Al-Azhar University Faculty of Engineering Mechanical Power Engineering Department

AL-AZHAR UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
MECHANICAL POWER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Mechanical

Power Engineering in the Faculty of Engineering,
Al-Azhar University.
By
ENG. ADEL KAMEL ABD_ELAZIEM HUSSIEN
Assistant Lecture – Reactors Department – Egyptian Atomic Authority
Supervised by
Prof. Dr. Mohamad Abdrabboh Prof. Dr. Mohamed Aly Halawa

Faculty of Engineering Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical power Department Mechanical power
Department
Al-Azhar University Al-Azhar University
Dr. M. S. Saadawy
Reactors Department
Nuclear Reactor Center
Atomic Energy Authority
Cairo 2013
1
AL-AZHAR UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
MECHANICAL POWER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Ph. D. Thesis
Name : ADEL KAMEL ABD_ELAZIEM HUSSIEN
Degree: Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering Science and Mechanical
Power Engineering
Title: “Modeling of Transient Response of the Wickless Heat
Pipes”
Supervisor Committee
Prof. Dr. Mohamad Abdrabboh Prof. Dr. Mohamed Aly Halawa

Faculty of Engineering Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical power Department Mechanical power
Department
Al-Azhar University Al-Azhar University
Dr. M. S. Saadawy
Reactors Department
Nuclear Reactor Center
Atomic Energy Authority
Cairo 2013
2
Ph. D. Thesis
Name : ADEL KAMEL ABD_ELAZIEM HUSSIEN
Degree: Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering Science and Mechanical
Power Engineering
Title: “Modeling of Transient Response of the Wickless Heat
Pipes”
Examiners Committee
The undersigned certify that they have recommended to the faculty of
engineering – Al-Azhar University, for acceptance the above Title for
Engineer: ADEL KAMEL ABD_ELAZIEM, submits this doctor of
philosophy in Mechanical Power Engineering Department.
Name Position Signature

1 Prof. Dr. M. M. Abo_Elnasr Minister of Education,
Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical power Department
Ain Shams University
2 Prof. Dr. Mohamad El_Faisal Faculty of Engineering
El_Refaie Mechanical power Department
Al-Azhar University
3 Prof. Dr. Mohamad Faculty of Engineering
Abdrabboh Mechanical power Department
Al-Azhar University
4 Prof. Dr. Mohamed Aly Faculty of Engineering
Halawa Mechanical power Department
Al-Azhar University
3
STATEMENT
This Dissertation is submitted to Al-Azhar University for the degree of
PhD. in Mechanical Power Engineering Department.
The Work included in this Thesis is carried out by the author in the
reactors department, Nuclear Research Center, Atomic Energy
Authority.
No part of this study has been submitted for a degree or a qualification
at other university or institution.
Name: ADEL KAMEL ABD_ELAZIEM HUSSIEN
4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my profound thanks to GOD hoping to accept this

humble effort in the field of scientific research.
Many thanks to Prof. Dr. Mohamad Abdrabboh for his interest, guidance
and encouragement in supervising this research.
My special gratitude to Prof. Dr. Mohamed Aly Halawa for his great
effort, guidance and assistance during the course of this work.
Special appreciation to Dr. Mahmoud Samy Saadawy for his great

assistance, continuous guidance and encouragement through all the steps of
work and the countless hours of discussions which made this work possible.
My gratitude to all the colleagues and staff members of the Reactor

Department, Nuclear Research Center, Atomic Energy Authority, for
providing all the facilities that contributed to the success of the experimental
work.
My thanks to the staff and employees of the Faculty of Engineering,

Al-Azhar University for their great help in accomplishing this work.
I wish to express great appreciation to my family for this patience, support

and encouragement.
5
ABSTRACT
Thermosyphon's transient response for startup from ambient
temperature to steady state until shutdown conditions, is considered a
stringent necessity for applications such as electronic, solar, geothermal and
even nuclear reactors safety systems. This typically returns to the need to
keep the temperature within certain limits before reaching critical
conditions.
A simple network model is derived for describing the transient
response of closed two-phase thermosyphon (CTPT) at startup and shutdown
states. In addition, for predicting the effect of operational characteristics of
water/copper closed two-phase thermosyphon such as thermal load, filling
ratio, evaporator length, and thermosyphon tube diameter. The
thermosyphon's operation was considered a thermal network of various
components with different thermal resistances and dynamic responses. The
network model consists of six sub-models. These models are pure
conduction in walls of evaporator, adiabatic and condenser, and convection
in evaporator pool, evaporator film, and condenser film. So, an energy
balance for each sub-model was done to estimate temperatures, heat transfer
coefficients, thermal resistances, time constant, and other thermal
characteristics that describe the required transient response of the closed
two-phase thermosyphon. Governing equations of the transient
thermosyphon behavior can be simplified into a set of first-order linear
ordinary differential equations. The Runge-Kutta method can be used to
obtain transient thermosyphon temperatures from these equations.
To validate the predicted theoretical model results, an experimental
prototype thermosyphon is constructed from copper tube of 35 mm outer
diameter, 1.5 mm thickness. Lengths of evaporator, condenser, and adiabatic
6
sections are 60, 25, and 15 cm respectively. The heat source is simulated by
4 electrical coils while the heat sink is directly performed by a cooling loop
at condenser section, using cooling water flow rate of 0.027 kg /s.
The theoretical and experimental results showed the following conclusions:-
 A simple theoretical network model is developed to estimate the
internal thermal resistances and time constant during the transient start
up and shutdown stages.
 It was found that the average thermal resistance of heat carriers in
evaporator has the major effect (changed by 70%) on the whole
thermosyphon thermal resistance more than that of the condenser film
(changed by 23%).
 The filling ratio has a major effect on the thermal resistances and the
time constant. The variation in the time constant reaches 500%
through the filling ratios range (0.3 – 1.0).
 Also, the thermal load has an effect on the thermal resistances and the
time constant, the variation in time constant reaches 27% through the
thermal load range (500 – 2000W).
 Theoretically, the effect of both thermosyphon tube diameter and
evaporator length is similar to that of the filling ratio.
 The experimental results validated and proved the feasibility of the
theoretical model predictions, where the deviation reached 25% in
time constant.
 Based on the experimental results, an empirical correlation for the
start up time constant was derived as a function of the thermal load
rate and the filling ratios. The empirical correlation exhibited high
accuracy of its predicted results which reach more than 85% of the
experimental results.
7
CONTENTS
AKNOWLEDGEMENT .……………………………………...…….…...vi
ABSTRACT …. …………………………………….....…...…vii
CONTENTS …………………………………...………...…...ix
LIST OF FIGURES …………………………………...……...…...xiii
LIST OF TABLES …………………………………..…………....xx
NOMENCLATURE ……………………………………...……...…xxi
CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION……..……………………..………21
CHAPTER TWO. LITERATURE REVIEW. ………………….……...31
CHAPTER THREE. DEVELOPMENT OF THEORTICAL

MODEL……………………………………………………………………46
3-1 INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………....46
3-2 Theoretical Thermal Resistances Network Model…………………….47
3-2-1 The Evaporator Wall Heat Conductor ......…..…………….52
3-2-2 The Evaporator Film Heat Carrier…………………………..54
3-2-3 The Evaporator Pool Heat Carrier…………………………..55
3-2-4 The Condenser Film Heat Carrier…………………………….56
3-2-5 The Condenser Wall Heat Conductor …………………….…57
3-2-6 The Adiabatic Wall Heat Conductor ……………………..…58
3-3- Calculations of Heat Transfer Coefficients…………………………...59
3-3-1 Evaporator Liquid Film HTC…………………………...…....59
3-3-2- Heat Transfer Coefficient of Evaporator Liquid Pool…….....59
3-3-3 the Average Evaporator Coefficient…….…………………...62
3-3-4 The Condenser Film Heat Transfer Coefficient……..………62
3-3-5 Heat Transfer Analysis in Heat Sink………….…………….63
3-4 Calculation of the Geometric Parameters ………………..…………...63
8
3-5 The Time Constant, τsp………………………………..……………….65
3-6 The Solution Procedures ………………………………………………67
CHAPTER FOUR. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURS...70

4-1 Thermosyphon Tube (test section)………………..…..…….…….....70
4-2 The Heating System……….……………….……………………….....73
4-3 The Cooling System……………….……...……………….…………..76
4-4 The Inner Temperature Probe………….….…………………………..76
4-5 Charging and Evacuation System……………………………….…….78
4-6 Experimental Measuring Devices……….…………………………..…81

4-6-1 Temperature Measurements…………..…..……………………81
4-6-2 Heating Energy (Power) Measurements….……………………82
4-6-3 Coolant Flow Rate Measurements………………………………85
4-7 Thermosyphon Preparation………..…………….………………..85
4-7-1 Leak out Test…..………….…..…..………………………..85
4-7-2 Thermosyphon Cleaning…….………..……………………86
4-8 Experimental Procedures……………..….……………………………86

4-9 Calibration………...………………………………………………………..87
CHAPTER FIVE EXPERIMENTAL DATA. …………………………91
5-1 Introduction…………………………………………………………….91
5-2 Thermal Relations and Operation Parameters Ranges…………………91
5-2-1 Thermal Relations…………………..…………………………91
5-2-2 Experimental operating Parameters Ranges……………………94
5-3 Thermosyphon Limits…………………..……………………………...95
CHAPTER SIX RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. ……………………..96
6-1 Introduction……………………………………………………………96
6-2 The Time Dependent Composite Figure ………………………………97
9
6-3 Analysis of the Transient Response for CTPT………………...………98
6-4 Theoretical results……………………………………………..……107
6-4-1 Effect of Heat Load .……………………………………..……107
6-4-2 Effect of Filling ratio……………………….………….………115
6-4-3 Effect of the Evaporator Length………………………………124
6- 4-4 Effect of the Thermosyphon Tube Diameter …………….…131
6-4-5 Effect of Water Flow Rate through the Condenser...…………139
6-4-6 Effect of Ambient Temperature on the Performance of the Closed
Two Phase Thermosyphon….....………………………………………….148
6-5 Experimental Results and Discussion.………………………………..155
6-5-1 Introduction...…………………………………………………155
6-5-2 Effect of Electric Power...………………….…………………156
6-5-3 Effect of Filling Ratio…………………………………………163
6-5-4 Coefficient of Performance for the Closed Two-Phase
Thermosyphon...………………………………..…………………………168
6-6 Comparison between present and Previous Work...……………….…173
6-7 The Time Constant Correlation …………………………………...…176
CHAPTER SEVEN. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ..…………...179

7-1 Summary ……………………………………………………………..179
7-2 Conclusion……..…………………………………………………..…181
7-3 Proposal Future Work ……………………...……...……………….184
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………..186
APPENDEX-A………………………………………………………...…190
APPENDEX-B……………………………………………………...……191
APPENDEX-C…………………………………………………………...195
APPENDEX-D…………………………………………………………...197
10
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER ONE
Fig. 1-1 Operation Principle of Heat Pipe and Thermosyphon………..…23

Fig. 1-2 Heat Removal Systems for Nuclear Reactor. …………………..25
Fig. 1-3 Emergency Cooling System of Nuclear Reactors………………25
Fig. 1-4 Reactor core cooling system……………………………….……27
Fig. 1-5 Temperature Range of Thermosyphon and Heat Pipe……….…27
Fig. 1-6 Heat Pipe and Thermosyphon Limits……………………….……30
CHAPTER THREE
Fig. 3-1 A Sketch Of The Thermosyphon Heat Transfer Processes….……48

Fig. 3- 2a A Network Analogy Of The Thermosyphon Heat Transfer …...51
Fig. 3-2b One Dimensional Heat Conductor or Carrier…………………..51
Fig. 3-3 A Network Analogy of The Evaporator Wall Conductor………53
Fig. 3-4 A Network Analogy of The Evaporator Film Carrier…….……55
Fig. 3-5 A Network Analogy of The Condenser Film Carrier……..….…57
Fig. 3-6 A Network Analogy of The Condenser Wall Conductor….....…58
Fig. 3-7 Flow Chart for The Solution Procedure ………………………….69
CHAPTER FOUR
Fig. 4-1a Photograph of Experimental Setup………………………...……71

Fig. 4-1b Experimental Setup…………………………………………...…72
11
Fig. 4-2 The Upper and The Lower End Caps…………………………...74
Fig. 4-3 The Heating System……………………………………………..75
Fig. 4-4 The Cooling System…………………………………………..…77
Fig. 4-5a Axial Inner Temperature Probe…………………………………79
Fig. 4-5b Photograph of Axial Inner Temperature Probe…………..…….80
Fig. 4-6 Data Logger System ……………………………………….……83

Fig. 4-7 Location of Measurements of Temperatures ………..……………84
Fig 4-8 Calibration of Thermocouple……………………………………..89
Fig. 4-9 Calibration of Cooling Water Orifice Meter……………………...89
Fig. 4-10 Calibration of Ammeter………………………………………….90
Fig. 4-11 Calibration of Voltmeter…………………………………………90
CHAPTER SIX
Fig. 6-1 Indicated Temperatures during Transient Operation of CPT……100

Fig. 6-2 Variation of Thermal Resistances with Time for Different Filling
Ratios………………………………....…………………………………100
Fig.. 6-3 Variation of Thermal Resistances with Electric Loads ….……103
Fig. 6-4 Variation of the Mean Vapor Temperature with Time for Different
Electric Loads……………….…………………………………………………..103
Fig. 6-5 Variation of the Evaporator HTC with time for Different Electric
Loads……………………………………………………………………105
Fig. 6-6 Variation of the Evaporator Thermal Resistance with Time for
Different Electric Loads…………………………………………………105
Fig. 6-7 Variation of Equivalent Overall HTC with Time for Different
Electric Loads……….……………………………………… .…………107
12
Fig. 6-8 Variation of Effective Thermal Conductivity with Time for
Different Electric Load……….……………………………………… .….107
Fig. 6- 9a Variation of hev in the Transient Startup Stage with Time for
Different Electric load……….……………………………………… .…109
Fig. 6- 9b Variation of Rev in the Transient Startup Stage with Time for
Different Electric load ……………......................................................109
Fig. 6- 9c Variation of Ueq in the Transient Startup Stage with Time for
Different Electric load …………………….……………………………110
Fig. 6- 9d Variation of Keff in the Transient Startup Stage with Time for
Different Electric load ……….……………………………………… .….110
Fig. 6-10 Variation of the Time Constant during the Transient Startup Stage
with Electric Load……….……………………………………… .………112
Fig. 6-11 Variation of Evaporator Surface Wall Temperature with Time for
Different Filling Ratios……….……………………………………… .…112
Fig. 6-12 Variation of Evaporator Pool Temperature with Time for Different
Filling Ratios……….……………………………………… .…………....113
Fig. 6-13 Variation of Evaporator Film Temperature with Time for Different
Filling Ratios……….……………………………………… .……………113
Fig. 6-14 Variation of the Vapor Temperature with Time for Different
Filling Ratios……….……………………………………… .……………115
Fig. 6-15 Variation of Condenser Film Temperature with Time for Different
Filling Ratios……….……………………………………… .……………115
Fig. 6-16 Variation of Condenser Wall Temperature with Time for Different
Filling Ratios……….……………………………………… .……………116
Fig. 6-17 Variation of the Average Evaporator HTC with Time for Different
Filling Ratios……….……………………………………… .……………116
Fig.6-18 Variation of the Evaporator Thermal Resistance with Time for
Filling Ratios……….……………………………………… .……………117
Fig. 6- 21a Variation of hev in The Transient Startup Stage with Filling
Ratios……………………………………………………………………118
Fig. 6- 21b Variation of Rev in The Transient Startup Stage with Filling
Ratios……………………………………………………………………...120
Fig. 6- 21c Variation of Ueq in The Transient Startup Stage with Filling
Ratios..........................................................................................................120
Fig. 6- 21d Variation of Keff in The Transient Startup Stage with Filling
Ratios...........................................................................................................121
Fig. 6-22 Variation of Startup Time Constant with Filling Ratio………...121
13
Fig. 6-23 Variation of Evaporator Wall Temperature with Time for Different
Evaporator Lengths……….………………………………….…………...123
Fig. 6-24 Variation of Vapor Temperature with Time for Different
Evaporator Lengths……….……………………………………… .……..123
Fig. 6-25 Variation of the Evaporator HTC with Time for Different
Different Evaporator Lengths……….……………………………………125
Fig. 6-27 Variation of the Temperature Difference with Time for Different
Different Evaporator Lengths……….……………………………………128
Fig. 6- 30a Variation of hev in The Transient Startup Stage with Evaporator
Length……………………………………………………………………..128
Fig. 6- 30b Variation of Rev in The Transient Startup Stage with Evaporator
Length……….……………………………………… .…………………...129
Fig. 6- 30c Variation of Ueq in The Transient Startup Stage with Evaporator
Length……….……………………………………… .…………………..129
Fig. 6- 30d Variation of Keff in the Transient Startup Stage with Evaporator
Length……………………………………………………………………..130
Fig. 6-31 Variation of the Startup Time Constant of Thermosyphon with
Evaporator Length……….……………………………………… .………130
Tube Diameters. ……….……………………………………… .………..132
Fig. 6-33 Variation of Vapor Temperature with Time for Different Tube
Diameters……….……………………………………… .……………….132
Fig. 6-34 variation of Average Evaporator HTC with Time for different
Tube Diameters……….……………………………………… .…………133
Fig. 6-35 Variation of Evaporator Thermal Resistance with Time for
Different Tube Diameters……….……………………………………… .133
Tube Diameters……….……………………………………… .…………134
Different Tube Diameters……….……………………………………… .134
Fig. 6- 38a Variation of hev in the Transient Startup Stage with
Thermosyphon Tube Diameters……….………………………………….137
Fig. 6- 38b Variation of Rev in the Transient Startup Stage with
Thermosyphon Tube Diameter……….…………………………………..137
14
Fig. 6- 38c Variation of Ueq in the Transient Startup Stage with
Thermosyphon Tube Diameter……….…………………………………...138
Fig. 6- 38d Variation of Keff in the Transient Startup Stage with
Thermosyphon Tube Diameter……….…………………………………...138
Fig. 6-39 Variation of Startup Time Constant with Tube Diameter……..140
Water Flow Rates through the Condenser. ……….………………………140
Fig. 6- 41 Variation of Condenser Wall Temperature with Time for Different
Water Flow Rates through the Condenser……….………………………..141
Fig. 6-42 Variation of Temperature Difference with Time for Different
Water Flow Rates through the Condenser……….……………………….141
Fig. 6-43 Variation of Vapor Temperature with Time for Different Water
Flow Rates through the Condenser……….………………………………142
Fig. 6-44 Variation of Average Evaporator HTC with Time for Different
Water Flow Rates through the Condenser……….……………………….142
Different Water Flow Rates through the Condenser……….……………..143
Different Water Flow Rates through the Condenser……….……………..143
Water Flow Rate through the Condenser……….………………………...145
Fig. 6-48 Variation of Net Heat Load with Time for Different Water Flow
Rates through the Condenser……….……………………………………..145
Fig. 6- 49a Variation of hev in The Transient Startup Stage with Water Flow
Rate through the Condenser……….……………………………………...146
Fig. 6-49b Variation of Rev in The Transient Startup Stage with Water Flow
Fig. 6-49c Variation of Ueq in the Transient Startup Stage with Water Flow
Fig. 6-49d Variation of keff in The Transient Startup Stage with Water Flow
Ambient Temperatures……….……………………………………… …..149
Fig. 6- 51 Variation of Condenser Wall Temperature with Time for Different
Fig. 6-52 Variation of Vapor Temperature with Time for Different Ambient
Temperatures……….……………………………………… …………….150
Fig. 6-54 Variation of hev in the Transient Startup Stage with Ambient
Temperature……….……………………………………… ……………..152
15
Water Flow Rate through the Condenser……….………………………...152
Fig. 6-56 Effect of Average Evaporator HTC on Startup Time Constant..153
Fig. 6-57 Effect of Evaporator Thermal Resistance on Startup Time Constant
τsp…………………………………………………………………………153
Fig. 6-58a Experimental and Theoretical Vapor Temperature for Three
Stages at Electric Power Qele=700 Watt……….…………………………157
Fig. 6-58b Experimental and Theoretical Vapor Temperature for Three
Stages at Electric Power Qele=900 Watt……….…………………………157
Fig. 6-58c Experimental and Theoretical Vapor Temperature for Three
Stages at Electric Power Qele=1000 Watt……….………………………..158
Fig. 6-58d Experimental and Theoretical Vapor Temperature for Three
Stages at Electric Power Qele=1200 Watt……….………………………..158
Fig. 6-59 Comparison between Theoretical and Experimental Vapor
Temperature with Heat Loads……….……………………………………159
Fig. 6-60 Comparison between Theoretical and Experimental Evaporator
HTC with Electric Loads……….……………………………………… ..159
Fig. 6-61 Comparison between Theoretical and Experimental Evaporator
Thermal Resistance with Electric Loads ……….………………………...161
Fig. 6-62 Comparison between Theoretical and Experimental Overall HTC
with Electric Loads……….……………………………………… ………161
Fig. 6-63 Comparison between Theoretical and Experimental Effective
Thermal Conductivity with Electric Load……….…………………….….162
Fig. 6-64 Comparison between Theoretical and Experimental Time Constant
with Electric Load……….……………………………………… …….…162
Stages at Filling Ratio, F=0.6 and Qele=900 Watt……….…………….…164
Stages at Filling Ratio, F=0.7 and Qele=900 Watt……….………….……164
Stages at Filling Ratio, F=0.8 and Qele=900 Watt……….……………….165
Fig. 6-65d Experimental and Theoretical Vapor Temperature for Three
Stages at Filling Ratio, F= 1 and Qele=900 Watt……….…………………165
Fig. 6-66 Comparison between theoretical and experimental results for the
effect of filling ratios on vapor temperature Tv. ……….…………………166
Fig. 6-67 Comparison between Theoretical and Experimental Overall HTC
with Filling Ratios……….………………………………………………..166
Thermal Conductivity with Filling Ratios……….………………………167
Fig. 6-69 Comparison between Theoretical and Experimental Time Constant
with Filling Ratios……….………………………………………………..167
16
Fig. 6-70 Transient Start up Response of Electric Power Qele =1200 Watt.169
Fig. 6-71 Transient Start up Response of Electric Power Qele =900 Watt..169
Fig.6-72 Comparison of Present and Previous Work [6] for Vapor
Temperature with Time……….…………………………………………..174
Fig. 6-73 Comparison of Present and Previous Work [30] for Vapor
Temperature with Filling Ratios………………………………………….174
Fig.6-74 Comparison of Present and Previous Work [30] for Vapor
Temperature with Cooling Water Flow Rate……………………………..178
Fig. 6-75 Relationship between the Empirical Correlation and the
Experimental Time Constant Data for CTPT……………………………..178
17
LIST OF TABLES
Table (3-1) The theoretical work conditions……………………………….66
Table (3-3) The experimental work conditions…………………………….66

