
m
Research Group on Community Nutrition and Oxidative Stress, Laboratory of Physical Activity Sciences, and CIBEROBN – Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition,
CB12/03/30038, University of Balearic Islands, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
n
Phytochemistry Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
o
Department of Chemistry, Richardson College for the Environmental Science Complex, The University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg, Canada

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Matricaria is a widespread genus of flowering plants of the family Asteraceae that grow in temperate regions of
Antimicrobial compounds Europe, Asia, America and Africa. Some of the species are also naturalized in Australia. Some species of this
Chamomiles genus such as Chamomiles are recognized medicinal plants and cultivated in several countries for commercial
Essential oil purposes: to obtain its blue essence, as herbal tea, and for pharmaceutical or cosmeceutical uses. The phyto-
Natural food preservative
chemical composition of Matricaria spp. includes volatile terpenoids (e.g., α-bisabolol, bisabolol oxide A and B,
Matricaria
β-trans-farnesene and chamazulene), sesquiterpene lactones such as matricin, and phenolic compounds (flavo-
Matricaria recutita
noids, coumarins and phenolic acids). Their essential oil is obtained from the fresh or dried inflorescences by
steam distillation, and additionally cohobation of the remaining water. The volatile composition of the essential
oil, especially the content of the valuable components α-bisabolol and chamazulene, depends on the plant part,
origin and quality of the source, genetic, and environmental factors. Moreover, other parameters, such as season
of harvest and methods of extraction, can affect the extraction yield of the essential oils/extracts, their com-
position and, therefore, their bioactivity. Due to the importance of this genus and particularly M. recutita (M.
chamomilla), this review focus on its cultivation, factor affecting essential oils’ composition and their role in
traditional medicine, as antibacterial agents and finally as food preservatives.

⁎
Corresponding author at: Phytochemistry Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran and Department of Chemistry, Richardson College for the
Environmental Science Complex, The University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg, Canada.
⁎⁎
Corresponding author at: Medical Ethics and Law Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran and Student Research Committee, Shahid Beheshti
University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
⁎⁎⁎
Corresponding author at: Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile.
E-mail addresses: bahar.salehi@sbmu.ac.ir, bahar.salehi007@gmail.com (B. Salehi), mmartorell@udec.cl (M. Martorell),
javad.sharifirad@sbmu.ac.ir, javad.sharifirad@gmail.com (J. Sharifi-Rad).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micres.2018.06.010
Received 1 June 2017; Received in revised form 5 June 2018; Accepted 23 June 2018
Available online 25 June 2018
0944-5013/ © 2018 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
M. Sharifi-Rad et al.
1. Introduction
Matricaria is a genus of flowering plants and falls under the same
family as common species such as sunflower (Helianthus annuus), let-
tuce (Lactuca sativa), and artichoke (Cynara scolymus), i.e., Asteraceae.
Most of the species of this genus are commonly found in temperate
regions of Europe, Asia and America, and also in northern and southern
Africa (Bremer and Humphries, 1993; Singh et al., 2011; Miraj and
Alesaeidi, 2016). Some of the species are naturalized in Australia. They
are annual aromatic herbs that can be found growing on lands rich in
nutrients as well as on roadside.
These genus are much branched and these many branched stems are
prostrate to erect, glabrous, and leafy (Bremer and Humphries, 1993;
Singh et al., 2011). Flowers are radially symmetrical, heads solitary,
either heterogamous with white ray florets female flowers (M. recutita,
also known as M. chamomilla) or homogamous and lacking ray florets
(M. discoidea). The leaves are 2–3 pinnatisect and repeatedly divided
into segments which are narrowly linear. Receptacle is conical, hollow
and lacks receptacular scales. Achenes are obovoid and somewhat lat-
erally flattened, obliquely truncate above, inconspicuously 3–5 ribbed
on the posterior face and without oil glands on the anterior side. The
pappus may be crown shaped and short or lacking.
Genus Matricaria comprises plants with various secondary metabo-
lites of varied chemical nature. A number of chemical components have
been isolated from genus Matricaria (Kazemi, 2014). A majority of the
chemical constituents have been recorded mainly in Matricaria chamo-
milla also called as German chamomile. Plants belonging to this genus
have shown the presence of components like volatile compounds, ses-
quiterpene lactones, and phenolic compounds such as flavonoids (fla-
vones and flavonols) and coumarins (Table 1).
2. Cultivation of plants from the genus Matricaria
The chamomile genus Matricaria is one of the most important and
well-known herbal drugs. Chamomiles are grown commercially in
Europe, North Caucasus to South Siberia, the intercontinental state
Turkey, Asia (Afghanistan, Pakistan, North India, and Japan), North
Africa (Egypt, Ethiopia), North and South America (east coast of the
USA, Cuba, Argentina, and Brazil) and New Zealand (Singh et al.,
2011). It is cultivated mostly for its blue essence, as herbal tea, and in
view of its ever-increasing usage in pharmaceutical, cosmetic and sa-
nitary, perfumery industry, and production of nutritional flavors
(Mohammad, 2011). This important medicinal plant has been culti-
vated from two chamomiles: Roman chamomile, Chamamelum nobile L.,
with ancient name Antemis nobilis and German chamomile, Matricaria
recutita (M. chamomilla).
German chamomile requires cool, temperate conditions to grow
well, with temperature ranging from 7 to 26 °C. German chamomile can
survive cold winter nights as low as −12 °C (Singh et al., 2011). Al-
though chamomile is drought tolerant, it needs enough water to ger-
minate and for the development of the young plants. German chamo-
mile requires no extra water once properly established. An annual
precipitation of 400 to 1400 mm per season is enough to produce a
good crop. German chamomile can be grown on a wide range of soil
types, but prefers a well-drained, sandy or sandy-loam soil with a pH of
4–8 grows in any other soils that have good drainage. Each plant nor-
mally produces from 12 to 14 sets of runners. Make sure plants with
superior qualities are used for vegetative propagation. Spacing of plants
should be 30 × 30 cm (Dutta and Singh, 1964). German chamomile
does not require large quantities of fertilizers, but depending on soil
tests, small quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium should be
applied before planting. Sprinkler irrigation should be used. Constant
weeding is necessary until the chamomile ‘mat’ takes over. Whiteflies,
aphids, spider mites, and thrips are the major insect pests affecting
chamomile. Flower heads are harvested in the summer while in full
bloom (Bremer and Humphries, 1993; Singh et al., 2011).
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Microbiological Research 215 (2018) 76–88
According to most of reports, the ideal temperature to dry the
flowers is 35–38 °C and the necessary time to do this is 36–72 h.
Alternatively, this temperature in electric driers is 40–60 °C. By manual
harvesting, production of fresh flowers is 2 tons per hectare. This re-
sulted in 100–500 kg dried product. In mechanized harvest, 400–800 kg
hectare flowering stem would be collected to produce the essence. Early
or late harvest would bring about quality reduction of effective mate-
rials. The flowers have maximum amounts of essence when ray florets
are fully bloomed. The flowers should be dried immediately after the
harvesting. Any delay can bring changes in flowers color and reduction
of their essence quantity (Anderson et al., 1996; Fontanarosa, 2000).
While somewhere in India this crop is of 4–6 months and propa-
gated by seeds either by transplanting or direct sowing. Since it is a
Rabi crop it is sown on second fortnight of December in North Indian
hills, while in plains it is sown in late September. Crop requires
20–25 tons of farmyard manure (Nidagundi and Hegde, 2007). Flowers
can be used fresh, frozen or dried. Harvesting is best during tempera-
tures of 22–25 °C.
3. Chemical composition of essential oils obtained from genus
Matricaria plants
The essential oil is characteristic for some genera from the
Asteraceae family, including the Matricaria genus, as commented be-
fore. Among species from this genus, the most popular and commer-
cially important is M. recutita (Baser and Buchbauer, 2015). The es-
sential oil is found in the whole plant (Das et al., 2002), but the flower
head is mostly used for medicinal and aromatic purposes. Volatile
compounds and sesquiterpene lactones are secreted to the multicellular
biseriate glandular hairs and to the glandular ducts localized mostly on
some parts of flowers—the former on the bract, corolla, ovary and the
latter in the inflorescence peduncle, receptacle, bract, and stigma. Both
secretory structures are present on stems and leaves but in considerably
smaller amount (Andreucci et al., 2008). The monograph of Matricariae
flos (M. recutita flower) is placed in many national pharmacopoeias and
European Pharmacopoeia (EP) which recommend that chamomile
contains no less than 4 mL/kg of blue essential oil (Schilcher, 2005). In
addition, Matricariae aetheroleum (M. recutita oil) also has its mono-
graph in EP, in which two types of oil are mentioned—rich in bisabolol
oxides (29–81%) and rich in levomenol (10–65%) (European
Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and Healthcare, 2004).
The essential oil is obtained from the fresh or dried inflorescences
by steam distillation. Sometimes this process is long-drawn (even
7–13 h) and additionally cohobation of remaining water is being carried
out. The yield of the process is around 0.3–1.5% and depends on origin
and quality of the source. This is a deep blue, viscous liquid with an
intense characteristic herbaceous odor (Schilcher, 1987; Sticher, 2010).
There is a big diversification in qualitative and quantitative com-
position of volatile fractions obtained from the plant materials from
various countries and regions of origin. Nevertheless, the primary
constituents are sesquiterpenes such as (-)-α-bisabolol (levomenol,
5–70%), bisabolol oxide A (5–60%), bisabolol oxide B (5–60%), bisa-
bolone oxide (0–8%), (E)-β-farnesene (7–45%), chamazulene (1–35%),
and polyacetylenic compounds named spiroethers, existing in two iso-
meric forms, trans-(Z)- and cis-(E)-en-yne-dicycloether (2–30%).
Monoterpenes like limonene (0.1%), (Z)-β-ocimene (0.69%), γ-terpi-
nene (0.17%) and artemisia ketone (0.32%) were also detected (Wichtl,
2004; Heuskin et al., 2009). Fig. 1 presents the most abundant com-
pounds of chamomile essential oil.
Tirillini et al. (2006) have identified the largest number of compo-
nents of Matricaria essential oil. They analyzed separate elements of
flower heads—ligulate and tubular florets and receptacle from plants
growing in Italy. In all cases, more than 70 compounds were identified
representing about 99% of the components of the oils. The oxygenated
sesquiterpenoids and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons were predominating
in essential oil from tubular florets obtained with a yield of 0.95%, the
M. Sharifi-Rad et al. Microbiological Research 215 (2018) 76–88

Table 1
Chemical compounds reported in Matricaria spp.
Compound Source Reference

Bisabolene M. chamomilla (Orav et al., 2001)

β-Caryophyllene M. chamomilla (Reichling et al., 1983)
α–Pinene M. chamomilla (Pirzad et al., 2006)
β-elemene M. chamomilla (Pirzad et al., 2006)
α–Terpinene M. chamomilla (Pirzad et al., 2006)
1,2, 3,6,7-pentahydroxy- bisabolol-10(11)-ene M. aurea (Ahmed and Elela, 1999)
1,2, 3,6,7-tetrahydroxy-1- acetoxy-bisabolol- M. aurea (Ahmed et al., 1993)
10(11)-ene
1,2, 3,6,7-tetrahydroxy-2- acetoxy-bisabolol- M. aurea (Ahmed and Elela, 1999)
10(11)-ene
1,6,7- trihydroxy-1- acetoxybisabolol-2,10- diene M. aurea (Ahmed et al., 1993)
1,6,7- trihydroxy-bisabolol-2,10-diene M. aurea (Ahmed et al., 1993)
3,4- dihydroxy-2 (hexa-2,4 diynyliden)-1,6-dioxaspiro-(4,5) decane M. aurea (Ahmed and Elela, 1999)
Anisic acid M. chamomilla (Reichling et al., 1979)
Apigenin M. chamomilla (Power and Browning, 1914; Sorm et al., 1951; Kunde and Isaac, 1979)
Apigenin-7-(6″-O- acetyl)-glucoside M. chamomilla (Kunde and Isaac, 1979)
Apigenin-7-(6″-O-apiosyl)-glucoside (apiin) M. chamomilla (Wagner and Kirmayer, 1957; Kunde and Isaac, 1979)
Apigenin-7-glucoside (apigetrin) M. chamomilla (Lang and Schwandt, 1957; Hörhammer et al., 1963; Kunde and Isaac, 1979)
Bicyclogermacrene M. chamomilla (Pirzad et al., 2006)
Bisabolol M. chamomilla (Sorm et al., 1951)
Bisabolol oxide A M. chamomilla (Sampath et al., 1969)
Bisabolol oxide B M. chamomilla (Sampath et al., 1969)
Bisabolol oxide C M. chamomilla (Schilcher et al., 1976)
Bisabolone oxide M. chamomilla (Pirzad et al., 2006)
Cadinene M. chamomilla (Shams-Ardakani et al., 2006)
Caffeic acid M. chamomilla (Reichling et al., 1979)
Calamemene M. chamomilla (Motl and Repcak, 1979)
Caryophyllene epoxide M. chamomilla (Reichling et al., 1983)
Chamavioline M. chamomilla (Motl and Repcak, 1979; Motl et al., 1983)
Chamazulene M. chamomilla (Ness et al., 1996)
Chamazulene carboxylic acid M. chamomilla (Stahl, 1954)
Chrysoeriol M. chamomilla (Reichling et al., 1979)
Chrysoeriol-7-glucoside M. chamomilla (Greger, 1975)
Chrysosplenitin M. chamomilla (Hänsel et al., 1966)
Chrysosplenol M. chamomilla (Hänsel et al., 1966; Exner et al., 1981)
Esculetin M. chamomilla (Kotov et al., 1991)
Eupatilin M. chamomilla (Hänsel et al., 1966; Exner et al., 1981)
Eupatoletin M. chamomilla (Hänsel et al., 1966; Kunde and Isaac, 1979; Exner et al., 1981)
Gerianol M. chamomilla (Stransky et al., 1981)
Germacrene A M. chamomilla (Pirzad et al., 2006)
Germacrene D M. chamomilla (Pirzad et al., 2006)
Herniarin M. chamomilla (Schilcher, 1985)
Isoscopoletin M. chamomilla (Kotov et al., 1991)
Luteolin M. chamomilla (Kunde and Isaac, 1979)
Luteolin-4′-glucoside M. chamomilla (Greger, 1975; Kunde and Isaac, 1979)
Luteolin-7-glucoside M. chamomilla (Greger, 1975; Kunde and Isaac, 1979)
Lutuletin M. chamomilla (Kunde and Isaac, 1979)
Matricarin M. chamomilla (Čekan et al., 1959)
Matricin (proazulene) M. chamomilla (Sorm et al., 1951; Čekan et al., 1957)
Muurolene M. chamomilla (Motl and Repcak, 1979)
Myrcene M. chamomilla (Stransky et al., 1981)
Quercetin M. chamomilla (Greger, 1975; Kunde and Isaac, 1979)
Quercetin-7-glucoside (quercimeritrin) M. chamomilla (Lang and Schwandt, 1957; Kunde and Isaac, 1979)
Sabinene M. chamomilla (Pirzad et al., 2006)
Scopoletin M. chamomilla (Kotov et al., 1991)
Spathulenol M. chamomilla (Motl et al., 1977)
Synergic acid M. chamomilla (Reichling et al., 1979)
Umbelliferone M. chamomilla (Schilcher, 1985)
Vanillic acid M. chamomilla (Reichling et al., 1979)