Table (6-1) The Effect of hev and Rev on the value of time constant τsp…..154
Table (6-2) the coefficient of performance of the thermosyphon……......170
Table (A-1) Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Water……………..190
Table (C-1) Accuracy of Measured and Calculated Parameters……….…196
18
NOMENCLATURE
A Area (m2),
cP Specific heat (J/kg . oC),
d, D Diameter (m),
dt Time step (s),
F Filling Ratio,
Hfg Latent heat (J/kg),
Hp Dimensionless Height of the Expanding Liquid Pool,
h Heat transfer coefficient ( W/m2 .oC),
I Electric current (A),
Im Bubble Length Scale
k Thermal conductivity ( W/m .oC),
Lj Length (m),
m. Mass flow rate (kg/s),
P Pressure (N/ m2),
Q Heat flow (W),
q Heat flux (W/ m2 ),
R Thermal Resistance, ( oC/W)
RR, RT, RX, RY, RZ Constants
T Temperature ( oC),
t Time (s),
Uall Overall heat transfer coefficient of ( W/m2 .oC),
X, x Dimensionless Pool Parameter, Coordinate, Thickness, (m)
Greek Symbol
ξ Constant,
 Density (kg/m3),
 Dynamic viscosity (N.s/m2),
 Kinematic viscosity (m2/s),
 Surface tension (N/m),
 Void fraction,
ψ Mixing Coefficient
τ Time Constant,
 Difference, Drop
Dimensionless group
C Coefficient of friction
Nu Nusselt number =.023*Re 0.8*Pr 0.4,
Pr Prandtl number = cp* µl / kl,
Ra Raighly number = g*β*T* Pr *L3/ 2,
19
Re Reynolds number =* u *DH /µl,
Subscript
a , ad Adiabatic,
ac Acceleration,
amb Ambient,
av Average,
ax Axial,
b Boiling,
c Condenser, Copper,
cc Combined Convection
cf Condeser film,
conv Convection,
cs Condenser Surface, Cross Section
cw Cooling water, Condenser Wall
e, ev Evaporator,
ef Evaporator film,
eff Effective,
elec Electric,
ep Evaporator Pool,
es Evaporator Surface,
ew Evaporator Wall,
f Fluid,
g Saturated vapor,
h Heater, hydraulic
i Inner, inlet, carrier number (1:6)
ins Insulation,
j Jacket
l Liquid,
los Losses,
o Outer, outlet,
m Mean, Material
NB Nucleate boiling,
NC Natural convection,
r Radial,
sat Saturation,
ss Steady State,
tp Two-phase,
v Vapor,
w Wall,
20
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Energy conservation is becoming increasingly important as the cost of

fuel rises. So, the heat pipe and the closed two-phase thermosyphon are
proved particularly effective tools in the heat transfer industry. The basic
idea of the heat pipe was suggested by R.S.Gaugler in 1943. In 1946, G.
Grover reinvented the concept of heat pipe at Los Alamos National
Laboratories [1]. Since this date, the interest in heat pipe and their
applications has been growing. Thermosyphon refers to a method of passive
heat exchange based on natural convection which circulates liquid in a
vertical closed loop circuit without requiring a conventional pump. Its
intended purpose is to simplify the pumping of liquid and/or heat transfer,
by avoiding the cost and complexity of a conventional liquid pump. The
two-phase closed thermosyphons, which are essentially a gravity-assisted
wickless heat pipe, have it’s advantage of transporting large amount of heat
through small temperature difference (latent heat), in addition to their
special outstanding characteristics.It is an effective tool in heat transfer
industry due to their high efficiency, reliability, and cheap cost. The
thermosyphon and heat pipes are axially divided into three main sections:
evaporator, adiabatic, and condenser sections. The thermosyphon utilizes the
evaporation and condensation of an internal working fluid to transport heat.
During operation, heat is transferred to the working fluid inside the
evaporator section, and the working fluid is turned to vapor. The vapor rises
through the adiabatic section to the condenser section, where it condenses
and liberates the latent heat. The condensate is returned to the evaporator as
a liquid film by gravity. Thus, the thermal-hydraulic cycle is completed.
21
Although a two-phase closed thermosyphon and the heat pipe are considered
to be similar, there is an important difference in the mechanism of
condensate return as shown in figure 1-1.The closed two-phase
thermosyphon (CTPT) depends mainly on the gravity force, whereas the
heat pipe employs several forces, such as capillary force, centrifugal force,
and electrostatic volume forces to complete the return cycle to the
evaporator. One of the many important applications of heat pipes is the
nuclear reactor field that includes:
1- Heat exchangers in the primary and secondary circuits.
2- Heat removal systems after reactors shutdown as shown in figure1-2.
3- Emergency cooling systems as shown in figure 1-3.
4- Reactor core cooling system instead of primary circuit in small reactors as
shown in figure 1-4.
5- Cooling of spent fuel storage tank by using liquid metal heat pipes
6- Heat transfer devices.
7- Moderator cooling.
The closed two-phase thermosyphon applications are widely spread in all
fields due to the important characteristics that may be briefly mentioned as:
1- The ability to transfer large quantities of heat per unit area with small
temperature difference along the thermosyphon length, which may reaches
25 KW/cm2 of axial area.
2- The high effective thermal conductivity of thermosyphon that may
exceeds that of a copper bar of the same size.
3- High thermal flux transformation ratios are achieved using thermosyphon.
4- A constant output heat flux at the condenser can be maintained even with
variable input heat flux in the evaporator section.
22
Fig. 1-1 Operation Principle of Heat Pipe and Thermosyphon
23
5- Thermosyphon can be designated to fit various cross sectional shapes and
longitudinal configuration.
6- Thermosyphons can operate over long periods of times without
maintenance, repair and failure.
7- Thermosyphon operates fully passive without any moving parts, which
increase its reliability.
8- Thermosyphons are considered self actuated devices because no external
power is needed for pumping the internal working fluid.
Due to its high efficiency, reliability and low cost, thermosyphon has
been used in many applications. These applications include: electrical and
electronic equipment's cooling, temperature control, permafrost
stabilization, geothermal energy utilization, deicing, heat exchangers, waste
heat recovery, solar energy utilization and conservation of energy. The safe
operation of the closed two-phase thermosyphon depends on many factors.
These factors may be briefly as:
1- Selection of Working Fluid
The operation of the thermosyphon is based on evaporation and
condensation of the selected working fluid, therefore, the selection of a
suitable working fluid appropriate to the operating temperature range is an
important job. Within the approximate temperature band, several possible
working fluids exist, and several of characteristics must be examined in
order to determine the most acceptable of these fluids for the considerable
applications. These characteristics include [2] that vapor pressures are not
too high or low over the operating temperature range , high thermal
resistance, compatibility and wettability with tube materials, high latent heat,
low liquid and vapor viscosities, and high surface tension. Figure 1-5
indicates the typical operating temperature range of various working fluids.
24
Fig. 1-2 Heat Removal Systems for Nuclear Reactors
Fig. 1-3 Emergency Cooling System of Nuclear Reactors
25
There are three classifications of working fluid based on temperature range,
which are:
1- Cryogenic fluids such as helium, oxygen, and hydrogen. The working
range is 4 : 200 K.
2- Low temperature fluids such as ammonia, acetone, Freon, alcohol,

and water. The working range is 200:550 K.
3- High temperature range or liquid metal working fluids such as

mercury, cesium, potassium, sodium, and lithium. The working range is
550:2000K,
2- Selection of the Container Material

Several factors control the selection of the container materials [4]. These
factors are the ease of fabrication, thermal conductivity, operating
temperature ranges of working fluid, strength to weight ratio, wettability,
and compatibility between container material and working fluid. The
compatibility is the major consideration in thermosyphon design and
operation because the incompatibility may cause corrosion of the container's
material causing impurities in the working fluid, or chemically react with the
working fluid generating non-condensable gases. Impurities and non-
condensable gases reduce the performance and may cause thermosyphon
failure.
3- Thermosyphon Operating Limits
The thermal performance of the thermosyphon may be restricted by heat
transfer limitations, which depend on thermosyphon dimensions, operating
temperature ranges, and working fluid properties. These operating limits are
sonic, viscosity, flooding, dryout and boiling limits. The sonic limit is the
critical heat rate where the vapor pressure reaches the sonic value at the
26
Fig. 1-4 Reactor core cooling system
Fig. 1-5 Temperature Range of Thermosyphon and Heat Pipe

27
evaporator end. The viscosity limit increases considerably at low
temperatures where the viscous force dominates the vapor flow. The
flooding limit involves the interfacial shear stress between the
countercurrent vapor and liquid flow. The dryout limit concerns the
minimum working fluid fill volume, which is required to carry a specific
heat load. The boiling limit is similar to the critical heat flux in pool boiling,
where any excess of heat over a certain value would cause vapor to blanket
the surface of the heated wall at evaporator. Figure 1-6 shows the maximum
heat transport of these limits with temperature [1]. In all cases; these limits
may cause severe overheating of the pipe wall, which could result in damage
or rupture of the thermosyphon container.
There has been considerable research work done to model the steady-
state and transient operation of the heat pipe and the thrmosyphon. But, little
theoretical studies have been performed on transient operation of
thermosyphon of simple and ease model. Most of previous investigations are
either lump models of two or three dimensional flow, or complicated models
require more calculations and time. Therefore, there is a great need to derive
a simple and accurate model to predict the gravity-assisted wickless heat
pipe response. Most high energy intensity applications need to function
properly and safety. These applications typically use heat exchangers to
manage the energy and maintain the process within certain thermal limits.
The closed two-phase thermosyphons provide an alternative to conventional
heat exchangers. So it is important to understand the thermosyphon's
transient response to high heat fluxes, especially at startup and shutdown
processes. This is because if the response time of the thermosyphon is too
large, critical temperatures could be increased locally before any significant
cooling occurs, even if the steady-state solution indicates safe operation. A
28
greater understanding of the thermosyphon and its transient response is
needed for vital applications of intermittent operation which need to start the
operation from ambient state repeatedly such as electronic equipments,
nuclear reactor, geothermal applications, and any similar applications needs
high heat fluxes. The present study aims to derive a simple theoretical
network model for describing the transient performance of closed two-phase
thermosyphon (CTPT) at startup, steady, and shutdown states. In addition to
prediction the effect of operational characteristics of water/copper closed
two-phase thermosyphon. This thermosyphon is divided into six heat
conductors, an energy balance, was done to estimate temperature values,
heat transfer coefficients, and other thermal characteristics that describe the
required transient response of the closed two-phase thermosyphon. The
network model is verified by an experimental setup using water/copper
thermosyphon. A copper tube with 35mm O.D., 32mm I.D., and 100cm
length was constructed as a thermosyphon. This thermosyphon is classified
as low temperature wickless heat pipe. So, the suitable working fluid is
water which operates at temperature range from 200: 550 K. Many
experiments have been performed on the thermosyphon in various ranges of
the effecting operating and design parameters. The time constant of the
vapor temperature, evaporator and condenser heat transfer coefficients,
thermosyphon overall HTC, effective thermal conductivity, evaporator
thermal resistance, and themosyphon thermal resistance were determined as
a functions of the thermal load and the filling ratios. To demonstrate the
theoretical network model validity, a comparison between the experimental
and theoretical results was comprehensively presented. Other comparisons
were performed with previous investigators for some studying cases and the
agreement was fairly good.
29
Fig. 1-6 Heat Pipe and Thermosyphon Limits
30
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
2-1 INTRODUCTION
There has been considerable research work for modeling the steady-
state and transient operation of the heat pipe and the thrmosyphon. But, little
theoretical studies have been performed on transient operation of
thermosyphon of simple and ease model. Most of previous investigations are
either lump models of two or three dimensional flow, or complicated models
which require more calculations and time. Therefore, there is a great need to
derive a simple and accurate model to predict the gravity-assisted wickless
heat pipe response. Most high energy intensity applications, need function
properly and safety. These applications include geothermal, electronic, solar,
and nuclear reactors systems, and typically use heat exchangers to manage
the energy and maintain the process within certain thermal limits. The closed
two-phase thermosyphons provides an alternative to conventional heat
exchangers. This chapter presents a review of the previous experimental and
theoretical investigations of both heat pipe and thermosyphon.
2-2 Heat Pipes