sesquiterpene hydrocarbons in ligular florets (a yield of 0.70%) and the
oxygenated sesquiterpenoids and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons in re-
ceptacle (a yield of 0.75%).
According to the content of the main components, within the species
the following six chemotypes are distinguished: type A (bisabolol oxide
A as main component), type B (bisabolol oxide B as main component),
type C (α-bisabolol as main component), type D (comparable amounts
of α-bisabolol and bisabolol oxide A and B), another types characterized
by α-bisabolone oxide A as main component or the green essential oil
with low amount of matricin in source (Schilcher, 1987). In this regard,
Fig. 2 shows a principal component analysis (PCA) of 92 essential oils of
chamomile (M. recutita) flower-heads using the chemical characterizing
components defined by Schilcher (1987) and determined by (A) con-
ventional gas chromatography (GC) analysis and (B) headspace–solid-
phase microextraction fast GC (HS-SPME F-GC). These analyses can be
useful for standardizing an average composition of chamomile che-
motypes, since the groups could be clustered adequately, but with a
partial overlapping of the chemotypes type C and D.
In Europe, several diploid and tetraploid German chamomile culti-
vars are growing with different plant characteristics and quality para-
meters (Honermeier et al., 2013). It was observed that these genotypes
growing in Serbia differed in the content and composition of essential

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M. Sharifi-Rad et al. Microbiological Research 215 (2018) 76–88

Fig. 3. The conversion of matricin during the process of hydrodistillation.

not detected (Kazemi, 2014).

In the case of α-bisabolol, its concentration in the plant is dependent
on genetic, ontogenetic and environmental factors (Ghasemi et al.,
Fig. 1. The main components of M. recutita essential oil. 2016). Malta and Crimea are places where the content of bisabolol in M.
recutita oil is very high, 67 and 69%, respectively (Salamon, 2009). A
high concentration (over 40%) was found also in Moldavian and
oil. Additionally, the differences were detected in tubular and ligulate
Hungarian oils (Gosztola et al., 2010; Orav et al., 2010).
florets of these two forms; the first type contained about two times more
M. recutita is a very important medicinal plant and, consequently,
of volatile fraction than the second. Moreover, since the ratio of tubular
producers introduce new cultivars into cultivation, which help to
and ligulate florets is 9:1 (w/w), the main part of essential oil derives
supply large amounts of plant material of high quality for pharma-
from tubular florets. In tubular and ligulate florets of diploid, α-bisa-
ceutical purposes (Seidler-Lozykowska, 2006; Shalaby et al., 2010). In
bolol, α-bisabolol oxide A and α-bisabolol oxide B were predominating,
Slovakia, thanks to selection, a diploid cultivar with high concentration
while in both types of the florets of tetraploid, α-bisabolol oxide A was
of α-bisabolol and chamazulene, more than 55 and 16%, respectively
the main component (Pekic et al., 1999).
was received (Fejer and Salamon, 2014). Chief producers of German
α-Bisabolol and chamazulene are considered to be the most valuable
chamomile essential oil are Argentina, Egypt, and Hungary (Lawless,
components of essential oil. Chamazulene is an artifact, which forms
2013).
from the colourless, non-volatile sesquiterpene lactone matricin by
There are a few publications concerning the composition of essential
deacetylation, dehydratation and decarboxylation in the process of
oil from another species of the genus Matricaria. In the oil from the
distillation (Fig. 3) (Wichtl, 2004). Its concentration is different in oils
flower heads of M. aurea (Loefl.) Sch. Bip growing in Saudi Arabia, the
from various regions of the world. Essential oil obtained from Matricaria
predominating component is bisabolol oxide A (65%) (Siddiqui, 2014).
flos growing in Armenia and Poland contained more than 15% of cha-
In a volatile fraction obtained by simultaneous distillation/extraction
mazulene (Orav et al., 2010). Data from Poland additionally suggested
method from M. matricarioides (Less.) Port. (syn. M. discoidea, M. sua-
that the cultivated plants (tetraploid cultivare ‘Złoty Łan’) contained
veolens (Pursh) Buch.) fresh and dried herb, 24 components were
higher concentration of this compound than the wild-growing: 25% and
identified representing more than 95% of total. In this colourless oil, the
16%, respectively (Nurzyñska-Wierdak, 2011). Contrastively, in oils
major compounds were myrcene (26%), (E)-β-farnesene (16%), geranyl
from, e.g., Egypt, India, Greece, Germany or England the content of
isovalerate (13%) and en-yne-dicycloethers (35%) (values for dried
chamazulene was less than 2% (Das et al., 2002; Orav et al., 2010;
plant material). Moreover, quantitative differences were observed be-
Singh et al., 2011), whereas in Iranian essential oil this compound was
tween the fresh and dried plant oils, particularly in the amounts of

Fig. 2. PCA scatter plot of chamomile essential oils of chamomile flower-heads using the main chemotypes (A or a, B or b, C or c and D or d) defined by Schilcher
(1987). The analyses were performed by A) conventional GC and B) HS-SPME F-GC. Adapted from (Rubiolo et al., 2006) with permission of John Wiley & Sons
(2017).

79
M. Sharifi-Rad et al.
myrcene and (E)-β-farnesene. α-Bisabolol oxide B, bisabolone oxide A,
α-bisabolol and chamazulene were present but in low amounts (Orav
et al., 1999). Similar qualitative composition was found in the oil from
Canada. Certain differences were detected in quantity of particular
components (Lopes and Kolodziejczyk, 2005). Boutaghane et al. (2011)
investigated aerial parts of M. pubescens (Desf.) Schultz. growing in
Algeria, which comprised 1% yellowish essential oil. Among 39 iden-
tified compounds, representing 92% of total oil, isochrysanthemic acid
ethyl ester (27%), spathulenol (19%), α-cadinol (13%) and geranyl
isovalerate (8%) were predominating. In the whole plant of M. songarica
from China, in total 55 compounds (representing 0.64% of plant) were
identified in the essential oil. Among the components, (E)-β-farnesene
(11%), bisabolol oxide A (11%), α-bisabolol (9%), (Z,Z)-matricaria ester
(8%), (E,E)-farnesol (8%), (E,Z)-matricaria ester (4%) were stated as the
predominant compounds (Jian-Yu et al., 2012).
It is very difficult to state what exactly the composition of the es-
sential oil of Matricariae flos is because a large variation is observed not
only between oils from different countries, but also between those from
the regions of one country. Taking this into consideration, it is very
important to use standardized substances for medicinal purposes.
4. The genus Matricaria in traditional medicine
Historically, Roman (Chamaemelum nobile) and German (M. recutita)
chamomiles have been often used interchangeably or confused. The
term “chamomile” comes from a Greek word meaning "ground apple"
which refers to the smell of chamomile that resembles that of some
varieties of apple. This derivation is preserved in the Spanish name
“manzanilla”, from “manzana”, which means “apple”. The name
“Matricaria” originates from the Latin (matrix means uterus), the term
derives from its application in women as a phytotherapeutic for pro-
blems associated with the menstrual cycle and abortus.
The first written report of chamomile is in the Ancient Egypt. “Ebers
Papyrus” represents the first written collection of plant usage (con-
taining over 800 recipes) for medical purposes in Ancient Egypt. It is a
medical papyrus dating back to about 1500 BCE, although it is probably
a reedition of much older receipts. In the papyrus, an important role
was given to Matricaria (Ebers, 1987). Chamomile crushed flowers
were used to give skin relief and to prevent dermatitis and for cosmetic
preparations. Ancient Egyptians used this plant not only to cure the sick
but also to honor the gods and embalm the dead. In the Ramses II
mummy bandages, traces of pollen from Matricaria were found; this
plant probably was included in order to give the Pharaoh the strength
and calm needed for the afterlife journey (Cattabiani, 1996).
Egyptian information about herbal medicine and drug preparation
provided the base for the Greek and Roman pharmacopoeias.
Hippocrates of Kos (5th century BC), universally recognized as the fa-
ther of modern medicine, had deep knowledge of medicinal herbs.
Hippocrates recommended chamomile for therapeutic use in several
diseases, such as for purification, protection and to fight colds.
Asclepiades of Bithynia (1st century BC) was the first physician to es-
tablish Greek Medicine in Rome. He was a great expert in plant for
medical use and his favorite herb was chamomile (Gumpert, 1794).
Dioscorides (1st century AD) was a military physician and pharma-
cognosist of Nero’s Army. Many chamomile (Anthemis arvensis, corn
chamomile) applications were described in his work De materia medica.
Some examples from De materia medica are: roots, flowers or herb,
taken as decoction, were reported to be useful as a tonic, for cleansing
and rinsing the eyes, ears, nose, and mouth. Such decoctions were also
useful to expel urinary stones and gallstones, for gastro-intestinal dis-
orders (to treat worms, peptic ulcers, spasms and inflammation), for
jaundice and liver ailments. Topical applications of the plant were used
as an antiphlogistic to cure wounds, stings, burns, and ulcers. Suppo-
sitories of chamomile were advised for recurrent fevers (Osbaldeston
and Wood, 2000). Pliny the Elder, who was contemporary of Dioscor-
ides, in his work Naturalis Historia described many application for
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Microbiological Research 215 (2018) 76–88
chamomile (Bostock, 1855). He also wrote that all parts of the plant
were utilized as an antidote against snake bites. Moreover, chamomile
was utilized as diuretic and to dissolve bladder calculi, for the treat-
ment of flatulence and for affections of the liver. Another use reported
by Pliny the Elder was the local application for the treatment of fistulas
of the eye. Additionally, the topical application of the pulverized plant
was used to treat suppurating sores. Pliny reported that given as a
drink, the plant was emmenagogue and can be useful to expel a dead
fetus. Amongst Roman physicians, and subsequently amongst Arabian
physicians, chamomiles were considered a plant that had strong abor-
tive action and could accelerate menstruation and embryo release.
In the Middle Ages, chamomile was highly considered in monastic
medicine. Chamomile was recommended for pains of the stomach and
abdomen, for dermatitis, for menstrual troubles, as gargling for in-
flammations of the mouth, as baths for inflammation in genital area
(Srivastava and Gupta, 2011). Charlemagne, king of the Franks and
Christian emperor of the West, in the Capitulare de villis, a guide for the
governance of the royal estates, inserted chamomile amongst the plants
he wanted cultivated on his properties (Waggoner, 2011). In that period
chamomile was considered one of the most-respected plants. Christians
consecrated chamomile to St. Anne, mother of the Virgin. The pagan
Anglo-Saxons considered chamomile one of the ‘Nine Sacred Herbs’
given to the humankind by the Nordic god Woden (Gordon, 1962).
The Arabs absorbed the Ancient Greek and Roman knowledge about
the therapeutic use of chamomile. In the Islamic Golden Age, the
Persian physician Avicenna (980–1037 AD), who was the author of the
famous book Canon of Medicine, represented the starting point of Unani
medicine. This traditional system of healing and health maintenance
persisted for many centuries in all areas of Islamic culture. In the Canon
of Medicine, Avicenna suggested the efficacy of some medicinal herbs,
and amongst them is chamomile, used by him for headache treatments,
edema, conjunctivitis, jaundice, chronic fever, lithiasis, amenorrhea,
toothache, aphthous ulcers and muscle tightness. Chamomile was also
recommended to relieve itching and inflammation and facilitate healing
of skin lesions in patients undergone surgeries (Mahdizadeh et al.,
2015).
All these ancient manuscripts strongly influenced the medical
thinking of Mediterranean physicians until the development of modern
medicine. However, plant-based remedies have survived until today
with the oral traditions passed on by local folk medicines and are now
having a new Renaissance. The analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects
of chamomile have been largely proved by current medicine, see for
example (Shoara et al., 2015). Chamomile was absent in the original
ancient Chinese Traditional Medicine and Ayurveda, but it has been
introduced more recently.
5. Ethnobiology of the Matricaria genus related to bacterial
infections
Species from the Matricaria genus are widely used in Europe, Latin
America, Asia and Africa to treat signs and symptoms related to bac-
terial infections. Generally, the aerial parts are used, especially the
flowers, although the use of the whole plant has also been mentioned
(Miraj and Alesaeidi, 2016). For the treatment of gastrointestinal and
urinary disorders the main form of administration is oral, where teas
are prepared in the form of decoction or infusion. However, for pro-
blems related to the respiratory system, in addition to the oral use,
inhalation is also indicated, while topical applications are cited to treat
skin disorders. Although the genus has medicinal versatility, its use for
the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders stands out above all others
(Table 2). In the ethnomedicinal context, from the species used to treat
diseases, M. occidentalis Greene and M. recutita, are the most cited in
literature, followed by M. discoidea DC., M. aurea (Loefl) Sch. Bip. and
M. frigidum (HBK) Kunth, with the latter having its medicinal use re-
ported only in Peru (Bussmann et al., 2007).
Concerning scientific literature, several biological activities such as