A.FAGHRI et al [5] provided a unique view into the physics behind
the heat pipe operation which was considered a network system consisting of
a number of thermal components (conductors), whose transient behavior can
be analyzed by classical system analytical theories. Governing equations of
the transient heat pipe behavior can be simplified into a set of first-order
linear ordinary differential equations. The Runge-Kutta method can be used
to obtain transient heat pipe temperatures. The working fluid undergoes a
31
thermodynamic cycle which was analyzed by T-s diagrams. The heat pipe
dimensions must be “thermally compatible” with the heat pipe materials to
establish the thermodynamic cycle. Comparisons with other experimental
and numerical results validated the network model by [5]. This was
illustrated by a dimensionless number. The analysis presented in this paper
provides a reasonably accurate and practically simple way to transient heat
pipe analysis and heat pipe design.
M.S. EL-GENK and L. HUANG [6] performed experiments to
investigate the transient response of a water heat pipe to step changes in
input power at different cooling rates. The copper heat pipe employed a
double-layered, 150 mesh copper screen wick and its evaporator section was
heated while the condenser section was convectively cooled. The time
constants of the vapor temperature and the effective power through-out for
both heat-up and cool-down transients were determined by them as a
function of the electric power input and the water mass flow rate in the
cooling jacket of the condenser section. Both the vapor and the wall
temperatures were measured at ten axial locations along their heat pipe.
Results of them showed that increasing the electric power input or
decreasing the cooling water flow rate increase the steady state value of the
vapor temperature. Also, the heat-up time constants of the vapor temperature
and the effective power through-put increase initially, and then decreased as
either the electric power input or the cooling water flow rate was increased.
The cool-down time constant of the vapor temperature was almost
independent of the electric power input, but it decreased as the cooling water
flow rate was increased. By contrast, both the heat-up and the cool-down
time constants of effective power through-out decreased as the electric
power input were increased.
32
B. SUMAN et al [7] presented a transient model for a micro-grooved
heat pipe of any polygonal shape, using a macroscopic approach. The
triangular micro-heat pipe had been taken as a test case. The coupled
equations of heat, mass and momentum transfer were solved to obtain the
transient as well as the steady state profiles of various parameters namely,
the substrate temperature, the liquid velocity, the liquid pressure, etc. The
time required to reach the steady state for the substrate temperature was
found to be less than 20 seconds. The time required was more for higher heat
load and smaller substrate area. The obtained results by them gave a
qualitative description of the transient phenomena in the fluid flow and mass
transfer processes as well. The transient profile for radius of curvature was
decreasing with time and reaches steady state within 10sec.. The transient
profiles for liquid velocity and liquid pressure were increasing with time and
reached steady state within 10 seconds. The steady state for substrate
temperature results were successfully compared with the experimental
results.
Wang et al [8] investigated the thermal performance of a plate heat
pipe experimentally. The results indicated that the temperature along the
heat pipe wall surface was quite uniform and the porous wick of the
evaporator section created the main thermal resistance resulting in the
largest temperature drop, which consequently affected the performance of
the heat pipe. The idea of the heat pipe time constant was introduced in this
work to describe the transient characteristics of the flat plate heat pipe. Their
results showed that the time constant varied from 58 to 84 minutes for their
study. An empirical correlation for the time constant in terms of input heat
flux was presented by them. Correlations for the maximum temperature rise
and maximum temperature difference within the heat pipe were also studied.
33
The experimental results at steady state were compared with the analytical
results and found to be in good agreement. Their work constituted the
detailed experimental investigation of a flat plate heat pipe.
The work of Wang et al [9] presented analytical models for
predicting the transient performance of a flat plate heat pipe for startup and
shutdown operations. These models can be utilized separately for a startup
or a shutdown operation, respectively. The two models can also be combined
together to simulate the thermal performance of a flat plate heat pipe in
cyclical startup and shutdown operations. The transient temperature
distributions in the heat pipe walls and wicks were presented in their work.
Their results revealed that the thermal diffusivity, the thickness of the wall
and the wick, and the heat input pattern the heat pipe time constants. They
found that increasing the effective thermal diffusivity would decrease the
time constant. Their results showed that the time constant for the startup
operation was very close to that for the shutdown operation. Furthermore,
the time for a specified flat plate heat pipe to reach steady state depends
mainly on the heat transfer coefficient. Finally, it was found by them that the
temperature difference within heat pipe walls was small and that the wick in
the evaporator section created the largest thermal resistance while the wick
in the condenser section also had a significant contribution to the total
thermal resistance.
M. S. EL-GENK et al [10] developed a two-dimensional, heat pipe
transient analysis model for simulating operation of fully-thawed heat pipes.
The model was benchmarked using transient experimental data of a
horizontal water heat pipe. The calculated steady-state water vapor and wall
axial temperature profiles and the transient power throughput were good
agreement with measurements. The results showed that at steady-state a
34
liquid pool was 1.7mm forms at the end of the condenser section, where the
total vapor and liquid pressures were equal. In addition to water pooling, the
transient axial distribution of the vapor and liquid pressures, void fraction in
the wick and the effective radius of curvature of the liquid meniscus at the
liquid vapor interface were calculated and presented. Also, the results
presented the recession of the liquid pool during the cool down period of the
heat pipe.
Salem A.Said and Bilal A. Akash [11] studied experimentally two
types of heat pipes using water as working fluid. One is with a wick and
another with no wick. The wick was made of cotton, which was normally
used in oil lamps. The heat pipe was positioned at different angles of 30, 60,
and 90 with the horizontal positions. Their results showed that the
performance of the heat pipe that contained a wick was more significant in
terms of the overall heat transfer coefficient than that with no wick, for the
temperature range studied. It resulted in about 55%, 25%, and 70% increase
for 30, 60, and 90 tilt angles, respectively. The performance of the heat pipe
was improved significantly when using a wick, especially when the heat
pipe was positioned vertically because, the overall heat transfer coefficients
for the heat pipe that contain a wick were higher that that with no wick.
S. Murer et al [12] developed a dynamic one-dimensional model for
copper-water miniature heat pipe. This model used three hydraulic
parameters (wick porosity, pore radius, and permeability) and three thermal
parameters (condenser and evaporator thermal conductivity, saturated wick
capacitance) which had to be determined from steady state tests. It was
based on the numerical solution of the differential equations from mass,
momentum and energy conservation in the two phases, the equation of
thermodynamic equilibrium at the interface, and the energy equation of the
35
wall. It allowed calculate the transient evolution of a series of profiles along
the heat pipe: liquid and vapor fluxes; liquid and vapor pressures; and wall,
liquid and vapor temperatures for arbitrary distributions of heat sources and
sinks. It also allowed checking if a heat flow limit was reached during
operation.
2-3 Thermosyphon
H.M.S. Hussein et al [13] investigated the thermosyphon flat-plate
solar collector theoretically and experimentally under transient conditions.
The finite difference technique was used to solve the set of dimensionless
governing equations by means of a simulation program. The thermosyphon
tested at transient conditions, different mass flow rates of cooling water, and
different inlet cooling water temperatures. The experimental results were
compared with their corresponding simulated ones. The comparison showed
considerable agreement between the experimental and simulated results.
J.G. Reed et al [14] developed a comprehensive model to predict the
steady-state and transient performance of the two-phase closed
thermosyphon. One-dimensional governing equations for the liquid and the
vapor phases are developed using available correlations to specify the shear
stress and the heat transfer coefficients. Steady-state solutions agreed well
with thermosyphon flooding data from several sources and with which to
data obtained in the present investigation. While no data were available with
which to compare the transient analysis, the results indicated that, for most
system, the governing time scale for system transients was the film residence
time (runoff time), which was typically much longer than the times required
for viscous and thermal diffusion throuth the film. The proposed model
offered a versatile and comprehensive analysis tool which was relatively
simple.
36
C. Harley and A. Faghri [15] presented a transient two-dimensional
thermosyphon model that was accounted for conjugate heat transfer through
the wall and the falling condensate film. This model simulated the entire
thermosyphon, rather than only the condenser section. The complete
transient two-dimensional conservation equations were solved for the vapor
flow and pipe wall, and the liquid film was modeled using a quasi-steady
Nusselt-type solution. The model was verified by comparison with the
existing experimental data for a low-temperature thermosyphon with good
agreement. A typical high-temperature thermosyphon was then simulated to
examine the effects of vapor compressibility and conjugate heat transfer.
M.S.EL-GENK and H.H.SABER [16] compiled, sorted and
correlated the heat transfer data of numerous investigators for uniformly-
heated liquid pool of water, ethanol, methanol, dowtherm-A, R-11,and R-
113 in cylindrical enclosures in the following heat transfer regimes: (a)
natural convection; (b) nucleate boiling; and (c) combined convection. The
natural convection data were correlated in terms of the liquid Rayleigh
number in the pool, and the ratio of the bubble length scale to the inner
diameter of the pool, indicating the important contribution of the bubble
nucleation at the wall to the heat transfer in the regime. The nucleate boiling
heat transfer data were correlated in terms of the nucleate boiling coefficient
of Kutatelatze, and the mixing coefficient, which accounts for the effect of
mixing at the wall by sliding bubble and in the pool by large departing and
rising bubbles. The mixing coefficient in the present nucleate boiling
correlation depended on the physical properties and operating vapor pressure
of the working fluid. The data in the intermediated regime of combined
convection were correlated for natural and nucleate boiling using a power
law approach. The natural convection, the nucleate boiling, and the
37
combined convection correlations were within ±15% and presented a smooth
transient between all three heat transfer regimes.
Z.J. ZUO and F.S. GUNNERSON [17] modeled the steady-state
performance of the gravity-assisted, two-phase, closed thermosyphon from
frist priciples. Liquid-film momentum advection and axial normal stress
were included and shown to be important to the thermosyphon performance.
Numerical techniques were incorporated to solve the nonlinear governing
equations. Several important parameters such as the working fluid inventory,
the evaporator to condenser length ratio, have been predicted, optimized to
yield the maximum heat transfer ability. Comparisons with experiments of
other investigators results showed good agreements between them. The
effect of working fluid inventory on the heat transfer rate was related to the
heat transfer mechanism in the liquid pool. The optimum quantity depended
on the thermophysical nature of the working fluid, the operation comditions
(temperature or input heat flux), geometry of the thermosyphon, and the heat
transfer mechanism in the working fluid pool. The interface shear stress
increased in importance when the heat transfer rate increased. Changes of
the mass flow rate of condenser cooling water significantly affected the heat
transfer capacity, especially while the mass flow rate was low. An optimum
value of the evaporator and condenser lengths ratio was evaluated for the
maximum heat transfer ability for the temperature-controlled thermosyphon.
CHARLES et al [18] investigated the two-phase closed loop
thermosyphon with emphasis on the overall performance in transient
operation by developing a model based on first principles. The control
volume approach was the base of a global analysis describing the motion of
vapor and liquid phases of the thermosyphon system in one-dimensional
equations. Heat transfer coefficients were based on empirical correlations. It
38
was found that the density ratio vapor-liquid, dimensionless friction
coefficient and water column length determined respectively the overall
dynamic behavior characteristics such as response time, damping and
oscillation frequency. Response time decreased with increasing vapor-liquid
ratio. The period of free oscillation was proportional to the square root of the
liquid column length and equal to the period of oscillation of a liquid filled
open U-tube time’s coefficient.
K.S. Ong et al [19] described the hysteresis effect during start up and
cooling down of thermosyphon elements in a heat pipe heat exchangers,
using R-22, R-134a, and water as working fluids. R-22 performed better
than R-134a for low operating temperature difference. Temperature
differences of at least 2-3° C were required to initiate boiling in R-22 and R-
134a filled thermosyphon. Water performance was better than R-22 and R-
134a thermosyphons, but required higher starting temperatures. Hysteresis
was more pronounced in both R-22 and R-134a thermosyphons. It was not
detected in the water filled thermosyphon because of instability below 50° C
in this case.
HICHEM FARSI et al [20] presented an experimental and
theoretical investigation of the two-phase closed thermosyphon (TPCT)
behavior in transient regimes. The experimental results showed the existence
of two kinds of TPCTs response: the first category concerned regular and
monotonous variations of operating system variables and the second
category concerned the response presenting temperature excursions. The
visualization allowed us to attribute these excursions to the incipience
boiling in the evaporator which was a stochastic phenomenon. They focused
only on regular and monotonous variations, where a mathematical model
based on a two thermal body description (evaporator wall and working
39
fluid), has been developed in order to obtain an analytical expression of the
system response time. The dependence of this response time according to the
various parameters was linked to geometry and heat transfer laws.
YONG JOO PARK et al [21] investigated the heat transfer
characteristics of a two-phase closed thermosyphon. For the test, a two-
phase closed thermosyphon (copper container, FC-72 (C6F14) working fluid)
was fabricated with a reservoir which could change the fill charge ratio.
Several tests were performed and the results were compared with the
exciting correlation. The heat transfer coefficient of the evaporator increased
with the increase of power, and the effect of the fill charge ratio was nearly
negligible for both the smooth surface and the grooved surface. At the
condenser, the heat transfer coefficients showed some enhancement with the
increase of fill charge ratio by the expanded working fluid pool up to the
lower part of the condenser. The heat transport limitations appeared in
different ways to the fill charge ratio. For the relatively small fill charge
ratio less than 20% it occurred by the dry-out limitation and the temperature
arose from the bottom of the evaporator, while for large fill charge ratio, it
occurred by the flooding limitation and the temperature arose from the top of
the evaporator.
S.H.NOIE [22] studied the effect of three parameters: input heat
transfer rates from 100:900W, the working fluid ratios from 30%:90%, and
the aspect ratios which defined as the ratio of the evaporator length to the
inside diameter (the evaporator length), on steady state heat transfer
characteristics of a vertical two-phase closed thermosyphon. The
temperature distribution along the evaporator wall was almost isothermal,
and for the condenser wall showed lower values because of the internal
resistances due to boiling and condensation. The outside temperature of
40
evaporator was lower when filling ratio was 90% for aspect ratio of 7.45,
while the temperature for apect ratio of 11.8 was lower when filling ratio
was 60%. The maximum heat transfer rate for aspect ratio of 11.8 was
occurred when filling ratio was 60%, while for aspect ratios of 7.45 and 9.8
the corresponding filling ratios for maximum rate of heat transfer were 90%
and 30% respectively. The boiling heat transfer coefficients for aspect ratio
of 9.8 and filling ratios 30%, 60%, and 90% were found to be in reasonable
agreement with empirical correlations.
HIDEAKI IMURA et al [23] studied the two-phase thermosyphon
start-up from frozen state of the working fluid such as ethylene or propylene
glycol aqueous solution, because if pure water was used as a working fluid,
the thermosyphon tube breaks due to the volume expansion of ice when
water freezes into ice. Two-phase heat transfer coefficients of binary
mixtures became lower than pure liquid. As the concentration of ethylene
glycol increased, the freezing point lowered, and then the heat transfer
coefficient also lowered. Therefore, if the small concentration of ethylene
glycol was used, the degradation in heat transfer might be small. When
glass test tubes were filled with ethylene glycol aqueous solutions and these
solutions were frozen, the glass test tubes did not crack even if the
concentration of ethylene glycol was 1 or 2 mass%. Therefore, it was
predicted that thermosyphons filled with the ethylene glycol aqueous
solution of low concentration did not break even when the working fluid was
frozen under low temperature. As a result, it was found that this
thermosyphon started up smoothly without any troubles.
K.S. ONG et al [24] investigated the thermal performance of a
thermosyphon filled with R-134a. The thermosyphon was immersed in a
water bath which was provided with two electrical immersion heating
41
elements of 0.75 kW each. One of the elements was provided with a
thermostat to maintain a pre-set bath temperature. The bath was stirred
slowly to ensure no temperature stratification within the bath. Temperature
difference between the top and bottom of the bath was less than 0.5ºC. The
effects of temperature difference between bath and condenser section, fill
ratio and coolant mass flow rates on the performance of the thermosyphon
were determined. The experimental results indicated that the heat flux
transferred increased with increasing coolant mass flow rate, fill ratio and
temperature difference between bath and condenser section.
CHEN et al [25] investigated analytically and experimentally the
effects of space dimensions on the heat transfer in the evaporator section of a
two-phase closed thermosyphon and an attempt was made to find better
dimensionless numbers to correlate the experimental data. It was found that
the tube diameter had little effect on heat transfer for most of the
thermosyphons of industrial use. But the effect of the length of the
evaporator section was very obvious when water was used as working fluid.
The effect of filling ratio on mean heat transfer coefficient was obvious only
for low heat flux, and it disappeared when all the evaporator is flooded by
the liquid pool. The method of regressing analysis was introduced to
compare the dimensionless numbers. The results showed that Gr, Reb, and
Pr were more suitable for the heat transfer correlation of the evaporator
section.
HE JIALUN et al [26] studied the heat transfer characteristics in the
evaporator section of a two-phase closed thermosyphon. The evaporator
could be divided into two parts: liquid film section and liquid pool section.
The heat transfer processes of the two parts had different characteristics. For
liquid film, it could be characterized by laminar film and turbulent film, the
42
heat transfer process of laminar film was controlled by heat conduction in
the film, and when the heat flux increased, the heat transfer coefficient
decreased. The heat transfer process of turbulent film was affected mainly
by turbulent heat transfer in the film, when the heat flux increased, the heat
transfer coefficient increased. Length of the liquid film or boiling pool
height had great effects on the heat transfer in the liquid film. For liquid
pool, it could be divided into two parts: conventional pool boiling in the
lower part of the liquid pool and two-phase flow boiling in the other part of
the liquid pool. Boiling liquid pool height had somewhat effects on heat
transfer in the liquid pool. The average heat transfer coefficient of the
evaporator section was affected by boiling liquid pool height, heat transfer
coefficient in the liquid film, and heat transfer coefficient in the liquid pool.
The heat transfer coefficient in the liquid film was higher than that of the
liquid pool under equal heat flux, when the liquid film was laminar, the
difference between them was bigger, when the liquid film was turbulent, the
difference was smaller, and the average heat transfer coefficient lied
between them.
HE JIALUN et al [27] investigated experimentally and analytically
the boiling liquid pool height of a two-phase closed thermosyphon. The
results showed that the pool height was affected by many parameters, such
as liquid filling ratio, bubble drift velocity, distribution parameter, heat flux,
properties of working fluid, and geometric configuration of the
thermosyphon especially by the two-phase flow pattern in the liquid pool.
The analytical results calculated by determination of distribution parameter
and bubble drift velocity, according to two-phase flow pattern were good
agreement with experimental results. An experimental correlation was
presented for engineering applications.
43
CHEN XIANG et al [28] studied the heat transfer mechanism in the
liquid pool of a two-phase closed thermosyphon through experimental and
theoretical analysis. An experiment was conducted to investigate the effect
of vapor flux rate on the heat transfer in the liquid pool section. The results
indicated that the intensity of the heat transfer enhancement increased with
the decrease of saturation temperature, and the rate of of vapor flux had no
obvious effect on the heat transfer in the liquid pool. The main heat transfer
mechanism in the liquid pool of a two-phase closed thermosyphon was two-
phase natural convection heat transfer enhanced by the agitation of vapor
bubbles. The nucleate boiling heat transfer was deeply suppressed.
2-4 SCOPE of THE PRESENT STUDY

As a result of this previous review of the heat pipe and the closed two-
phase thermosyphon, it was shown that most of these investigations are
insufficient to describe the actual performance of the closed two-phase
thermosyphon with simple and effective technique. Therefore, the present
study aims to derive a simple theoretical network model for describing the
transient performance of closed two-phase thermosyphon (CTPT) at startup,
steady, and shutdown states. The current mathematical model is mainly
similar to Faghri’s study [5] on heat pipes dynamics. several mathematical
modifications were added in the present study to make the model be suitable
for thermosyphons process. This model must take the smallest time to get its
results and give the required data to predict the designed and operational
parameters which have major effect on the safe performance of water/copper
closed two-phase thermosyphon used in the industrial applications. These
designed and operational parameters include:
1- The transported heat energy, (Qele).
44
2- The filling ratio, (F).
3- The thermosyphon tube diameters, (d0, di).
4- The evaporator length, (Lev).
5- Water flow rate through the condenser (mcw).
6- The ambient temperature (Tamb).
45
CHAPTER III
DEVELOPMENT OF THEORTICAL MODEL
3-1 INTRODUCTION
A theoretical network model is developed to describe the transient
behavior of a closed two-phase thermosyphon CTPT in low temperature
range. Simulating the entire thermosyphon’s components by several
resistances represent substantially the main concept of this model. The
theoretical simulation is intended to serve in both the transient startup and
shutdown operations. The thermosyphon starts up when the transported load
(electric power) is initially connected. The power causes the heat energy rate
to consequently flow from evaporator section to condenser section. The
generated heat in the heater makes its temperature to rise with time above
the wall temperature. Accordingly, heat flows from the heater to the wall
and a quantity is transferred to the surrounding as heat losses.
Part of the heat reaching the wall is absorbed in the wall causing its
temperature to increase, another part is transferred axially to the adiabatic
section and the remainder is transferred radially to the pool and film in the
evaporator section. The heat flowing from the wall to the fluid increases its
temperature gradually, till the fluid reaches the saturation temperature, then
it starts to evaporate. This rate of evaporation heat is flowed from evaporator
to condenser, and rejected in the heat sink (net heat load, Qnet). Therefore,
Qnet represents the actual heat energy transported by the thermosyphon. The
vapor condenses on the cold inner wall of the condenser and return back to
the evaporator by gravity, thereby; the working fluid completes its cycle.
Therefore, thermosyphon operation was completed by seven processes as
illustrated graphically in figure 3-1 and it can be classified as:
46
1- Heat is transferred by conduction through the evaporator surface in
the radial direction.
2- Heat is transferred by convection through the evaporator liquid film
in the radial direction.

3- Heat is transferred by convection through the evaporator liquid pool
4- Heat is transferred by convection through the falling condensate
film in the radial direction.
5- Heat is transferred by conduction through the condenser surface
6- Heat is transferred by conduction through the adiabatic surface in
the axial direction.
7- Axial heat convection of vapor.
These processes can be characterized by two main categories: the first

is pure conduction (heat conduction) processes 1, 5, and 6 ; and the second is
heat and mass transfer (heat convection) processes 2,3, 4 and 7. Processes 2,
3, 4 and 7 form the working fluid circulation which play an essential and
major role in the thermosyphon operation. Each heat transfer process
considerably has a thermal resistance to heat flow. This thermal resistance is
calculated for every case to show its effect on the performance of the
thermosyphon.
3-2- THEORETICAL THERMAL RESISTANCES NETWORK
MODEL
The current mathematical model is mainly similar to Faghri’s study [5]
on heat pipes dynamics. But, the foregoing model was applied for heat pipes
only. Therefore, several mathematical modifications were assumed
47
Fig. 3-1 A Sketch of The Thermosyphon Heat Transfer Processes
48
in the present study to make the model be suitable for thermosyphons
process. The thermosyphon's operation was considered as a thermal network
of various components with different thermal resistances and dynamic
responses. Figure 3-2a shows a network of these processes as well as the
convective heat transfer at the evaporator and the condenser outer surfaces.
The liquid return (condensate) processes are an important to the working
fluid circulation. The vapor flow thermal resistance is considerably smaller
than all other processes. Therefore, the vapor resistance can be neglected in
the thermal network system without causing significant errors.
In the previous mathematical study [5], the heat pipe network was
consisting of several conductors only. But, in the current concept, the
thermosyphon is simulated as a group of heat conductors and carriers in the
network system which can be used for transient analysis of the
thermosyphon. Figure 3-2b presents a one-dimensional heat conductor with
a cross sectional area of Ai and a thickness of xi. The two ends of the heat
carrier are subjected to temperatures of Ti,1 and Ti,2 respectively. The
temperature at the middle of the heat carrier is considered T i. The following
energy balance equations can be obtained as [5]:
 Ti
 i Ai x i c p , i  Qi ,1  Qi , 2 -----------------------------(3-1)
t
For heat conductor heat is transferred by conduction as:
Ti ,1  Ti Ti  Ti , 2
Qi ,1  ki Ai Qi , 2  ki Ai -----------------------------(3-2)
xi / 2 xi / 2
For heat carrier heat is transferred by convection as:
Qi ,1  hi Ai (Ti ,1  Ti ) Qi ,2  hi Ai (Ti  Ti , 2 ) ----------------------------(3-3)
By substituting from equations (3-2) and (3-3) in equation (3-1) and
rearrange, yields:
49
Ti 2 i
 2 (Ti ,1  Ti , 2  2Ti ) --------------------------------------------------(3-4)
t xi
Where: αi = ki/ρi Cpi for conductors, or αi = hi xi/ρi Cpi for carriers
Equation (3-4) is considered the governing equation of each process in

the thermosyphon network as shown in figure 3-2a. As shown in the figure,
a thermosyphon system consisting of six heat conductors and carriers
connected in series and/or parallel. The initial operating conditions are
assumed, the input heat transfer rate to the system Qele , the filling ratio F and
the connective cooling conditions (convective heat transfer coefficient hconv
& ambient temperature Tamb). Based on the principles of heat transfer, the
system of the thermosyphon assumed to obey the following rules:-
1- The summation of input heat flows equals to the summation of the

output heat flows at any vertex (point).
2- The heat carriers with common vertexes (p4-p5) have the same
temperatures at the corresponding ends.
A theoretical network simulation is developed for complex processes,

certain limitations and then suitable assumptions are necessary. The
following assumptions are taken into consideration for the derivation and
solution of the theoretical thermal resistances network model:
1- One dimensional flow model
2- Constant thermal properties of wall material (copper), such as

(density, specific heat and thermal conductivity).
3- Neglecting of the kinetic and potential energy components in the

energy balance equations when compared to heat transfer rate
50
Component Description
Qele Evaporator heat input
1 Evaporator wall
2 Evaporator film
3 Evaporator pool
4 Condenser film
5 Condenser wall
6 Adiabatic wall
Fig. 3-2a A Network Analogy Of The Thermosyphon Heat Transfer
Qi,1 Qi,2
Carrier Thickness xi
Ti,1 Ti,2
Fig. 3-2b One Dimensional Heat Conductor or Carrier
51
4- The temperature dependence of the density, thermal conductivity and
other properties of saturated liquid
5- No axial heat lost is assumed from either the two thermosyphon ends
to the environment or internally between the wall sections
6- The flow of the falling condensate film in the model is considered to

be laminar mode
7- The heat energy flow is transferred by conduction and convection in

conductors and carriers respectively
8- The thermal vapor resistance is relatively small and it can be simply

ignored
10- The interfacial heat exchange between vapor and liquid in the
adiabatic section is neglected
11- A continuous smooth liquid film of laminar flow was assumed for the
falling liquid film in both the evaporator and condenser
12- All physical properties are evaluated at the mean temperature of the
cooling water for the heat sink calculations
3-2-1 the Evaporator Wall Heat Conductor
The evaporator surface wall has input heat rate from the heater, Qele and a
part of this heat was absorbed by the wall to increase its temperature, while
the residual heat energy is transferred radially from the wall to the pool and
the film in the evaporator section. By applying equation (3-4) and the
assumed rules at the common vertex p1 as shown in figure 3-3, it can show
that:-
52
Qele  Q11  Q61 -------------------------------------------------------------------(3-5)
 T1 2 * kc
 T11  T12  2T1  ------------------------------------(3-6)
 t  c * c pc * x w2
2 * kc * Aes
Qele  T11  T1   2 * kc * Acs T61  T6  -----------------(3-7)
xw lad
Fig. 3-3 A Network Analogy of The Evaporator Wall conductor
At the common vertex (P1) and (P2) it is found that T11 = T61 and
Q12 = Q21 + Q31 , so
2 * k c * Aes
T1  T12   Aef * hef T21  T2   Aep * hep T31  T3  --------------(3-8)
xw
At the common vertex (P2) also, it is found that T12 = T21 = T31
For simplifying, the following constants are considered:
kc * Aes Aef * hef * l f

R1  , R2   Aef * hef * (1 - F)
xw le
53
Aep * hep * l p kc * Acs
R3   Aep * hep * F , R6 
le lad
Let: RR  R1  R6 , 16  R1 / RR ,  61  R6 / RR , RT  2 * R1  R2  R3 ,
1  2 * R1 / RT ,  2  R2 / RT ,and  3  R3 / RT
Rearranging equations (3-6), and (3-7) for T11 ,and T12 then
Qele
T11   16 * T1   61 * T6 ----------------------------------------------------(3-9)
2 RR
T12  1 * T1  2 * T2  3 * T3 --------------------------------------------------(3-10)
Substituting by equations (3-9), and (3-10) in equation (3-6) we found:
T1 2*kc  Qele 


 t c *cpc * xw2 2RR 1  16  2T1  2 *T2  3 *T3 61 *T6  -------------
 
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(3-11)
3-2-2 the Evaporator Film Heat Carrier
By applying equation (3-4) for the heat carrier of evaporator film, the
following equations can be derived:-
 T2 hef
 T21  T22  2T2  ---------------------------------(3-12)
t  ef * c pef * x ef
At the common vertex (p2) , T12 = T21 and from equation (3-10)
T21  1 * T1   2 * T2   3 * T3 ---------------------------------------------(3-13)
Figure 3-4 illustrates that at the common vertex p3
Q41  Q22  Q32 , T22 = T41 = T32 ----------------------------------------------(3-14)

Therefore:-
54
Acf * hcf T41  T4   Aef * hef T2  T22   Aep * hep T3  T32  ------------------(3-15)
Also, for the evaporator film carrier we assumed that:

R4  Acf * hcf , RX  R2  R3  R4 , RX 2  R2 / RX , RX 3  R3 / RX ,
RX 4  R4 / RX so,
Fig. 3-4 A Network Analogy of The Evaporator Film and pool

Carriers
T22  RX 2 * T2  RX 3 * T3  RX 4 * T4 --------------------------------------(3-16)
Substituting equations (3-13), and (3-16) in equation (3-12) therefore,
 T2 hef
 1T1 (2 RX2 2)T2 (RX3 3)T3 RX4 *T4-------------
 t ef *cpef *xef
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(3-17)
Where, xef is the evaporator film thickness and can be calculated from this
1/ 3
1   l2 
equation [16] : ( xef  k l / hef or xef  3  4  * Re 
3 1/ 3
ef *  )
 g *  l  l   v 
3-2-3 the Evaporator Pool Heat Carrier
By apply equation (3-4) for the heat carrier of evaporator pool, the
following equation can be derived:-
55
 T3 hep
 T31  T32  2T3 -------------------------------------(3-18)
t  ep * c pep * x ep
Also, the figure 3-4 illustrates that at the common vertex (p2), and (p3) T31
= T12 , and T32 = T22 , so
T31  1 * T1   2 * T2   3 * T3 ---------------------------------------------(3-19)
T32  RX 2 * T2  RX 3 * T3  RX 4 * T4 -------------------------------------------(3-20)
 T3 hep
 1T1  ( 2  RX 2 )T2  ( RX 3  3  2)T3  RX 4 * T4  -----------------
t ep * c pep * xep
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(3-21)
Where, xep is the evaporator pool thickness and can be calculated as:
( xep  d i / 2 )
3-2-4 the Condenser Falling Film Heat Carrier

The vapor phase condenses on the wall of the condenser forming a
condensate film which flows downward by gravity. With applying the
equation (3-4) for the heat carrier of condenser film, the following equation
can be derived:-
 T4 hcf
 T41  T42  2T4 ------------------------------------(3-22)
t  cf * c pcf * x cf
Also, the figure 3-5 illustrates that at the common vertex (p3), and (p4)
T41 = T22 , T42 = T51 , and Q42 = Q51 , so
T41  RX 2 * T2  RX 3 * T3  RX 4 * T4 ------------------------------------------(3-23)
2 * kc * Acs
Acf * hcf T4  T42   T51  T5  -----------------------------------(3-24)
xw
Also, for the condenser film carrier we assumed that
56
k c * Acs
R5  , RY  2 * R5  R4 , RY4  R4 / RY , RY5  2 * R5 / RY
xm
T42  RY4 * T4  RY5 * T5 -------------------------------------------------------------(3-25)

 T4 hcf
 RX 2 * T2  RX 3 * T3  ( RX 4  RY4  2)T4  RY5 * T5  ---------------
t  cf * c pcf * xcf
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(3-26)
Where, xcf is the evaporator film thickness and can be calculated from this
equation: ( xcf  kl / hcf )
Fig. 3-5 A Network Analogy Of The Condenser Film Carrier

3-2-5 the Condenser Wall Heat Conductor
The heat added to the condenser wall is from the film condensate in
addition to that transferred axially from the evaporator section through the
adiabatic section. With applying the equation (3-4) for the heat conductor of
condenser wall, the following equation can be derived:
 T5 2 * kc
 T51  T52  2T5 -------------------------------------(3-27)
 t  c * c pc * x w2
The figure 3- 6 illustrates that at the common vertex (p5), T62 = T52 , and
Qc = Q52  Q62 , therefore,
T51  RY4 * T4  RY5 * T5 --------------------------------------------------------(3-28)

2 * k c * Acs
Acf * hcf T52  Tamb   T5  T52   2 * kc * Acs T6  T62  ------------(3-29)
xw la
57
Also, for the condenser wall conductor we assumed that:
RZ  2 * R5  2 * R6  Acs * hconv , RZ 5  2 * R5 / RZ , RZ 6  2 * R6 / RZ so,
T52  Acs * hconv * Tamb / RZ  RZ 5 * T5  RZ 6 * T6 ------------------------(3-30)

Substituting from equations (3-28) and (3-30) in equation (3-27) therefore,
 T5 2 * kc

 t  c * c pc * x w2
RY4 * T4  ( RY5  RZ 5  2)T5  RZ 6 * T6  A * T5  Acs * hconv * Tamb / RZ -----
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(3-31)
Fig. 3-6 A Network Analogy Of The Condenser Wall Conductor

3-2-6 the Adiabatic Wall Heat Conductor
The interfacial heat exchange between vapor and condensate liquid in
the adiabatic section is neglected. The axial heat through the adiabatic wall
transferred basically from the evaporator to the condenser section. Applying
equation (3-4) for the heat conductor of adiabatic wall, the following
equation can be derived:-
 T6 2 * kc
 T61  T62  2T6 ---------------------------------------(3-32)
t  c * c pc * l ad2
Also, the figure 3-3 and the figure 3-6 illustrate that at the common vertex
(p1), and (p5) T61 = T11 , T62 = T52 , so
Qele
T61   16 * T1   61 * T6 ------------------------------------------------------(3-33)
2 RR
58
T62  Acs * hconv * Tamb / RZ  RZ 5 * T5  RZ 6 * T6 --------------------------------------(3-34)

 T6 2 * kc  Qele 
 2   16 * T1  RZ 5 * T5  Acs * hconv * Tamb / RZ  ( 61  RZ 6  2) * T6  -----
t c * c pc * lad  2 RR 
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(3-35)
3-3 CALCULATIONS OF THE HEAT TRANSFER

COEFFICENTS (HTCs)
3-3-1 Evaporator Liquid Film HTC
The condensate film in the evaporator section has either laminar or
turbulent flow pattern. The heat transfer process is different in each pattern.
Laminar liquid film flow model reveals at low heat flux, where surface
evaporation occurs with continuous and smooth liquid film. At high heat
flux a turbulent flow with nucleate boiling occur causing wavy liquid films.
In the present model, a continuous smooth liquid film of laminar film
evaporation was assumed. The laminar heat transfer coefficient of film
evaporator is given by [4]:
h ef  4 3  1
3

* Re 1 / 3
ef * [  2
kl
/ g *  l  l   ] 1 / 3
------------ (3-36)
l v
Where:
4 * qe * l e
Re ef  ----------------------------------------------------------------------(3- 37 )
h fg *  l
All physical properties (pressure, liquid and gas densities, liquid and gas
viscosity, specific heat for liquid and gas, liquid surface tension, latent heat,
and liquid thermal conductivity) are calculated at evaporator film
temperature.
3-3-2- Heat Transfer Coefficient of Evaporator Liquid Pool
There are three heat transfer regimes that may occur in a small liquid pool in
cylindrical closed two-phase thermosyphon [16]. These regimes are:
59
(A) Natural convection at low heat fluxes.
(B) Nucleate boiling at high heat fluxes.
(C) Combined convection at intermediate heat fluxes.
Many investigators reported heat transfer correlations in these heat transfer
regimes.
(A) Natural Convection Correlation
In this regime, limited bubble nucleation on the bottom and along the heated
wall contributes to the heat transfer in the pool. To account for these effects
Nusselt number for natural convection were correlated in terms of the liquid
Rayleigh number and the ratio of the bubble length scale, Im , to the inner
diameter of the pool, di , as [16]:
0.35
N u NC  0.475 * Ra * ( I m / d i ) 0.58 -----------------------------------------------(3-38)
( he , p ) NC  N u NC * kl / d i --------------------------------------------------------(3-39)
Where:-
0.5
4
 
Im  
  and Ra   * g * d i * Qele ----------------------------------(3-40)
 g * (l   g )  kl *  l * l
 
(B) Nucleate Boiling Correlations
At high wall heat fluxes, the heat transfer in small enclosed liquid pools
occurs by nucleate boiling. When the bubbles reach the pool surface they
burst dispersing tiny liquid droplets into the vapor flow above the liquid
pool, which also enhance the nucleate boiling heat transfer in small,
enclosed liquid pools. The heat transfer coefficient of evaporator pool is
correlated after accounting for the effect of mixing in the boundary layer by
sliding bubbles along the wall and in the pool by departing and rising
bubbles, as
N u NB * ( I m / di )  (1.0  4.95 * ) * N u Ku -----------------------------------(3-41)
60
or
( he , p ) NB  1.0  4.95 *  * hKU -----------------------------------------------(3-42)
Where;-
 
   g /  l 0.4 *  p * l /    l 2 /  * g *  l   g   
0.25 0.25
---------------------------(3-43)
and,
* q e * I m /  g * h fg * l 
0.35 0.7
hKu  6.95 *10 4 * k l / I m  * Prl  p *I m/  0.7 -------(3-44)
The mixing coefficient,  , reflects the contribution of mixing by sliding and
rising bubbles to the nucleate boiling heat transfer in small liquid pools.
( C) Combined Convection Correlation