Table 2
Use of Matricaria genus in folk medicine against signs and symptoms related to bacterial infection.
Species Indication
Matricaria aurea (Loefl.) Digestive system disorders (spasms,
Sch. Bip. intestinal gas, diarrhea, stomach and
abdominal pain), respiratory disturbances
(cough, sore throat), infection, skin
disorders.
Matricaria chamomilla L. Gastrointestinal diseases (astralgia, digestive
disorder, dysentery and diarrhea, abdominal
pain, flatulence, constipation, intestinal
colic, stomach pain, dyspepsia, spasms),
respiratory tract diseases (sinusitis,
pharyngitis, sore throat, bronchitis, cough),
genital infection, urolithiasis and urinary
tract infections, eye infection
(conjunctivitis), fever, bactericidal, earache,
wounds and skin ulcers, skin infection, face
disinfection
81
Matricaria Gastrointestinal system disorders
discoidea DC. (flatulence; stomachache), wounds, ulcers,
throat inflammations
Matricaria frigidum Colic, stomach ache, bronchitis
(H.B.K.) Kunth
Matricaria pubescens - Digestive diseases (gastric ulcer, stomach
synonym of pain, abdominal pain, constipation),
Matricaria problems of respiratory system (cough),
occidentalis Greene rheumatism, fever.
Matricaria recutita L. - Gastrointestinal system disorders (acute
synonym of gastroenteritis, spasms, stomach diseases,
Matricaria gastrointestinal tract gastritis, peptic ulcer,
occidentalis Greene abdominal pains, indigestion, intestinal
constipation, colon colic, diarrhea, nausea/
vomiting, flatulence), respiratory system
disorders (cough, sore throat, bronchial
diseases), urinary tract infections, skin
disorders (wounds, acne), conjunctivitis,
toothaches, oral biofilm control, infection,
fever.
M. Sharifi-Rad et al.
Used part Ways to use Preparation administration Reference Country
Aerial parts; Infusion, Internal and external use – oral, (Ali-Shtayeh et al., 2000; Aburjai et al., Iran, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine,
whole plant decoction, tea drenched, boiled, 2007; Nawash et al., 2013; Arnold et al.,
vaporization. 2015; Moein et al., 2015; Oran and Al-
Eisawi, 2015)
Aerial parts; Infusion, Oral use: two teaspoons of dried flower (Ballero et al., 2001; Jarić et al., 2007; Italy, Spain, Kosovo, Pakistan, Slovenia,
whole plant decoction, tea, per cup of tea, steeped for 10 to Maxia et al., 2008; Vitalini et al., 2009; Iran, Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Jordan,
maceration. 15 minutes while covered to avoid Benítez et al., 2010; Gómez-Estrada et al., Algeria, Serbia, Bolivia, Brazil,
evaporation of volatile oils; Cooked in 2011; Sekkoum et al., 2011; Angulo et al., Romania, Colombia, Palestine.
rice 2012; Mustafa et al., 2012; Quiroga et al.,
Oral use - Drink one teacup (aerial 2012; Gürdal and Kültür, 2013; Jaradat
parts) 2–3 times a day for 2–3 days; and Adawi, 2013; Kozuharova et al.,
drink one-two tea cups in case of need/ 2013; Sargın et al., 2013; Šavikin et al.,
before go to bed (antispasmodic) 2013; Ajaib et al., 2014; Tahvilian et al.,
Internally/inhalation (anthodium 2014; Al-Quran et al., 2015; Pieroni et al.,
decoction) 2015; Ahmed, 2016; da Costa et al., 2017;
Oral use: fresh, soaked. Cool and oral Lumpert and Kreft, 2017)
taken whenever needed.
Topical use: put the mixture on a cloth
and insert in the ear (earache); direct
external applications, or in tea or in
oleolite (wounds and skin ulcers),
dressing.
Flowers Balm, tea Oral use; external use (Saric-Kundalic et al., 2010) Bosnia and Herzegovina
Not Not informed Not informed (Bussmann et al., 2007) Peru
informed
Whole plant Maceration Oral use (Djellouli et al., 2013; Ramdane et al., Algeria
Decoction, Inhalation 2015; Lakhdari et al., 2016)
Infusion, powder
Whole plant Tea, decoction, Oral use: 2 cups boiling water 2-3 Germany, Egypt, Brazil, Czech Republic,
Aerial parts infusion, powder tablespoons flowers by infusing (in Ecuador, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Thermos), should be taken 3 times a Mexico, Croatia, Argentina, Ecuador,
day. Bolivia, Italy, Croatia, Serbia, Portugal,
Boil about a cup of water and add a Azerbaijan, Switzerland, German,
handful of manzanilla flowers. Mexico/United States of America,
Used in very hot infusions. Navarra, Spain, Bolivia, Peru
Topical use: cleaning wounds, gargles
.
(continued on next page)
Microbiological Research 215 (2018) 76–88
 M. Sharifi-Rad et al.