Combined convection is a transition regime between natural
convection and nucleate boiling because in this regime bubble nucleation
occurs at selected positions on the heated wall and the departing vapor
bubbles slide and rise along the wall separated by a thin stationary liquid
layer. These bubbles grow in size by evaporation at the interface between the
thin liquid layer and the rising bubbles. The efficient heat conduction in the
thin liquid layer separating the sliding bubbles from the heated wall and the
mixing and agitation induced by the rising bubbles in the pool, greatly
enhance the heat transfer in the combined convection regime.
A combined convection correlation for cylindrical enclosures such as
closed two-phase thermosyphon was developed by superimposing the
pressure correlations of natural convection and nucleates boiling using a
power law approach as [16]:
N u CC  N 4
u NC  N 4
u NB  0 . 25
-------------------------------------------(3-45)
So,
( h e , p ) CC  N u CC * k l / d i ----------------------------------------------------(3-46)
61
The dimensionless pool parameter, X limits the type of heat transfer
regimes and can be calculated as:
0 .7
P * Im   qe * Im 
X  R a 0 . 35 Pr l 0 . 35   
  * h *
 -------------------(3-47)

    g fg l 
For the regime of natural convection X is smaller than 1*1010, for nucleate
boiling X is greater than 2.1*107, and for combined convection 106 ≤ X ≤
2.1*107. Hence, the heat transfer coefficient of the evaporator pool can be
calculated for any type of heat transfer regimes.
3-3-3 the Average Evaporator Coefficient
Based on both evaporator liquid pool, and evaporator liquid film
coefficients, the average evaporator coefficient can be calculated as:
hev = F*hep + (1-F)*hef ----------------------------------------------(3-48)
Where: F is the filling ratio, hep is the evaporator pool HTC, and hef is the
evaporator film heat transfer coefficient.
3-3-4 the Condenser Film Heat Transfer Coefficient

The falling condensate film flow inside the thermosyphon surface is
assumed as laminar flow and the film was thin with respect to the radius of
thermosyphon tube. Therefore, the simplified Nusselt's film condensation
theory for vertical flat plate was adopted for condensation in the
thermosyphon condenser. The heat transfer of condensation is given as [8]:
kl
 3  * Re * (
hcf  4
4
3 1 / 3
cf 2 1 / 3 ---------------------------------------------(3-49)
l / g)
Where, Reynold number of the condensate film can be calculated as:

4 * qc * l c
Re cf  --------------------------------------------------------------------(3-50)
h fg *  l
Also, all physical properties are calculated at condenser film temperature.
62
3-3-5 Heat Transfer Analysis in Heat Sink
The average heat transfer coefficient for forced convection, between
the condenser outer surface and cooling water can be calculated in the case
of laminar and turbulent flow regimes as :-
hcw)laminar=1.86(Re Pr)cw0.33(dh/Lc)0.33(cw/)0.14(kcw/dh)-------(3-51)
hcw)turbulent =0.023(Re cw )0.8 (Pr cw)0.33 (kcw/dh)--------------------(3-52)
The hydraulic diameter dh for the annulus area of the cooling jacket is:
d h = dj – d o
Where, Reynolds number of the cooling water in the condenser jacket can be
calculated as:
.
4mcw
R ecw  ----------------------------------------------------------(3-53)
d h  cw
.
Where mcw is the mass flow rate of the cooling water, and  cw is the liquid
viscosity of the cooling water.
In equations (3-49) and (3-50), all physical properties are evaluated at the
mean temperature of the cooling water which is the mean value between the
outlet cooling water temperature T cw , o and the inlet cooling water temperature
T cw , i .
3-4 CALCULATION OF THE GEOMETRIC PARAMETERS

For the transient calculations it is important to calculate the cross
section and radial areas for all parts (sections) of the closed two-phase
thermosyphon. They are calculated for each part of the wall, pool, films of
the thermosyphon. All required dimensions for calculating the geometric
63
parameters were showed in figure 1-1. The heat flow from the electric heater
to the evaporator section is transferred through the surface area of tube wall
metal. So, the perimeter required for radial heat flux calculation, cross
section area, and other geometric parameters are obtained as [5]:-
- The evaporator surface area
Aes   * le * (d0  di ) / 2 -------------------------------------------------------(3-54)

- The condenser surface area
Acs   * lc * ( d 0  d i ) / 2 -----------------------------------------------------------(3-55)
- The cross section of thermosyphon tube
Acs   (d 02  d i2 ) / 4 ----------------------------------------------------------(3-56)
- The thickness of the thermosyphon tube:

x m  (d 0  d i ) / 2 --------------------------------------------------------------(3-57)
- The length of the evaporator pool:
l p  F * le -------------------------------------------------------------------------(3-58)
- The length of the evaporator film:

l f  (1  F ) * le ---------------------------------------------------------------------(3-59)
- The evaporator film thickness:

xef  k l / hef --------------------------------------------------------------------------(3-60)
or:
1/ 3
1   l2 
 4  * Re 
xef  3 3 1/ 3
ef *  -------------------------------------------(3-61)
 g *  l  l   v 
Where, all properties are calculated at evaporator film temperature
- The condenser film thickness:
xcf  k l / hcf ------------------------------------------------------------------------(3-62)
64
While, kl is calculated at condenser film temperature
- The area of the evaporator film is calculated as follows:
Aef   * le * (d i  2 * xef ) ------------------------------------------------------(3-63)
- The area of the condenser film is calculated as follows:

Acf   * lc * ( d i  2 * xcf ) --------------------------------------------------------(3-64)
3-5 THE TIME CONSTANT, τsp

The time constant is defined as the time when the vapor temperature
in the evaporator reaches 63.2% of its maximum value (steady state) during
the transient stages of startup and shutdown. A great understanding of the
thermosyphon and its transient response is needed for vital applications of
intermittent operation which need to start the operation from ambient status
repeatedly such as electronic equipments, nuclear reactors, geothermal
applications, solar energy and any other appliance of high heat fluxes. So, it
is important to estimate the time that the thermosyphon need to reach the
steady state. The design parameters: material, the geometric dimensions, the
working fluids and the size of thermal insulation are strongly affecting the
transient response of the thermosyphon. Various working conditions also
influence the thermosyphon transient operation. Because of these many
factors that affect the transient operation of the thermosyphon, the
theoretical besides the experimental results need to be generalized to discuss
the influence of these parameters on the Closed Two-Phase Thermosyphon
transient operation.
The time constant can be used to determine how fast a thermosyphon
responds to an applied input power. The theoretical as well as the
experimental results of CTPT show that the transient response of the vapor
temperature has the appearance of an exponential relationship with time.
Therefore, an exponential function is selected that contains a parameter
65
called start up time constant, or shut down time constant to describe the
thermosyphon transient operations [ 8, 9].
T(t) = Tss (1-e-(t-to)/ τsp ) During start up ---------------------(3-65)
T(t) = Tss (1-e-(t-to)/ τsp) During shut down ------------------(3-66)

In the previous two equations T(t) is the vapor temperature as a
function of time, during the transient region. Tss is the steady state value of
temperature T, t is a time, to is an arbitrary time of initiating the process. τsp
is the time constant that characterizes the transient investigated process.
The theoretical model is performed for different operating parameters.
These parameters are shown in table 3-1
Table 3-1
Electric Filling Evaporator Outer Water Ambient
Power Ratio Length, Lev Diameter flow temperature
Qele F (m) Do (m) rate Tamb
(W) mcw (C)
(Kg/sec)
500–2000 0.3 - 1 0.45 – 0.74 .025 – .04 .027-.3 15-35
The experimental work required to verify the accuracy of the network model
is performed at different parameters, table 3-2 indicates these conditions.
Table 3-2
The experimental work conditions
Electric Power Filling Ratio Evaporator Outer Diameter
Qele F Length, Le Do
500 - 1200 W 0.5 - 1 0.6 m 0.035 m
66
The comparison is analyzed at different ranges of governing parameters of
the closed two-phase thermosyphon. The electric power was changed from
500 to 1200W for filling ratio, F=1. While the filling ratio is changed from
0.5 to 1 for electric power Qele = 900W. All experiments are performed for
evaporator length Lev =0.6 m, and Do=0.035 m.
3-6- THE SOLUTION PROCEDURE

The set of differential equations (3-11) through (3-35) represent the
theoretical network model of the transient (start up and shutdown)
performance of the closed two-phase thermosyphon. These equations are
first-order, linear, ordinary differential equations, which can be solved
numerically by fourth-order Runge-Kutta method. Computer languages were
used to design a program to solve these equations. As shown in appendix B,
in this program, the temperatures of evaporator wall (T1), evaporator film
(T2), evaporator pool (T3), condenser film temperature (T4), condenser wall
temperature (T5), and adiabatic wall temperature (T6) can be determined
from the following procedure:
1- The used geometric parameters in the network model can be
calculated from equations (3-54) through (3-64) by the initial conditions.
These initial conditions contain thermosyphon dimensions (do, di, lev, lc, lad),
physical properties of thermosyphon tube (kc, cpc, ρ c), and operating
parameters (Tamb, F, Qele, hconv, Pa).
2- At the beginning, the unknown temperatures have the same value of
ambient temperature.
3- The physical properties of the working fluid can be calculated from
appendix A.
67
4- The heat transfer coefficients of evaporator film (hef), evaporator pool
(hep), average evaporator (hev), and condenser film (hcf) can be calculated
from equations (3-36), (3-39), (3-48), and (3-49) .
5- Then, the partial differential equations (3-11) through (3-35) can be
solved numerically by fourth order Rung Kutta method to get new values of
the unknown temperatures as a result of applying the thermal load (Qele).
6- These new values of temperatures are used to calculate the other
quantities of the closed two-phase themosyphon which are: the net
transferred load (qnet) (from equation (5-2)), the axial heat flux (q ax) (from
equation (5-5)), the temperature difference (ΔTo) (from equation (5-7)), the
overall heat transfer coefficient (Ueq) (from equation (5-12)), the effective
thermal conductivity (keff) (from equation (5-13)) and all thermal resistances
in the thermosyphon system are calculated from equations (5-15) through (5-
21).
7- Replace the preceding values of temperatures by the present values
and recycle this procedure from step 3 until reaching the steady state.
8- After reaching the steady state, the power is turned off ((Qele=0) and
recycle this procedure from step 3 until, the temperatures reach the ambient
temperature for shut down process.
This procedure can be represented by a flow chart, as:
68
Input Initial Condition,
t=0 , and Δt=0.045
Calculate Geometric Parameters (surface areas), radial and

heat flux, Pool and film lengths according to value of F
For I= 1 to 6
T(i) = Tamb
Calculate Physical Properties of the Working Fluid
Calculate heat transfer coefficients in the thermosyphon system

(hef, hep, hev, hcf, Ueq)and effective thermal conductivity Keff
Next I
For I= 1 to 6
Calculate New Values of Temperatures Tnew in the

thermosyphon system (T1, T2, T3, T4, T5 , T6 ) from six
equations.
Calculate Characteristics of the thermosyphon (q net, qax, Next

Ueq, keff, T cwo, R ef , Rep , R ev , Rcf ) I
YES YES NO
If t >1600 If t > 900
Stop NO
Input For I= 1 to 6
Qele = 0 T(i) = Tnew
Next I
END t = t + Δt
Fig. 3-7 Program Flow Chart
69
CHAPTER IV
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP AND PROCEDURES
A prototype thermosyphon has been constructed and implemented in the

heat transfer laboratory of Atomic Energy Authority (AEA) to meet the
objective requirements and to validate the network model. The proposed
experimental set up of the closed two-phase thermosyphon CTPT as shown
in figures 4-1a and 4-1b includes the following main units:-
1- Thermosyphon tube (test section).
2- The heating system in evaporator section.
3- The cooling system in condenser section.
4- The inner temperature probe.
5- Charging and evacuating system.
6- Measuring devices for electric power, temperatures, and cooling
water flow rate.
4-1 THERMOSYPHON TUBE (TEST SECTION).
The main thermosyphon tube is fabricated from brass pipe of 35mm O.D.,
32mm I.D., and 100cm total length. The thermosyphon tube is actually
divided into three main sections as shown in figure 4-1, the heating region
(evaporator section) of 600 mm length, the adiabatic section with 150 mm
length, and the cooling region (condenser section) with 250 mm length. As
shown in figure 4-2, the hermetic thermosyphon tube is usually sealed with
two end caps made of brass to maintain the operating pressure inside the
thermosyphon tube constant (no leakage of air from environment inside the
thermosyphon tube). Each end cap consists of two parts, the first part is
assembled with the thermosyphon tube by welding, while the other part is
70
Fig. 4-1a Photograph of Experimental Setup
71
Fig. 4-1b Experimental Setup
72
used as a drain tube with a blug. The lower end cap functions as a seal of the
evaporator end, and as a guide for the inner vapor temperature probe. The
upper end cap is soldered to both the thermosyphon tube and the charging
and evacuation cross-tube link, and is threaded to the inner temperature
probe. So, its functions of sealing the thermosyphon tube and holding the
inner temperature probe were achieved.
4-2 THE HEATING SYSTEM

The evaporator section has 600mm active length. The heating system
is used to supply the design-thermal load to the working fluid as shown in
figures 4-3. It is composed of four electric heating coils, two voltage
regulator (variable AC sources (variac)) and a power meter (ammeter and
voltmeter). These four-resistance heating coils were wrapped
circumferentially around the thermosyphon evaporator section to create the
proposed heating load. Each two heating coils are connected together in
parallel via electric bridge. The input power to the two coils was adjusted by
one voltage- regulator (variable AC sources (variac)). The generated heat
energy from the coils is mainly transferred to the wall of themosyphon
evaporator by thermal conduction. The design-input power is indirectly
measured by measuring both the voltage and the electric current of AC
source at any required time. The main portion of the input power is
consumed in evaporating some of the working fluid, while the remainder
part is lost by transporting to the environment by free convection from the
evaporator section. To reduce the heat losses to the environment, the whole
thermosyphon tube is insulated thermally with multi-layer that consists of
fiber glass wool and amient strips, and electrically by two wrapped
insulation layers.
73
Fig. 4-2 The Upper and The Lower End Caps
74
Fig. 4-3 The Heating System
75
The thermal insulation forms an average thickness of about 60mm,
and is necessarily attached because of the heater temperature which ranging
from 200 to 700C. The first layer of the electrical insulation is two layers of
glass wool tapes with 0.25mm thickness and the second insulation layer is
mica strip. These layers form about 0.75mm of electric insulation thickness
for evaporator section.
4-3 THE COOLING SYSTEM

The main function of the cooling system is cooling the condenser by
removing the latent heat of condensation. As shown in figure 4-1 the cooling
system consists of a cooling jacket, an over head water tank with control
valve V3 and a flow meter. As shown in figure 4-4, the cooling jacket is
made of brass tube with 42.5 mm I.D., 1.5mm thickness and 250mm length.
The cooler is a single-pass type heat exchanger, which is directly coupled
with the condenser forming an annular passage of 3.75 mm in width. The
cooling water from the over head tank enters the jacket through the bottom
tube while the hot water leaves the jacket through the top tube. As shown in
figure 4-1 the tap cooling water is routed first to the over head tank through
the feed valve V4. The over head tank is elevated 4 m above the water inlet
tube in the jacket. The flow rate of the feed water is maintained always
higher than that of the cooling water to insure that the overhead tank is full.
Therefore, the water level at the top of the over head tank is maintained
constant via over flow pipe, and controlled by a control valve V3 which is
installed between the over head tank and the cooling jacket.
4-4 THE INNER TEMPERATURE PROBE
The purpose of the long inner temperature probe is to measure the
76
Fig. 4-4 The Cooling System
77
axial temperature distribution of both the liquid and vapor phases along the
entire length of the thermosyphon tube. The probe is positioned at the
centerline of the tube. It is made of thin copper tube of 8 mm O.D., 0.5 mm
thickness and 110mm total length. The designed probe occupies about
6.25% of the entire vapor flow area, so the probe does not have a major
effect on the behavior of liquid and the vapor flow. The probe ends are
threaded with the upper end cap and are centered by the guide of the lower
end cap. Eleven K-type AWG NO.28 thermocouples are inserted into
narrow holes from the inside surface of the probe tube and are soldered to
the outside probe wall. The thermocouple ends are kept about 1 mm above
the probe wall surface to avoid coverage with condensate film during
operation. The axial distribution of the thermocouples on the surface of the
probe is shown in figures 4-5. Six thermocouples are located in the heating
section for measuring the temperatures of the liquid and the vapor in the
evaporator section. Two thermocouples are located in the adiabatic section
and three ones in the condenser section to measure the vapor temperatures.
4-5 CHARGING AND EVACUATING SYSTEM

As shown in figure 4-1, a six mm O.D. stainless steel and brass tube is
welded to the top of the upper end cap of the thermosyphon for many
purposes. Three main connections are linked to the main tube (cross-link)
for evacuation, charging, and measuring processes. The first connection is
linked by V1 valve to a rotary vacuum pump to evacuate the thermosyphon
tube from condensable and non-condensable gases. The rotary vacuum
pump evacuates the thermosyphon to 0.4 Pascal. The second connection is
linked to a vacuum pressure gauge for measuring the vapor pressure inside
the thermosyphon tube.
78
Fig. 4-5a An Axial Inner Temperature Probe.
79
Fig. 4-5b Photograph of Axial Inner Temperature Probe.
80
While the third connection is linked by V2 valve to the design buffer volume
of working fluid for the charging process.
4-6 EXPERIMENTAL MEASURING DEVICES
Several devices were provided for the measurement of the different

required parameters that include electric energy (power), temperature, the
cooling water flow rate and vacuum pressure.
4-6-1 Temperature Measurements

All temperatures of the closed two-phase thermosyphon are monitored and
printed by programmable data logger OM 5000 (OMEGA GROUP). The
system consists of a data acquisition switch unit, which can house up 40
channels, analog input thermocouples were fed into a multiplexer module.
The switch unit converts the multiplexed analog signal from the module to a
digital signal. This resulted in one averaged temperature reading every two
seconds per thermocouple. As shown in figure 4-6 the data logger prints the
transient measured data, and can be connected to a computer to save and
analysis the measured data during the time of operation. All temperature
measurements are made using K-type thermocouples. Thirty data points for
temperature measurements are considered. Ten thermocouples of type-K-
AWG no.20, with wire diameter of 0.3211-mm and duplex insulation of
glass wool (G/G) are soldered to the outer surface of the thermosyphon tube
to measure the axial temperature of the heating, and adiabatic sections. For
condenser and cooling water, four thermocouples of K-type AWG no.30,
with wire diameter of 0.25mm and duplex insulated Teflon (FEP) with
maximum allowable operating temperature of 204ºC are applied. These
thermocouples are water-proofed type. For the heater, a thermocouple of K-
81
type no.20 with wire diameter of 0.8 mm is used and maximum allowable
operating temperature of 704ºC. The vapor probe is located along the
centerline of the thermosyphon tube, where eleven of thermocouples of K-
type AWG no.28 are soldered. The thermocouples have a wire diameter of
0.3211mm and duplex insulation fiberglass with maximum operating
temperature of 482ºC. The temperatures are printed by a data logger. As
shown in figure 4-7 the locations of the thermocouples are distributed as
followed: -
- Points 1S- 8S for the outer wall surface of the evaporator section.
- Points 9S-10S for the outer wall surface of the adiabatic section.
- Points 11S-14S for the outer wall surface of the condenser section.
- Points 15-16 for cooling water inlet and outlet temperatures.
- Points 17-18 for insulation temperature of thermosyphon tube.
- Point 19 for ambient temperature.
- Point 20 for heater temperature.
4-6-2 Heating Energy (Power) Measurements

An AC electric power source of 220 V provides power to the heating
coils in the heating section (evaporator). To adjust the electric power input to
the heating coils two variac's model M10-520-70, with voltage range of 0-
250 V and a maximum power of 7.5 KVA are used. AC ammeter and
voltmeter measure the power supplied to the heater. A variac voltmeter and
accurate multimeter of model (8000A) directly measure the voltage. In
addition, a digital clamp ammeter measures the current (I) and the voltage
(V). The electric power is calculated from the following equation:-
Qele=V*I*cos. Ø ---------------------------------------------------------- (4-1)

Where: Ø is the phase angle.
82
Fig. 4-6 Data Logger System.
83
Thermocouple Number Location
1S -8S Evaporator Wall Surface
9S-10S Adiabatic Wall Surface
11S – 14S Condenser Wall Surface
15 – 16 Inlet and outlet of cooling water
17 – 18 Insulation thermosyphon tube
19 Ambient temperature
20 Heater temperature
Fig. 4-7 Location of The Measured Temperature
84
4-6-3 Coolant Flow Rate Measurements:
The rate of heat removed in the cooling jacket is determined via the
cooling water flow rate and its temperature rise through the cooling jacket.
This heat rate is considered the net energy transported by thermosyphon Qnet
and can be calculated as:
Qnet=mcw*cp*(Tcwo-Tcwi) -------------------------------------------------(4-2)
Where:cp the cooling water specific heat

mcw is the cooling water flow rate.
Tcwo, Tcwi outlet and inlet cooling water temperatures respectively.
A calibrated orifice-meter with an orifice bore diameter of 5 mm and area
ratio of 0.0077 is used to measure the cooling flow rate. The cooling flow
rate is kept constant at 0.027kg/s for all experiments. The difference between
the supplied electric power Qele and net heat energy removed Qnet represents
the overall energy losses from the heaters to the surroundings by natural
convection and radiation.
4-7 THERMOSYPHON PREPARATION

Before operation the thermosyphon system, it must be accurately
prepared to ensure stable operation and high performance. The preparation
process includes several procedures such as leak out test and cleaning.
4-7-1 Leak out Test

The thermosyphon must have a leak proof container to maintain a
fixed pressure inside the thermosyphon and to prevent any air leakage to the
pipe. Therefore, thermosyphon leak out-test was performed by two processes
namely, compression and evacuation processes in sequence. The first
85
process was carried out by compressing air inside the thermosyphon tube
with a pressure of about 3 bars. This process was continued for several hours
during which the pressure gauge reading remained constant. The second
process was performed by evacuating the thermosyphon tube at a pressure of
0.4 Pascal for 72 hours. The vacuum pressure inside the thermosyphon tube
remains constant all the interval.
4-7-2 Thermosyphon Cleaning

The cleaning process must be performed to remove any foreign matter
or contaminants, which can reduce the thermosyphon performance. Cleaning
process depends on thermosyphon material. The following procedure was
carried out for the copper thermosyphon :-
1- Soaking and rinsing the interior surface with an acetone solution to
remove oil, grease.
2- Soaking the thermosyphon in a solution of 20% phosphoric acid and
20% nitric acid at room temperature for one day.
3- Repeat the first step of procedure to remove any acids in the
thermosyphon tube.
4- Rinsing thermosyphon tube with pure working fluid and soaking it at
room temperature for one hour. This step is repeated several times to
remove any trace of acids, and any contaminants.
5- Thermosyphon was then completely dried by filtered air at room
temperature for several hours.
4-8 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE: -

After the preparation processes, the thermosyphon is ready for operation.
To attain safe operation without troubles that may reduce the thermosyphon
86
performance, the operation must follow experimental procedure before and
during the operation as:
1- Revise all thermocouple connections, and operation of power meter
devices before operation.
2- The isolating and vacuum pump valves reopened, and then the vacuum
pump is turned-on until pressure inside the thermosyphon reaches 0.4
Pascal.
3- The cooling flow rate is adjusted to the proposed value directly before
power is turn-on.
4- Thermosyphon and data logger start with switching the power-on of
the AC variable source at the predetermined electric power value for
providing heat to the heating section (evaporator).
5- The power and cooling water rate are adjusted to be constant during all
time of the experiment.
6- The temperatures were printed at transient, steady, shutdown states of
operation.
4-9 CALABIRATION
Calibration processes were carried out for the temperature, cooling
water flow rate and power devices. A thermostatic device is used to
calibrate thermocouples, which involves a thermostatic heater, accurate
thermometer and stirring facility to homogenize the heated fluid
temperature. The K-type thermocouples are calibrated for the operating
temperature range of the thermosyphon. The present calibration data is
shown in figure 4-8 and it is compared with the actual values recorded by
Omega Group Company [29]. The calibrated data is in good agreement with
the standard values as shown in the figure, where the standard deviation is in
the range of ±1%. The orifice meter required for the cooling water rate
87
measurement is calibrated using a constant control volume. The cooling flow
rate is determined as 36 kg divided by filling time in seconds. Manometer
head in cm Hg represents the flow rate. Figure 4-9 shows the orifice meter
calibration data for the cooling water flow. The power calibration involves
calibration of both the volt and the current of the applied heaters. The
current and the volt were calibrated by an accurate digital multimeter model
(8050A). The current values were measured by clamp ammeter and
compared with the actual values. As shown in figure 4-10, the measured
values of current are in good agreement with the actual values. The volt
calibration data are illustrated in figure 4-11, the agreement with the actual
values was fairly good.
88
110
100
Thermocouple Temperature, T (oC)
Actual Temp. Value

Measured Temp. Value
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
o
Thermostatic Calibration Device Temperature, T ( C)
Fig 4-8 Calibration of Thermocouple.
0.13
0.12
Cooling Mass Flow Rate (Kg/Sec)
0.11
0.1
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
2
mcw = 0.018253+0.0093345*H-0.00022782*H
0.02
0.01
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Head of Manometer (cm Hg)
Fig. 4-9 Calibration of Cooling Water Orifice Meter
89
14
12
Actual Current Value
Measured Current Value
Measured Value of Current, I (A)
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Actual Value of Current, I (A)
Fig. 4-10 Calibration of Ammeter

140
120
Measured Volt Value
Measured Value of volt, V (volt)
Actual Volt Value

100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Actual Value of Volt, V (volt)
Fig. 4-11 Calibration of Voltmeter
90
CHAPTER V
EXPERIMENTAL DATA
5-1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter the utilized thermal correlations and calculations of the
experimental operation in the transient and steady states for the closed two-
phase thermosyphon were presented. In addition to, operational limits for the
experimental data were performed.
5-2 THERMAL RELATIONS and OPERATING PARAMETERS
RANGES
The experimental thermal- hydraulic relationships and the affecting

parameters ranges in this study are presented in this chapter:
5.2.1 Thermal Relations

There are several thermal relations which are calculated and used to
analyze the experimental data. These relations can be presented as follows:
(1) Electric Power, Qele
The applied electric power in the evaporator section by the resistance
heater from one voltage regulator can be calculated by measuring the voltage
V and current I of AC source as:
Qele = V*I*cos Ø ----------------------------------------------------------------- (5-1)
Where: Ø is the phase angle between V and I.
(2) Net Heat Load, Qnet
The net heat load is accurately calculated and the rate of heat removed
in the cooling jacket of the condenser is also calculated using the cooling
water outlet and inlet temperatures.
91
.
Qnet = m cw*cp,cw*( Tcw,o - Tcw,i)-----------------------------------------------(5-2)
.
Where: m cw is the mass flow rate of the cooling water (kg/sec)
cp,cw is the specific heat of cooling water, and calculated at the

average temperature between the outlet and the inlet temperatures of the
cooling water.
(3) Thermal Energy Losses; Qloss
Thermal energy losses are calculated as the difference between the
supplied electric power equation (5-1) and the net heat load transported in
the condenser equation (5-2).
Qloss = Qele – Qnet --------------------------------------------------------------------- (5-3)
(4) Heat Flux in the Evaporator, qe
Radial heat flux qe is given as:

qe  Qele / Aes  Qele /  * l ev * D0  Di  / 2  -------------------------- (5-4)
Axial heat flux q ax is given as:
 
qax  Qnet / Acs  Qnet /  * D02  Di2 / 4  ----------------------------- (5-5)
(5)Evaporator Liquid Filling Ratio, F
The evaporator filling ratio is defined as the ratio of the initial liquid
pool volume to the evaporator volume, and can be calculated from the
equation:
F = ( * Di2 * l p ) /( * Di2 * l e )  l ep / lev ----------------------------------------- (5-6)
Where, lev is the evaporator length, lef is the evaporator film length, and
lep is the evaporator pool length.
(6) Overall Temperature Difference of the Closed Two-Phase
92
Thermosyphon, To
The temperature difference of the CTPT is defined as the difference between
the mean evaporator and condenser outer wall temperatures. The overall
temperature difference is given as:
 To  (Tevw , o  Tcw , o ) ------------------------------------------------------------- (5-7)
(7)Heat Transfer Coefficients

* Evaporator Pool HTC, hep = qei / ( tewpi –tep) ----------------------------- (5-8)
* Evaporator Film HTC, hef = qei / ( tewfi –tef) ------------------------------- (5-9)
Where, the evaporator film and pool carriers are parallel in the
evaporator section then the average evaporator HTC can be calculated
as:
hev = hep * F + hef *(1-F)---------------------------------------------------------- (5-10)
* Condenser Film HTC, hcf = qci / (tcf –tcwi) -------------------------------- (5-11)
* Equivalent Overall heat transfer coefficient, Ueq
Q net q ax
U eq   -------------------------------------------- (5-12)
Acs * (T evw ,o  T cw ,o )  To
* Effective Thermal Conductivity, Keff
Q net * Leff q ax * Leff
k eff   ------------------------------------------- (5-13)
Acs * (Tevw ,o  Tcw ,o )  To
Where: Leff is the effective length of the whole thermosyphon tube which
can be defined as:
Leff = [0.5* (Lev + Lc)] + Lad ----------------------------------------------------------- (5-14)
8 - Thermal Resistances in the Thermosyphon System:
93
The thermosyphon consists of six thermal carriers; each carrier has its
thermal resistance. The evaporator pool, evaporator film, average
evaporator, and condenser film resistances are variables and depend on
temperatures and the physical properties of the working fluid. The
evaporator wall, adiabatic wall, and condenser wall thermal resistances are
constants and depend on hermosyphon tube thickness, xw, thermal
conductivity of copper, kw, and the surface area As, that is perpendicular to
the direction of heat flow. These thermal resistances can be calculated as:
8-1 The Evaporator Wall Thermal Resistance:-

Rew = xw / (kw *Aes)----------------------------------------------------------------(5-15)
8-2 The Condenser Wall Thermal Resistance:-
Rcw = xw / (kw *Acs)------------------------------------------------------------(5-16)
8-3 The Adiabatic Wall Thermal Resistance:-
Rad = lad / ( kw *Acs)----------------------------------------------------------(5-17)
8-4 The Evaporator Pool Thermal Resistance:-
Rep = 1 / ( hep *Aep)----------------------------------------------------------(5-18)
8-5 The Evaporator Film Thermal Resistance:-
Ref = 1 / ( hef *Aef)------------------------------------------------------------(5-19)
8-6 The Average Evaporator Thermal Resistance:-
Rev = 1 / ( hev *Aes)-----------------------------------------------------------(5-20)
8-7 The Condenser Film Thermal Resistance:-
Rcf = 1 / ( hcf *Acf)------------------------------------------------------------(5-21)
5.2.2 Experimental Operating Parameters Range
94
The experimental setup is constructed to validate the theoretical
model. These experimental tests and the theoretical program are performed
with the same operating parameters. These parameters contain the electrical
power, the liquid filling ratio, and cooling flow rate. The operating
parameters are expressed as following:
* Thermal load changes from 500 to 1200 W.
* Liquid fill ratio = 0.3 to 1 %
* Cooling mass flow rate in condenser jacket = 0.027 kg/s.
5.3 THERMOSYPHON LIMITS
The thermosyphon working limits are viscous, flooding, boiling,

dryout, and sonic limits. These working limits practically should be
avoided; otherwise deterioration of the thermosyphon performance may
happen. The values of operating limits of the experimental water/copper
thermosyphon are calculated in Appendix–D. In addition, the current range
of the operating parameters is represented. The sonic, boiling and viscous
limits are higher by about ten folds the operating transported heat range.
These limits are calculated for filling ratio range from 0.3-1.0 and
transported thermal load from 500-2000 W.
95
CHAPTER VI
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
6-1 INTRODUCTION
Analysis and discussion of the theoretical model results, are presented
in this chapter to evaluate the dynamic performance of the closed two-phase
thermosyphon (CTPT). A simple network model is theoretically derived to
describe the transient response of the thermosyphon through the startup and
shutdown stages. Validation of the theoretical network model is
comprehensively verified to analyze the indexes that affect the dynamic
response of CTPT. Effect of the different operational characteristics for
water/copper thermosyphon is taken into account to determine the best
operational conditions and design parameters that gives the lowest time
constant. Also, various comparisons of theoretical and experimental results
are presented for the axial vapor temperatures, evaporator heat transfer
coefficients, and average evaporator thermal resistance to evaluate the net
conductance of closed two-phase thermosyphon (CTPT).
In the proposed model, the thermosyphon is considered as a combined
thermal network of various components with different thermal resistances
and dynamic responses. As mentioned in chapter three, the heat from the
evaporator wall, flows parallel to the evaporator liquid pool and liquid
falling film. Thus the liquid evaporates and the vapor flows upwards to the
condenser section, where it condenses returning by gravity through the
falling liquid film to the evaporator pool. Therefore, the thermosyphon
operation is mainly considered as six consecutive processes. These processes
can be classified into two basic categories: the first is pure conduction
process (heat conduction), and the second is heat and mass transfer process
96
(heat convection). So, the thermosyphon is divided into six heat conductors
and carriers. An energy balance is individually applied for each element to
estimate the temperatures, flow regimes, heat transfer coefficients, thermal
resistance and time constant that describes the required transient response of
the closed two-phase thermosyphon. Therefore, the governing equations of
the transient thermosyphon behavior can be simplified into a set of first-
order linear ordinary differential equations. To solve these equations, Runge-
Kutta method can be utilized to determine the instantaneous thermoysphon
temperatures. Comparisons with previous experimental and numerical
results validated the network model for thermosyphon.
6-2 THE TIME- DEPENDENT COMPOSITE FIGURE

All results in this chapter are concerning the transient and steady state
operating stages which presented on a composite figure. The complete
operational run includes the two subsequent stages which presented in the
same figure, namely: transient startup, and transient shutdown. The
consecutive stages are shown on the time–dependent composite figure 6-1.
Figure 6-1 shows the temperature distribution for evaporator wall,
evaporator pool, vapor, condensate film and condenser wall. In this case, the
thermosyphon is initially at room temperature, and then the electric power
supply to the evaporator heater is increased in a step function from zero to
the full power. However, it takes a certain period of time before the vapor
and wall temperatures reach their steady state values. Figure 6-2 shows that
all temperatures have similar transient responses. In the first startup transient
period, the temperatures, and effective power throughput increase rapidly,
reaching 80% of the steady state values in about 12.5 minutes. As they
approach steady state the rate of increase ceases. As the rate of increase of
97
the input heat and consequently the respective temperature is decreased with
time. It takes more time to reach the steady state conditions. The total time
needed to approach steady state conditions, which is called the time
constant, is about 50 minutes. At steady state, both temperatures and the
effective power throughput remain constant. Also, the effective power
throughput is determined from the energy balance in the condenser cooling
jacket or in the condensate film in the condenser. The shutdown is initiated
by turn off the supplied electric power to the heater coils (Qele= zero). Like
the startup process all temperatures and net load decrease rapidly in the
earlier period of the shutdown process, then the rate of decrease slows down
as they approach ambient temperatures.
6-3 ANALYSIS of THE TRANSIENT RESPONSE FOR CTPT

The theoretical network model was tested with selection an operating
conditions to indicate the behaviour of each conductor and carrier through
the transient performance of the closed two-phase thermosyphon. To apply
the thermosyphon as an effective heat transfer device for high heat flux, it
must reject large quantity of thermal load in small time during the start-up
and transient intervals. This subsequently means that the thermosyphon must
have the lowest allowable technical thermal resistance. Calculations of all
carriers’ thermal resistances are mentioned in chapter five, equations (5-15)
through (5-21).
The conductor thermal resistance of evaporator, adiabatic and
condenser surface walls are usually constants because they are function of
the design geometry of the thermosyphon and its material (thermal
conductivity). It worth mentioning, that the thermal resistance of the vapor is
so small and it can be neglected. This was discussed in chapter three.
98
Therefore, the rest carriers’ resistances of condenser film, evaporator pool,
and evaporator film are considered the most affecting parameters on the
thermosyphon resistance. Variation of the transported heat load and the
filling liquid ratio on thermosyphon thermal resistances is presented in
figures 6-2 and 6-3. These figures were plotted to examine the influence of
each carrier individually. It is shown from these figures that the condenser
liquid film resistance (Rcf) seems to have a lower effect than average
evaporator resistance effect (Rev) on thermosyphon resistance (Rall). As can
be shown from figure 6-3, the condenser film resistance is approximately
constant with filling liquid ratios.
Also in figure 6-4 it can be shown that the effect of condensate liquid
film resistance on thermosyphon resistance Rall is low because it is changed
by about 23% only while the heat load is increased by four folds. The
corresponding change of average evaporator resistance is about 70%.
Consequently one can conclude that the main resistance that affects the
thermosyphon resistance is the average evaporator thermal resistance.
99
75
Qele=900 W, F=1
70 Evaporator Wall Temp. (Tew)
Evaporator Pool Temp.(Tep)
65 Condenser film Temp.(Tcf)
Tew
Condenser Wall Temp.(Tcw)
60
Temperature, ( C)
Tep Vapor Temp.(Tv)

o
55
Tv
50 Tcf
Tcw
45
40
35
Transient Steady Transient
30
Start up State Shutdown
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-1 Indicated Temperatures during Transient Operation of CTPT
0.012
Rall for F=0.9