Table 2 (continued)

Species Indication Used part Ways to use Preparation administration Reference Country

(Bonet et al., 1999; Fernandez et al., 2003;

Hernández et al., 2003; Pieroni et al.,
2003; De Souza et al., 2004; Novais et al.,
2004; Macía et al., 2005; Waldstein, 2006;
Akerreta et al., 2007; Redžić, 2007;
Pieroni and Giusti, 2008; Pieroni and
Gray, 2008; Jeschke et al., 2009; Parada
et al., 2009; Idolo et al., 2010; AbouZid
and Mohamed, 2011; Huamantupa et al.,
2011; Pieroni et al., 2011; Pochettino
et al., 2011; Alonso-Castro et al., 2012;
Schmid et al., 2012; del Carmen Juárez-
Vázquez et al., 2013; Jerves-Andrade
et al., 2014; Baliano et al., 2015; De David
and Pasa, 2015; Ibadullayeva, 2015;
Vlková et al., 2015; Nascimiento et al.,
2016; Tinitana et al., 2016)

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Microbiological Research 215 (2018) 76–88
M. Sharifi-Rad et al.
anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antispasmodic, analgesic among
others, are attributed to plants of the Matricaria genus (Singh et al.,
2011; Miraj and Alesaeidi, 2016), although, in this review, we have
focused in its antibacterial activity. Most researches are often directed
through ethnobiological approaches, although random and chemo-
taxonomic approaches are also used as selection strategies for research
objects (Albuquerque and Hanazaki, 2006). Potentially active chemical
constituents of M. recutita include terpenoids and spiroethers, flavo-
noids and coumarins, which are believed to be responsible in part for
such a wide range of biological activities (Barnes et al., 2003). Extracts
of chamomile flowers can be used as a rich source of phenolic com-
pounds, among which apigenin is recognized as one of the most
bioactive compounds (Cvetanović et al., 2015b).
Kazemi (2014) studied the phytochemical profile of some Matricaria
species essential oils by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. This
author showed different antimicrobial activities of these oils against
both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, suggesting a biological
activity correlated to the chemical composition of the oils. Pauli (2006)
reported that α-bisabolol may inhibit fungal growth via specific in-
hibition of ergosterol biosynthesis. Marino et al. (2001) tested a wide
range of essential oils for their inhibitory effects against nine strains of
Gram-negative bacteria and six strains of Gram-positive bacteria,
showing that Matricaria essential oils had generally a bacteriostatic
activity, especially against Gram-positive bacteria (e.g., Listeria in-
nocua). However, many parameters, such as season of harvest and
methods of extraction, can affect essential oil extraction yield, their
composition and, therefore, their antimicrobial activities (Hyldgaard
et al., 2012; Calo et al., 2015). The effects of different solvents (with
different polarities) and different extraction techniques on the chemical
composition and biological activities of chamomile extract have been
studied, showing that these parameters can deeply modify Matricaria
spp. oil/extract composition and the minimum inhibitory concentration
(MIC) against several pathogen strains (Cvetanović et al., 2015a;
Metrouh-Amir et al., 2015). In particular, the latter authors found that
M. recutita subcritical water extracts showed the highest activity against
Escherichia coli and Aspergillus niger with a MIC of 39 μg/mL.
The methodology recommended by the National Committee for
Clinical Laboratory Standards (NCCLS) (Patel et al., 2012) for anti-
bacterial tests is microdilution, since this method allows obtaining MIC
and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values. This technique
was used together with the antiadherence assay to observe if the M.
recutita hydroethanolic extract had this property in human colon car-
cinoma cells affected by Campylobacter jejuni (Bensch et al., 2011). The
results evidenced small degree of antiadhesive activity which was
considered non-significant, since its IC50 was higher than 35 mg/mL.
Alternatively, when the M. recutita hydroethanolic extract was tested
against two strains of bacteria causing gastrointestinal diseases, Heli-
cobacter pylori and C. jejuni, the extract presented a very satisfactory
result against C. jejuni, showing 100% inhibition at 20 mg/mL (Cwikla
et al., 2010). In another work, the in-vitro antimicrobial action of the
essential oil of M. recutita together with other plant species against
microorganisms obtained from patients diagnosed with external otitis
were evaluated (Nogueira et al., 2008). The isolated bacteria were from
12 strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and 8 strains of Staphylococcus
aureus. The inhibition halo (mm) of this essential oil showed no in-
hibitory effect against P. aeruginosa strains (0 mm), although at the
concentration of 4% of this oil, it was possible to inhibit the growth of
three S. aureus strains (halo of 10 mm). In this study, the positive
control was that of the microorganism in the culture medium in the
absence of antimicrobials, and no antibiotic was used as reference. In
spite of, the results of this study showed that the essential oil from M.
recutita presented notable antimicrobial effects on some germs that
cause external otitis (Nogueira et al., 2008).
Munir et al. (2014), using the cavity diffusion methodology, used
the ethanolic and methanolic extracts from roots of M. recutita against
S. aureus, E. coli and Salmonella typhi. Both the ethanolic and methanolic
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Microbiological Research 215 (2018) 76–88
extracts presented antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli.
The ethanolic extract showed an inhibition zone of 14 mm and 16 mm
for E. coli and S. aureus, respectively, and the methanolic extract one of
12 mm for E. coli and 14 cm for S. aureus. Thus, the plant tested has a
higher antibacterial percentage against the Gram-positive strain S.
aureus. This can be explained by the fact that there is a greater com-
plexity of the double layer that surrounds Gram-negative bacteria,
causing the natural products to have a reduced activity in them, when
compared to Gram-positive organisms. The oils also exerted better an-
tibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria in comparison to
Gram-negative bacteria, although the mechanism of action has not been
elucidated yet. In the methodology employed in this study (Munir et al.,
2014), the oils have a lower water solubility, thus presenting lower
values when compared with the microdilution methodology. Using the
same methodology, Mekonnen et al. (2016) evaluated the in vitro an-
timicrobial activity of the M. recutita essential oil against Salmonella
paratyphi, Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella spp., P. aeruginosa, S. aureus
and E. coli. The part used for extracting the oil was the chamomile
flower and was unable to inhibit any bacterial growth, which can be
explained by the low α-bisabolol concentration (4%), the component
responsible for the antimicrobial activity. This low value may be as-
sociated with the seasonality and altitude at which the plant was col-
lected.
Fabri et al. (2011) investigated the antimicrobial and antioxidant
potential of several plant species, all belonging to the Asteraceae fa-
mily, among them M. recutita. The methanolic extract from chamomile
leaves was tested by the broth microdilution technique against S.
aureus, P. aeruginosa, S. enterica serovar typhimurium, Shigella sonnei,
Klebsiella pneumoniae, E. coli and Bacillus cereus. The results were
compared with the positive control that was chlorofenicol. M. chamo-
milla presented a MIC of 78 μg/mL for P. aeruginosa, proving to be ef-
ficient, while the chlorofenicol control still showed a better result, a
MIC of 15 μg/mL. In addition, the authors of this study performed the
chemical prospection of the extract, detecting the presence of tri-
terpenoids, phenols, tannins, flavonoids, suggesting that these compo-
nents may be responsible for the observed antimicrobial activity.
Carvalho et al. (2014) studied the antibacterial activity of the ethanolic
extract and the cyclohexane extract obtained from commercially pur-
chased M. recutita flowers against P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, E. coli and S.
enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium. Their tests were per-