0.01
Thermal Resistance, Rth , ( C/W)
Rall for F=0.7

o
0.008 Rall for F=0.4
0.006 Rev for F=0.9
Rev for F=0.7

0.004
Rev for F=0.4
0.002
Rcf for F=0.9, 0.7, 0.4

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Time, t , (min)
Fig. 6-2 Variation of Thermal Resistances with Time for Different

Filling Ratios
100
6-4 THEORETICAL RESULTS
The developed simulation can predict the transient operation
conditions of all different sections of the thermosyphon during startup,
steady, and shutdown states. The major parameters that can play a major role
in the operation of CTPT are:
- the transported heat energy, Qele
- the evaporator liquid filling ratio, F
- the evaporator length, Lev
- outer diameter of thermosyphon tube, Do
- the water flow rate through the condenser mcw
- the ambient temperature Tamb
The effect of variation of these parameters is comprehensively
analyzed for the following dependent variables:
- Vapor temperature, Tv.
- Average evaporator heat transfer coefficient, hev, (equation (3-48)).
- Evaporator thermal resistance, Rev (equation (5-20)).
- Equivalent overall HTC, Ueq (equation (5-12)).
- Effective thermal conductivity, Keff (equation (5-13)).
- Time constant, τsp
6-4-1 Effect of Heat Load

To study the effect of variation of the rate of heat load, the other
variables such as the working fluid filling ratio, evaporator length, outer tube
diameter of thermosyphon, water flow rate through the condenser, and the
ambient temperature must be kept constants. The proposed studied values of
power for tests are 500, 700, 900, 1000, 1200, 1500 and 2000 W
respectively. The vapor temperature is assumed as the arithmetic mean value
101
of evaporator pool, evaporator film, and condenser film temperatures. The
first preliminary conditions of calculations were:
1- Filling ratio F=1.
2- Cooling water flow rate through the condenser is mcw=0.027 Kg/sec.
3- Evaporator length Lev=0.6 m.
4- Thermosyphon tube diameter Do=.035m.
5- Ambient temperature Tamb = 30 oC
Figure 6-4 shows the time dependence of vapor temperature with
different heat load. As depicted from the figure, the vapor temperature
increases with the electric power through the stages:
- The initial startup, steady state, and shutdown.
As the input radial heat load increases, the temperature of the surface wall of
the evaporator during the heat up process increases too. Consequently; the
evaporator liquid pool, evaporator falling film, and vapor temperatures
increased.
As mentioned in chapter three, in the network model, the average
evaporator heat transfer coefficient can be estimated from equation (3-48) as
the resultant of the evaporator falling liquid film and liquid pool carriers
which are interconnected in parallel. The composite presentation shown in
figure 6-5 indicates the instantaneous variation of the average evaporator
HTC for different values of the transported heat load Qele through the three
regions. The figure illustrates the same behaviour of the vapor; evaporator
pool temperatures as in the combined temperature figure depending on the
evaporator film and evaporator pool HTCs see equation (3-48). During the
startup process, the value of average HTC increases sharply as a result of
increasing the temperature of evaporator as shown in figure 6-5.
102
0.015
Average Evaporator
0.0135 Thermal Resistance
Condenser Film
0.012 F=1 Thermal Resistance
Thermal Resistance, Rth ( C/W)
Rall All Thermosyphon

0.0105 Thermal Resistance
o
0.009
0.0075
Rev
0.006
0.0045 Rcf
0.003
0.0015
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
Heat Load, Qele (W)
Fig. 6-3 Variation of Thermal Resistances with Electric Loads

100
F=1
90 Qele=2000W Do=0.035m
Lev = 0.6 m
Mean Vapor Temperature, Tv ( C)
80
o
Qele=1500W
70
Qele=1200W
Qele=1000W
60
Qele=900W
50
Qele=700W
40 Qele=500W
30
20
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-4 Variation of the Mean Vapor Temperature with Time for
Different Electric Loads
103
Beyond this it decreases with lower rate during the shutdown process, see
equation (5-10).
Based on the same method of estimation of the average evaporator heat
transfer coefficient, the evaporator thermal resistance can be calculated from
equation (5-20). Figure 6-6 shows the time dependence of evaporator
thermal resistance Rev for different values of the heat load. The
instantaneous evaporator thermal resistance reduces during the transient
startup stage as a result of increasing the temperature and average heat
transfer coefficient of the evaporator, and in turn during the transient
shutdown process. The thermal energy is mainly transferred by the
thermosyphon from the high temperature heat source (evaporator) to the low
temperature heat sink (condenser) through some thermal resistances
(conductors and carriers) causing a temperature drop. Consequently, two
appropriate methods are used to estimate the performance of the closed two-
phase thermosyphon; they are the equivalent overall heat transfer coefficient
and effective thermal conductivity. Thermosyphon can be considered as a
single carrier or medium transporting the heat energy between the heat
source and heat sink. Subsequently, the performance of that thermosyphon
can be expressed by an equivalent overall heat transfer coefficient Ueq, and
theoretically it can be calculated from equation (5-12). Also, the
effectiveness of the CTPT can be evaluated, and expressed, by another term
defined as the effective thermal conductivity Keff which is calculated from
equation (5-13). Here, the effective thermal conductivity is independent on
the working fluid and the pipe metal properties. It mainly depends on the
axial heat flow qax equation (5-5) and the geometry of the thermosyphon.
The composite figures 6-7 and 6-8 indicate the instantaneous variation of the
equivalent overall heat transfer coefficient, Ueq and the effective thermal .
104
8000
Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient, hev (W/m2.C)
F=1
7500
Do=0.035 m
7000 Lev=0.6 m
6500 2000W
6000
5500 1500W
5000
4500 1200W
4000 1000W
3500 900W
3000 700W
2500
500W
2000
1500
1000
500
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-5 Variation of the Evaporator HTC with time for Different
Electric Loads
0.01
Average Evaporator Thermal Resistance, Rev (C/W)
0.009 F=1
DO=0.035 m
Lev=0.6 m Qele=500W
0.008
Qele=700W
0.007 Qele=900W
Qele=1000W
0.006 Qele=1200W
Qele=1500W
0.005 Qele=2000W
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Time , t (min)
Different Electric Loads
105
conductivity Keff with heat load for the three stages.
During the transient startup stage, as shown from the figures, the values of
Ueq and Keff increase with high rate which is due to the higher values of the
average evaporator heat transfer coefficient. An important result is
concluded from these figures; for the studied heat load range from 500-2000
W, the effective thermal conductivity of the thermosyphon at steady state is
30-54 kW/m.ºC, which is about 77-138 folds higher than that of the best
conductor copper (k=390 W/m.ºC).This indicates the capability of
water/copper thermosyphon to transport high thermal heat loads in
applications of low temperature ranges.
Figure 6-9 is plotted to show the effect of the transported heat load rate in
the startup stage of thermosyphon on the mean values of:
- The heat transfer coefficient of the evaporator hev,
- The thermal resistance of the evaporator Rev,
- The equivalentoverall HTC Ueq
- The effective thermal conductivity Keff.
As shown in figure 6-9a ,the average evaporator heat transfer coefficient
experiences higher values with increasing the transported heat load as a
result of increasing the vapor bubbles turbulence and agitation in nucleate
boiling and evaporation processes. The evaporator thermal resistance Rev
depends mainly on the average evaporator heat transfer coefficient because
the outer surface area of evaporator is kept constant. So, the evaporator
thermal resistance decreases by increasing the transported heat load as
shown in figure 6-9b. Reduction of the average evaporator thermal
resistance at relatively higher temperatures permits transferring a high rate
of heat throughout the thermosyphon tube. This improves the thermosyphon
performance.
106
100000
Qele=1000 W F=1
90000 Qele=900 W Do=0.035 m
Equivalent Overall HTC,, Ueq (W/m2. C)
Lev=0.6 m
o
80000
70000
Qele=700 W
60000
50000
Qele=500 W
40000
30000
20000
10000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Electric Loads
70000
Effective Thermal Conductivity, Keff (W/m. C)
Qele=2000 W Qele=1500 W
o
60000 F=1
Do=0.035 m
Lev=0.6 m
50000
40000
30000
Qele=1000 W Qele=700 W Qele=500 W

20000
10000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Different Electric Load
107
The temperature difference of the CTPT To is defined as the difference
between the mean evaporator and condenser outer wall temperatures and it
can be calculated from equation (5-7). The temperature difference has a
great importance in determination of both the equivalent overall HTC and
the effective thermal conductivity. Although, the temperature difference
increases with the heat load, but at calculating the overall HTC and the
thermal conductivity, the rate of increasing of the axial heat flux is higher
than that of temperature difference. Consequently, the average value of both
the equivalent overall HTC and effective thermal conductivity increases with
the heat load in the transient startup region as shown in figures 6-9c,d. Also,
the increase in these two terms is greatly related to the increase in the
average heat transfer coefficient of the evaporator as seen in figure 6-9a.
As mentioned in chapter three, the time constant is substantially used
to determine the ability of a thermosyphon to rapidly respond with the
applied input heat rate during the transient startup and shutdown stages. As
illustrated in figure 6-10 the time constant during the transient startup region
τsp shows an asymptotic decrease with the heat load. This may be attributed
to the great dependence of the time constant on the pertinent average
evaporator HTC, equivalent overall HTC, and effective thermal conductivity
of thermosyphon. These parameters increase rapidly with the transported
heat load during the transient startup stage, in addition to the reduction of the
evaporator thermal resistance as shown in figure 6-9. Figure 6-10 shows
that, the thermosyphon can start and reach the steady state load in small time
with higher electrics loads. It is concluded that the startup time constant
depends on the transported load rate. Qele increased by 186% while the
corresponding reduction in the time constant is about 27%.
108
7000
(a)
6000
Average Evaporator HTC, hev (W/m .OC)
2
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Transported Heat Load, Qele (W)
Fig. 6- 9a Variation of hev in the Transient Startup Stage with Time for
Different Electric load
0.01
(b)
Evaporator Thermal Resistance, Rev ( C/W)
0.008
O
0.006
0.004
0.002
400 800 1200 1600 2000

Fig. 6- 9b Variation of Rev in the Transient Startup Stage with Time for
109
90000
(c)
Equivalent Overall HTC, U eq (W/m2 .oC)
80000
70000
60000
50000
40000
400 800 1200 1600 2000

Fig. 6- 9c Variation of Ueq in the Transient Startup Stage with Time for
50000
(d)
Effective Thermal Conductivity, K eff (W/m.oC)
45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
400 800 1200 1600 2000

Fig. 6- 9d Variation of Keff in the Transient Startup Stage with Time for
110
6-4-2 Effect of the Filling Ratio, F
The effect of liquid filling ratio in evaporator is studied in order to
find the instantaneous values of the studied dependent variables whitch
include the surface wall, liquid pool, and falling liquid film temperatures of
the evaporator section. Figures 6-11, 6-12, and 6-13 illustrate the time
dependence of temperature with variable liquid filling ratio range from 0.3–1
at the conditions: constant transported thermal load rate of 900W and mass
flow rate of cooling water equals 0.027 kg/s. In the transient stages of startup
and shutdown the instantaneous variation of all the studied dependent
variables take the same trends as in the previous study concerning the effect
of transported heat load. As shown in figures 6-11 to 6-13, in the transient
startup process, it is clear that all temperatures reduce with the filling ratio
increase. This is resulting from increasing the outer radial surface area of the
liquid pool at a constant radial heat flux qe =13.6 kW/m2 (equation (5-4)),
which in turn increases the working fluid inventory and its thermal inertia in
the evaporator. So, the thermosyphon takes longer time to reach the steady
state at higher filling ratios. While the steady state stage shows dramatic
changes, the evaporator temperatures slightly rise at first for a filling ratio
range from 0.3 to 0.7, and then the temperatures return to decrease again for
the liquid filling ratio range from 0.7 to 1.
The temperature distribution has a parabolic shape with liquid fill
ratio. All these small changes lay in the range of 2.5 oC only. As mentioned
before the vapor temperature can be determined as the mean value of
evaporator liquid pool, evaporator falling liquid film, and return condenser
film temperatures. So it is expected that the vapor temperature will has a
small changes and similar trend to the evaporator temperatures (wall, pool
and film temperatures) as shown in figure 6-14.
111
800
790 F=1
780 D o = 0.035 m
Lev =0.6 m
770
Time Constant , tsp (Sec)
760
750
740
730
720
710
700
690
680
670
660
650
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Electric Power, Qele (W)
Fig. 6-10 Variation of the Time Constant during the Transient Startup
Stage with Electric Load
80
F=0.7 F=0.6 F=0.5 F=0.4 F=0.3 Qele=900 W
75
Evaporator Wall Temperature, Tevw, ( C)
Lev=0.6 m
o
70
Do=0.035 m
65
60
55
50
45
40 F=0.8 F=0.9 F=1 F=1

35 F=0.3
30
25
20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-11 Variation of Evaporator Surface Wall Temperature with Time
for Different Filling Ratios
112
80
75 Qele=900 W
F=0.7 F=0.6 F=0.5 F=0.4 F=0.3
Evaporator Pool Temperature, Tep, ( C)
Lev=0.6 m
70
o
Do=0.035 m
65
60
55
50
45
40 F=0.8 F=0.9 F=1 F=1

35 F=0.3
30
25
20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-12 Variation of Evaporator Pool Temperature with Time for
Different Filling Ratios
80
75 Qele=900 W
Evaporator Film Temperature, T ef, ( C)
F=0.7 F=0.6 F=0.5 F=0.4 F=0.3 Lev=0.6 m

70
o
Do=0.035 m
65
60
55
50
45
40 F=0.8 F=0.9 F=1 F=1

35 F=0.3
30
25
20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-13 Variation of Evaporator Film Temperature with Time for
113
In the shutdown process, the trend is opposite that of the startup process,
where the temperatures increase with filling ratios due to rising the hydraulic
pressure in the evaporator pool and its pertinent saturation temperature.
The condenser temperatures include the wall, and film temperatures in
the condenser section. Figures 6-15 and 6-16 illustrate the effect of the
variation in liquid filling ratio on the condenser temperatures. These figures
show that, by increasing the filling ratio, the condenser film temperature
decreases in start up process, increases in shutdown process, and are equal in
steady state. As a result of the constant values of heat load (900W),
thermosyphon diameter tube (0.035m), evaporator length (0.6m), the
ambient temperature (30OC), and mass flow rate of cooling water
(0.027Kg/Sec), all condenser film temperature is constant with filling ratios
in steady state. Also, the condenser wall temperature follows the condenser
film temperature trend. According to the figures from 6-17 to 6-20, the
mean values of hev, Rev, Ueq and Keff during the startup stage of
thermosyphon are schematically plotted in figure 6-21 to summarize the
effect of the filling ratio on the dependent variables. Figure 6-21a indicates
that the value of average evaporator HTC hev reduces to a great extent with
variation of the liquid filling ratio. The evaporator involves the liquid pool
section in addition to the falling liquid film section, as a result of increasing
filling ratio, the working fluid volume increases in the pool section which
increases the thermal resistance of evaporator. Additionally, the contribution
of the falling liquid film which has a higher HTC than that of the pool,
becomes smaller, subsequently the average HTC of evaporator as a whole
reduces. Because the evaporator thermal resistance is inversely proportional
with the evaporator HTC, so the evaporator thermal resistance increases.
114
70 Qele=900 W
F=0.7 F=0.6 F=0.5 F=0.4 F=0.3 Lev=0.6 m
65
Do=0.035 m
Vapor Temperature, Tv, ( C)
60
o
55
50
45
40
F=0.8 F=0.9 F=1 F=1
35
F=0.3
30
25
20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-14 Variation of the Vapor Temperature with Time for Different
Filling Ratios
60
Condenser Film Temperature, Tcf ( C)
Qele=900 W
55
o
F=0.3 F=0.4 F=0.5 F=0.6 Lev=0.6 m

Do=0.035 m
50
45
40
F= 1
35
F=0.7 F=0.8 F=0.9 F= 1
30 F=0.3
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-15 Variation of Condenser Film Temperature with Time for
115
55
Condenser Wall Temperature, Tcw ( C)
Qele=900 W
o
50 F=0.3 F=0.5 Lev=0.6 m

F=0.4 F=0.6
Do =0.035 m
45
40
F= 1
35
F=0.7 F=0.8 F=0.9 F= 1
30
F=0.3
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-16 Variation of Condenser Wall Temperature with Time for
7000
Q=900W
Average Evaporator HTC, hev (W/m2.C)
6500 F=0.3
F=0.4
6000 F=0.5
F=0.3
5500 F=0.6
F=0.7
5000 F=0.8
4500 F=0.9
F=1
4000
3500
F=1
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-17 Variation of the Average Evaporator HTC with Time for
116
0.008
Qele=900W
F=0.3
0.007 F=0.4 F=1
F=0.5
o
F=0.6
0.006 F=0.7
F=0.8
F=0.9
0.005
F=1
0.004
0.003 F=0.3
0.002
0.001
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig.6-18 Variation of the Evaporator Thermal Resistance with Time for
100000
F=0.3 F=0.4 F=0.5 Qele= 900 W
90000 Lev=0.6 m
Equivalent Overall HTC, Ueq (W/m2. oC)
Do=0.035 m
80000
70000
60000
50000
40000
30000 F=0.6 F=0.7 F=1 F=0.8 F=0.9
20000
10000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Filling Ratios
117
60000
Effective Thermal Conductivity, Keff (W/m.oC)
Qele= 900 W
F=0.3 F=0.4 F=0.5 Lev=0.6 m
50000 Do=0.035 m
40000
30000
20000 F=1 F=0.9