formed through two techniques, the broth dilution, where the MIC was
obtained, and diffusion in agar. The results of this study showed that
the ethanolic extract has antibacterial activity against P. aeruginosa in
both techniques, presenting a MIC value of 1 g/mL and an inhibition
halo of 10 mm greater than the positive control (disk containing alcohol
at 70%). The MIC value obtained is considered high, which could justify
the inhibition of bacterial growth only in the crude extract. As for the
cyclohexane extract, P. aeruginosa showed resistance in both techni-
ques. Neither extracts showed significant activity against any other
bacteria evaluated. In another study, a 50% hydroalcoholic extract of
M. recutita extracts was fractionated by overpressured-layer chromato-
graphy (OPLC) to evaluate the antibacterial activity against Bacilus
subtilis and Pseudomonas syringae pv. maculicola by means of the in vitro
direct bioautography methodology (Moricz et al., 2012). Both flowers
and leaves inhibited the growth of P. syringae, and some of the eleven
fractions tested presented antibacterial activity. The extracts were
tested against the following bacteria: B. subtilis, S. aureus, methicillin-
resistant S. aureus (MRSA), Staphylococcus epidermidis, P. syringae pv.
maculicola, Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria, E. coli, and Aliivibrio
fischeri (Jesionek et al., 2015). The extracts showed antibacterial ac-
tivity against S. aureus and S. epidermidis strains, both with inhibition
zones of 7 mm, a weak activity against MRSA (6 mm), while the activity
against E. coli was not analyzed. The values of the gentamicin control
were 7 mm and 6 mm for S. aureus and S. epidermidis, respectively, and
vancomycin showed no activity against the aforementioned bacteria.
Also, through direct bioautography and thin layer chromatography
M. Sharifi-Rad et al.
plate visualization, in vitro evaluation, isolation and separation of the
bioactive components of the M. recutita dye were carried out. The
presence of two active components, apigenin and α-linolenic acid, was
confirmed by LC/MS (Jesionek et al., 2015), which may be responsible
for the antibacterial activity (Jung et al., 2015; Akilandeswari and
Ruckmani, 2016). These are some examples of how the use of different
parts of plant, different solvents and different extraction techniques
affect chemical composition of extracts and therefore their antibacterial
activity.
In addition to terpenoids, flavonoids or coumarins, other acid
compounds have bee also suggested to play a role in the antibacterial
effect. I this sense, it is well established that endodontic instrumenta-
tion causes a smear covering the surfaces of the root canal, which can
be colonized by bacteria such as Enterococcus faecalis. Interestingly, a M.
recutita hydroalcoholic extract was used together with tooth roots ex-
tracted from patients. In addition to chamomile, a sodium hypochlorite
solution (2.5%) was used, which had already been disinfected, since it
is used as an irrigant for this treatment and the solution of MTAD
(composed by a mixture of tetracycline isomer, an acid and a de-
tergent). The extract was more effective in the disinfection process than
the commonly used sodium hypochlorite solution. In the discussion,
this cleaning function is assigned to various acids present in the plant,
for example, capric acid and caprylic acid (Venkataram et al., 2013). In
another work, Lins et al. (2013) evaluated the effect of mouthwashes
based on the chamomile flower hydroalcoholic extract. All mouthwa-
shes, chamomile and chlorhexidine as control, significantly reduced
bacterial plaque, and chamomile was the one that had the greatest
plaque reduction, but not significantly different compared to control.
When linking ethnobiological reports with research on the eluci-
dation of antibacterial biological activity of the genus, only the po-
tential of M. recutita has been evaluated. None of the latter studies
evaluated the aqueous extract, which is the main form of use by the
population. However, other types of extracts and essential oils have
demonstrated antibacterial activity, indicating that the plant has active
chemical constituents capable of interfering with bacterial growth and
scientifically justifying the folk use of this species. Anyway, some stu-
dies are contradictory and, probably, it is due to the different compo-
sition of the essential oils and extracts studied. More studies about the
synergy of the plant extracts components on their antibacterial activity
are needed besides evaluate if it is a better economic option the ex-
traction of the components of the plant or their organic synthesis. The
promising results of Matriarca genus as antimicrobial offer prospects for
further research, as the evaluation of the biological potential of the
major components and the elucidation of their molecules, may, in the
future, contribute to the discovery of effective antibacterial components
derived from plants for the treatment of bacterial diseases or techno-
logical applications as food preservative.
6. Essential oil obtained from genus Matricaria plants as a food
preservative
Throughout the history, chamomile, and particularly M. recutita, has
been one of the most used and popular medicinal plants due to the
richness in active compounds. Its inflorescences contain over 120
constituents that can exert several functional activity such as anti-
oxidant (Hernández-Ceruelos et al., 2010) and antimicrobial (Silva
et al., 2012) properties. Among them, the antibacterial activity of this
genus has been well studied, either in the search for new compounds
capable of decreasing the bacterial resistance that is rapidly and con-
tinuously growing, or to reduce the contamination caused by bacteria in
food, dental appliances, as noted above, and others.
Therefore, extracts derived from M. recutita can be used in food
products for two main properties: antioxidant and antimicrobial activ-
ities. Nowadays, the increasing demand of consumers for “natural”
foods, due to a higher sensitivity to nutritional and ethical aspects, has
enhanced the need of industry to look for natural substances able to
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Microbiological Research 215 (2018) 76–88
replace synthetic compounds and guarantee food safety and quality. In
this framework, the addition of different natural extracts (from plants,
spices and fruits) as preservatives is a strategy already developed in
bakery, meat and dairy products (Burt, 2004; Reddy et al., 2005;
Rasooli, 2007; Shah et al., 2014). However, applications that involve
chamomile are still scarce.
In fact, while many studies reported its antioxidant and anti-
microbial activity in in vitro systems, as previously discussed, only few
researches focused on the validation of this potential in food matrices.
This is a critical aspect, since literature reported that essential oils can
interact with food constituents (fat, starch, protein), thus significantly
reducing their bioactivity (Hyldgaard et al., 2012). Therefore, the ex-
trapolation of results from in vitro tests to real systems is often difficult
and data obtained in vitro need to be validated in foods, since lower
activity is likely. Applications available in the current literature involve
dairy products such as cottage cheese (Caleja et al., 2016) and bakery
products, i.e., biscuits (Caleja et al., 2017). Regarding dairy, the first
study (Caleja et al., 2015) investigated the addition of chamomile ex-
tracts obtained by decoction on physic-chemical parameters and nu-
tritional composition of cottage cheese, as well as its shelf-life, respect
to a control cheese without any additive. The results showed that M.
recutita extracts did not significantly modify nutritional and fatty acid
profiles but improved antioxidant potential (lower lipid peroxidation,
higher free radical scavenging activity) and prolonged shelf-life, since
only in control samples degradation after 14 days of storage was evi-
dent. This bioactivity is due to the release during decoction of phenolic
compounds, which can exert antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. In
a following study, the same authors (Caleja et al., 2016) used chamo-
mile extracts, microencapsulated in alginate before incorporation into
cottage cheese, in order to prevent phenolic compound degradation and
therefore extend their bioactivity over storage. Samples with free ex-
tracts were also prepared and results demonstrated that “functionalized
cheeses” had higher antioxidant activity but similar color parameters
and nutritional and fatty acid profiles. Moreover, the microencapsula-
tion was able to prolong antioxidant activity, since microencapsulated
extracts showed higher antioxidant activity after 7 days of storage. This
technique could be a strategy to preserve natural extracts potential
during long storage of food products, reducing also the organoleptic
impact of these substances.
As far as bakery products, to our knowledge the only application
reported up to now is the addition of chamomile extracts (obtained by
decoction) as antioxidant agents in wheat biscuits (Caleja et al., 2017),
in comparison with synthetic compounds and control biscuits (without
antioxidant addition). Samples were analyzed during 60 days storage to
monitor nutritional profile, sugars, fatty acids and antioxidant activity.
The results showed that the incorporation of natural or synthetic ad-
ditives did not significantly modify color or nutritional profile of bis-
cuits, if compared to control samples. Interestingly, the natural and
synthetic additives gave similar antioxidant activity; therefore, these
natural extracts seem to be a good replacer for foods without synthetic
additives that could fulfill the increasing request of consumers for
healthy and “natural” products.
Another application of this plant as food preservative could be its
incorporation in antimicrobial active packaging. In a study performed
by Aliheidari et al. (2013), M. recutita essential oil was added at 1% (v/
v) in a casein-based film to increase its barrier properties (higher
thickness and lower water vapour permeability, because of its lipidic
nature) and antimicrobial activity. The film obtained showed an in-
hibitory effect against L. monocytogenes, S. aureus, and E. coli in vitro
(evaluated by disk-diffusion method), and this antibacterial activity
was attributed to the essential oil components, such as α-bisabolol.
Using again the same methodology, the antibacterial activity of the
essential oil obtained from M. recutita flowers and its main compound
trans-β-farnesene were tested to evaluate their use in food instead of
chemical additives (Soković et al., 2010). In addition to the afore-
mentioned bacteria, the essential oil presented lower antibacterial
M. Sharifi-Rad et al.
activity against B. subtilis, Enterobacter cloacae, Micrococcus flavus, Pro-
teus mirabilis, P. aeruginosa, Salmonella enteritidis, S. epidermidis, and S.
typhimurium, in comparison with other studied plants and the control
(the antibiotic streptomycin). As for P. mirabilis and P. aeruginosa, the
oil had no effect. In this same study, the microdilution test was per-
formed to obtain the MIC values (7–10 μg/mL) and MBC (8–15 μg/mL)
of the essential oil, requiring higher levels than those of streptomycin
(1–2 μg/mL) (Soković et al., 2010). This opens interesting scenarios for
the application of this essential oil in food packaging to prolong shelf-
life and increase safety. However, a similar research focused on the
addition of different essential oils to sodium alginate/glycerol films
evidenced that chamomile blue was the only essential oil ineffective
against E. coli and Candida albicans, independently of the concentration
used (Liakos et al., 2014). This can be due to the variability of essential
oil compositions, which is known to be one of the main limitations for
their use in food industry (Hyldgaard et al., 2012).
The use of essential oils in food is common due to the interest in
obtaining a specific taste. Several reports suggest that the use of es-
sential oils as antimicrobial agents may improve food safety and is well
documented in model food systems or in real food (Friedman et al.,
2002; Soković et al., 2010). Also, the majority of the essential oil are
classified as Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS), including M. cha-
momilla (Food and Drug Administration, 2017). Although their use in
foods may be limited due to flavor considerations because effective
antimicrobial doses may exceed organoleptically acceptable levels.
Therefore, there is an increasing demand for accurate knowledge of the
MIC values of essential oils to enable a balance between the anti-
microbial efficacy in the food matrix and sensory acceptability (Soković
et al., 2010).
Even if food applications are still scarce, M. recutita seems to have
promising potential as essential oil or aqueous extract obtained by
decoction to increase oxidation stability and shelf-life of different food
products. However, further studies are necessary to better investigate
its antimicrobial activity and its impact on sensorial properties of foods.
7. Conclusions and future perspectives
In the present manuscript we have reviewed several aspects of the
genus Matricaria, including those about its cultivation, the extraction of
essential oils and composition, its pharmacological role from past to
today, its role against bacterial infections and its interest as food pre-
servative. Nevertheless, it is very difficult to state what exactly the
composition of the essential oil of Matricaria spp. is, since a large var-
iation exists. M. recutita is not an exception. It seems to depend on the
plant part used, origin and quality of the source, genetic, and en-
vironmental factors. In fact, season of harvest may affect to essential
oils’ composition and differences are observed not only between es-
sential oils from different countries, but also between those from dif-
ferent regions of the same country. Moreover, the methods of extraction
can affect essential oil extraction yield, their composition and, there-
fore, their bioactivity. For example, while the sesquiterpene lactone
matricin is rather instable and decomposes to chamazulene by dis-
tillation, it could be extracted using solvents or using hot water.
In addition, chamomile is a complex folk-group composed of several
botanical species that are referred to by locals as chamomile, as de-
scribed Pardo-de-Santayana & Morales (2010). It can generate confu-
sion since these authors found 215 different names for 62 species in
Spain, including many synonyms, and a total of 369 vernacular de-
nominations; i.e., the combination of vernacular and botanical names.
Thus, chamomile (“manzanilla”) is composed of: a small number of
highly valued and wide spread species, a few highly valued, but eco-
logically restricted species and a large number of chamomile substitutes
with a wide range of local names. Due to its popularity in folk medicine,
this fact can be expanded to other regions. In this context, the stan-
dardization of the essential oils and extracts of M. recutita or another
interesting Matricaria species is a requirement to be used for medicinal
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Microbiological Research 215 (2018) 76–88
purposes and food applications. These studies should be addressed at
the same time than the scientific demonstration of its bioactivity in a
clinical context or in the food matrix.
Nevertheless, M. recutita seems to have promising potential in food
applications: essential oils or aqueous extracts may be incorporated in
foods to increase oxidation stability and shelf-life and as antimicrobial
active packaging with improved barrier properties, shelf-life and safety.
Therefore, as commented above the chemical composition of M. recutita
essential oils or extracts when using in food should be evaluated, as well
as the organoleptic properties that these constituents may confer. In this
regard, microencapsulation could be used as a strategy to control the
release of bioactive compounds during long storage of food products
and reduce the organoleptic impact of these substances. Moreover, M.
recutita extracts and essential oils have demonstrated antibacterial ac-
tivity, with interest in oral health. Anyway, some studies are contra-
dictory and they should be reinforced together with a compositional
evaluation to understand these differences.
Disclosure of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest con-
cerning this article.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to anonymous Reviewers for providing constructive
criticism on the manuscript. A. Sureda was supported by Instituto de
Salud Carlos III (CIBEROBN CB12/03/30038).
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