F=0.6 F=0.7 F=0.8
10000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)

10000
(a)
Average Evaporator HTC, hev (W/m .OC)
8000
2
6000
4000
2000
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2
Filling Ratio, F
Fig. 6- 21a Variation of hev in The Transient Startup Stage with Filling
Ratios.
118
As shown in figure 6-21b the evaporator thermal resistance decreased by
44% corresponding to the filling ratio increase from 0.3 to 1.0.
From equations (5-12) and (5-13), it is evident that, the equivalent
overall HTC and effective thermal conductivity depend on the temperature
difference T0 only because the axial heat flux qax and the effective length of
the thermosyphon Leff are kept constant during the change of the filling
ratio. As the condenser wall temperature remains nearly constant, the
evaporator wall temperature has a great effect on both the equivalent overall
HTC and the effective thermal conductivity. So, they follow the same trend
of the evaporator wall temperature as being depicted in figure 6-21c and 6-
21d, where they decrease with the filling ratio in the startup region.
As shown in figure 6-22 the time constant τsp at the startup period
increases from 2 to 10 minutes in the studied range of the filling ratio F. The
increase of the time constant as affected by the increase of the filling ratio F
may be attributed to the rise in the values of thermosyphon thermal
resistance and the reduction in the values of average evaporator HTC,
equivalent overall HTC and effective thermal conductivity see figure 6-21. It
can conclude from figure 6-22, that the change in the time constant is about
5 times corresponding to a variation equals 3 times in the filling ratio. It
worth mentioning that, in practice the time constant for water/copper
thermosyphon must has a lower value as 2 minutes. This corresponds to a
filling ratio F=0.3 see figure 6-22.
119
0.006
Evaporator Thermal Resistance, Rev (OC/W)
0.005
(b)
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2
Filling Ratio, F
Fig. 6- 21b Variation of Rev in The Transient Startup Stage with Filling
Ratios.
80000
75000
(c)
Equivalent Overall HTC, Ueq (W/m2.o C)
70000
65000
60000
55000
50000
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2
Filling Ratio, F
Fig. 6- 21c Variation of Ueq in The Transient Startup Stage with Filling
Ratios.
120
50000
Effective Thermal Conductivity, Keff (W/m.o C)
(d)
45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2
Filling Ratio, F
Fig. 6- 21d Variation of Keff in The Transient Startup Stage with
Filling Ratios.
700
Qele = 900 W
Lev = 0.6 m
600 Do = 0.035 m
Time Constant, tsp (Sec)
500
400
300
200
100
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2
Filling Ratio, F
Fig. 6-22 Variation of Startup Time Constant with Filling Ratio
121
6-4-3 Effect of the Evaporator Length, Lev
The effect of the evaporator length Lev is studied for the transient
response of the thermosyphon under the following conditions;
- The filling ratio (F=1).
- Mass flow rate of cooling water (mcw =0.027 kg/s)
- The heat load rate (Qele =900 W).
- The outlet and inlet diameters of thermosyphon tube are do and d i,
35 and 32 mm.
- The ambient temperature ( Tamb=30 OC)
With the proceeding conditions, the sum of the evaporator length and
the adiabatic length of the thermosyphon tube remain constant (Lev + Lad
=75cm) but they are varied with each other. Figure 6-23 shows the variation
of the evaporator wall temperature with time for six values of the evaporator
length. The evaporator wall temperature is shown to inversely proportional
to the evaporator length of the thermosyphon tube. As a result the time
constant for both start up and shutdown regions decreases with the
evaporator length decrease. Figure 6-24 presents the same behaviour but
shows the development of the mean vapor temperature. In turn it is affected
by the evaporator length through all transient and steady state regions. The
latter result of decreasing evaporator wall and vapor temperatures with the
increase of the evaporator length is due to the decrease of the radial heat flux
accompanying the increase of the evaporator length.
Figure 6-25 exhibits the variation of evaporator heat transfer
coefficient with time for six values of the evaporator lengths of the
thermosyphon tube. The main variation of HTC is due to the phase change
of the carrying liquid. It can be shown from the figure under consideration
that the value of the HTC inversely proportional with the evaporator length.
122
75
Lev=0.45 m Lev=0.5 m Lev=0.55 m Qele=900 W
Evaporator Wall Temperature, Tew( C)
70
F=1
o
65 Do=0.035 m
60
55
50
45
40 Lev=0.6 m Lev=0.65 m Lev=0.7 m
35
30
25
20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-23 Variation of Evaporator Wall Temperature with Time for
Different Evaporator Lengths
65
Qele=900W
60 Lev=0.45 m Lev=0.5 m F=1
Lev=0.55 m
Mean Vapor Temperature, Tv ( C)
Do=0.035 m
o
55
50
45
Lev=0.6 m Lev=0.65 m Lev=0.7 m

40
35
30
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Evaporator Lengths
123
Consequently the shorter time to reach steady state is shown corresponding
to the shorter evaporator length. The variation of the thermal resistance of
the evaporator with time is shown in figure 6-26. This variation of the
thermal resistance Rev represents the opposite of the HTC hev that shown in
figure 6-25. Here in this figure the thermal resistance is directly proportional
to the evaporator length.
It well known that the main object of the thermosyphon is to yield a
larger temperature difference between the evaporator and the condenser
sections; that means larger heat rate dissipation. The variation of this
temperature difference T0 = (Tevw – Tcw) is shown in figure 6-27. This
variation with time is represented for six values of evaporator lengths. The
difference of temperature between evaporator wall and condenser wall
increases with the decrease of the evaporator length which is due to lower
heat flux and lower losses.
Figure 6-28 shows the variation of equivalent overall HTC with time
for five values of the evaporator lengths. Since the equivalent overall HTC is
inversely proportional with the temperature difference T0, so, the overall
equivalent HTC increases with time for the evaporator length of the
thermosyphon tube. At the end of steady state and the beginning of
shutdown, (through 58 seconds only) there is sudden increment in HTC.
This increase in the equivalent overall HTC value may be due to sudden turn
off of power while the cooling is continuous causing the decrease in
evaporator wall temperature and the temperature difference, T0 see
equation (5-12). Figure 6-29 shows that the effective thermal conductivity
decreases with time corresponds to the increase of the evaporator length.
According to figures 6-25 through 6-29, the mean values of hev, Rev, Ueq and
Keff during the startup stage of thermosyphon are plotted in figure 6-30 to
124
4400
4200 Lev=0.45 m Lev=0.5 m Lev=0.55 m Qele=900W

Average Evaporator HTC, hev (W/ m2. C)
F=1
o
4000 Do=0.035 m
3800
3600
3400
3200
3000
2800
2600
2400 Lev=0.6 m Lev=0.65 m Lev=0.7 m
2200
2000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-25 Variation of the Evaporator HTC with Time for
Different Evaporator Lengths.
0.009
Lev=0.45 m Lev=0.5 m Lev=0.55 m

0.008
o
0.007
0.006
0.005
0.004

0.003 Qele=900W
F=1
Do=0.035 m
0.002
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Different Evaporator Lengths.
125
26
24 Qele=900 W
F=1
22
Temperature Difference , (Tew -Tcw) ( C)
Lev=0.45 m Lev=0.5 m Lev=0.55 m Do=0.035 m

o
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6 Lev=0.6 m Lev=0.65 m Lev=0.7 m
4
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-27 Variation of the Temperature Difference with Time for
120000
110000 Qele=900W
Lev=0.6 m Lev=0.65 m
Equivalent Overall HTC, Ueq (W/m2 . C)
Lev=0.7 m F=1
o
100000 Do=0.035 m
90000
80000
70000
60000
50000
40000
30000
Lev=0.45 m Lev=0.5 m Lev=0.55 m
20000
10000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, (min)
Evaporator Lengths
126
summarize the effect of variation of the evaporator length on the studied
dependent variables.
The average evaporator heat transfer coefficient hev during the startup
stage decreases with the evaporator length as shown in figure 6-30a as a
result of the reduction in both the vapor temperature and radial heat flux qe
(equation (5-4)). From equation (5-20), the evaporator thermal resistance Rev
is inversely proportions to both the evaporator surface area Aes and the
average evaporator HTC hev. In this study the evaporator HTC shows a small
reduction by 16% corresponds to a large increase in the evaporator length by
56%. The evaporator thermal resistance decreases with the evaporator length
as shown in figure 6-30b. The temperature difference in thermosyphon
between the evaporator wall and condenser wall decreases with the
evaporator length. Therefore, the equivalent overall HTC Ueq increases with
the increase of evaporator length, this is shown in figure 6-30c. The effective
thermal conductivity Keff decreases with the increase of evaporator length as
illustrated in figure 6-30d because it mainly depends on the thermosyphon
effective length more than the temperature difference.
Figure 6-25 exhibited that a lower time is needed to reach steady state
for shorter thermosyphon tube. Figure 6-31 confirms the same result that
obtained from figure 6-25. From figure 6-31 the time constant is linearly
increased with the evaporator length. A representive linear equation for this
variation is shown as:
sp = a Lev +b -------------------------------------------------------------------(6-1a)
Where the two constants were found to have the values of a=951.43, and
b=153.762. The final form of this equation is:
sp = 951.43 Lev +153.762 (seconds)-------------------------------------(6-1b)
Where; Lev is the evaporator length (m).
127
65000
Effective Thermal Conductivity, Keff (W/m . C)
60000 Qele=900W
o
F=1
55000 Lev=0.45 m Lev=0.5 m Lev=0.55 m Do=0.035 m
50000
45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
4400
(a)
4000
Average Evaporator HTC , hev , (W/m2 . C)
o
3600
3200
2800
2400
2000
1600
0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75

Evaporator Length, Lev, (m)
Fig. 6- 30a Variation of hev in The Transient Startup Stage with
Evaporator Length
128
0.006
(b)
Evaporator Thermal Resistance, Rev, ( C/W)
0.0056
o
0.0052
0.0048
0.0044
0.004
0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8

Evaporator Length, Lev , (m)
Fig. 6- 30b Variation of Rev in The Transient Startup Stage with
Evaporator Length
70000
(c)
Equivalent Overall HTC , Ueq , (W/m2. C)
68000
o
66000
64000
62000
60000
0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8

Fig. 6- 30c Variation of Ueq in The Transient Startup Stage with
Evaporator Length
129
42000
(d)
Effective Thermal Conductivity , Keff, (W/m. C)
o
40000
38000
36000
34000
32000
30000
0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8

Evaporator Length
900
850
Qele=900 W
F =1
800
Do =0.035 m
750
700
650
600
550
500
0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8

Fig. 6-31 Variation of the Startup Time Constant of Thermosyphon

With Evaporator Length
130
From figure 6-31, it can be shown that the startup time constant increases by
43%, corresponds to the increase of evaporator length by 56%. It is
concluded from this analysis that the shorter evaporator lengths improve the
transient response thermosyphons where it takes smaller time to reach steady
state.
6- 4-4 Effect of the Thermosyphon Tube Diameter, Do
It is of an interest to investigate the variation of the thermosyphon

tube diameter to determine the transient response of the wickless heat pipe.
In the present study, both the outer and inner tube diameters are changed in
order to keep the thickness of thermosyphon tube constant at 1.5 mm. The
evaporator length, the electric load, the cooling water mass flow rate,
ambient temperature and the filling ratio are kept constants. Because of the
inverse relationship between thermosyphon tube diameter and the radial heat
flux (equation (5-4)), both the evaporator wall and vapor temperatures are
reduced with increasing tube diameters as shown in figures 6-32 and 6-33.
Also shown from figures 6-32 and 6-33, the evaporator wall and vapor
temperatures reduce by about 22.5% as the thermosyphon diameter increases
by 68%. The thermosyphon tube diameter affects more than the evaporator
length on the reduction of the characteristic temperatures Tevw, Tv
respectively.
Figures 6-34 through 6-37 show the development of;
-Evaporator heat transfer coefficient hev shown in equation (5-10) depending
on equations (5-8) and (5-9) of evaporator film and pool HTCs with time.
-Evaporator thermal resistance Rev, represented in equation (5-20) with time.
- Equivalent overall HTC Ueq, shown in equation (5-12) with time.
- Effective thermal conductivity Keff shown in equation 5-13 with time.
131
90
85 Do=.025m
Qele=900W
Do=0.03 m Do=0.035 m
Evaporator Wall Temperature, Tew ( C)
F=1
80
o
Lev=0.6 m
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35 Do=0.04 m Do=0.042 m
30
25
20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Different Tube Diameters.
80
75 Qele=900W
Do=0.025m Do=0.03 m Do=0.035 m F=1
70 Lev=0.6 m
Vapor Temperature, Tv (oC)
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30 Do=0.04 m Do=0.042m
25
20
0 40 80 120 160 200

Time, t (min)
132
Fig. 6-33 Variation of Vapor Temperature with Time for Different Tube
Diameters
6500
Average Evaporator HTC, hev (W/m2. C)
Do=0.025 m Do=0.03 m Do=0.035 m Qele=900W

6000
o
F=1
5500 Lev=0.6 m
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
Do=0.04 m Do=0.042 m
1500
1000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-34 variation of Average Evaporator HTC with Time for different
Tube Diameters
0.009
Qele=900W
F=1
o
0.008 Lev=0.6 m
Do=0.025 m
0.007 Do=0.03 m
Do=0.035 m
0.006 Do=0.04 m
Do=0.042 m
0.005
0.004
0.003
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
133
Different Tube Diameters
110000
Qele=900W
Equivelant Overall HTC, Ueq (W/m2. C)
100000 F=1
o
Do=.03 m Lev=0.6 m
90000
80000
Do=.035 m
70000
Do=.04 m
60000
50000 Do=.042 m
40000
30000
20000
10000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Tube Diameters
100000
Qele=900W
Effective Thermal Conductivity, Keff (W/m2. C)
o
F=1
Lev=0.6 m
80000
Do=.025 m
60000
Do=.03 m
Do=.035 m
40000
Do=.04 m
Do=.042 m
20000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Different Tube Diameters
134
From these figures one can conclude the following points:
1- The outer diameter of the thermosyphon tube has an important effect
on the evaporator HTC hev. The later reduces as the outer diameter increases.
The same effect is shown for the overall equivalent HTC Ueq and the
effective thermal resistance Keff.
2- From figure 6-26 the evaporator thermal resistance is increased with
the decrease of the evaporator length Lev. Here in figure 6-35 there is no
effect of the evaporator thermal resistance by the change of the outer
thermosyphon tube diameter except in the transient shutdown region.
Inspection of the equation (5-20) the later result is interpreted as follow:
- The evaporator thermal resistance was shown to inversely proportional to
both evaporators HTC and the surface area of the evaporator wall.
- The change in the evaporator HTC with increasing the evaporator length is
about 43% and its change with increasing the thermosyphon tube diameter is
about 41%.
- The change in the evaporator surface area with increasing the evaporator
length is about 56% and its change with increasing the thermosyphon tube
diameter is about 68%.
So, one can conclude that the evaporator length has more effect on the
evaporator thermal resistance than the thermosyphon tube diameter.
3- The evaporator thermal resistance shows a large variation with the change
of the outer thermosyphon tube diameter through the transient shutdown
region which due to the reduction in the redial heat flux and the evaporator
heat transfer coefficient. As shown in fig. 6-38a, the average evaporator heat
transfer coefficient decreases as the thermosyphon tube diameter increases
135
owing to lowering values of both the radial heat flux rate, and the vapor
temperature. The reduction in the average evaporator HTC is about 41% for
an increase in the tube diameter by 68%. The evaporator thermal resistance
Rev nearly seems to have small variation in the transient startup stage as
illustrated in figure 6-38b. This small variation referred to the lower values
of the evaporator HTC and temperatures. Figures 6-38c and 6-38d show
decreasing values for the equivalent overall HTC Ueq and the effective
thermal conductivity Keff with the increase of the tube diameter D0 ; this is
due to the decreasing effect of the average evaporator HTC hev as shown in
figure 6-34.
The time constant of transient startup τsp, as shown in figure 6-39
increases with the larger tube diameters as a result of the reduction of the
dependent parameters hev, Ueq and Keff with tube diameter. The increase in
the values of time constant is about 73% when the tube diameter increases
from 25 to 42 mm. Consequently, it is desired to utilize a compact
thermosyphon of small diameters to practically get a quick response in the
startup stage of any appliance. The startup time is about 8.7 minutes only for
the tube diameter 25 mm. From the previous analysis, it is shown that the
evaporator HTC is considered the dominant parameter in the present
influence parametric study.
136
5400
(a)
o
4800
4200
3600
3000
2400
0.024 0.026 0.028 0.03 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038 0.04 0.042 0.044
Thermosyphon Tube Diameter, Do (m)
Fig. 6- 38a Variation of hev in The Transient Startup Stage with
Thermosyphon Tube Diameter
0.0043
0.00425 (b)
o
0.0042
0.00415
0.0041
0.00405
0.004
0.00395
0.0039
0.024 0.026 0.028 0.03 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038 0.04 0.042 0.044
Evaporator Diameter, Do (m)
Fig. 6- 38b Variation of Rev in the Transient Startup Stage with

137
90000
(c)
Equivalent Overall HTC, Ueq (W/m2. C)
o
80000
70000
60000
50000
40000
0.028 0.03 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038 0.04 0.042 0.044

Fig. 6- 38c Variation of Ueq in The Transient Startup Stage with

70000
(d)
o
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
0.024 0.026 0.028 0.03 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038 0.04 0.042 0.044
138
6-4-5 Effect of Water Flow Rate through the Condenser, mcw
Another effective parameter that influences the performance of CTPT is the
cooling water through the condenser.
In this section the rate of the cooling water through the condenser is let to
vary from 0.027 Kg/s up to 0.3 Kg/s. the filling ratio F is remain constant
(F=1).
Figure 6-40 presents the evaporator wall temperature development through
the three regions, namely, transient start up region, steady state region and
transient shut down region. As shown from the figure under consideration,
as the water flow rate increases the evaporator wall temperature decreases.
Also shown from figure 6-41, the condenser wall temperature is indirect
proportion to the cooling water flow rate through the condenser. Inspection
of figure 6-40 and 6-41, it was concluded that the rate of decrement of
condenser wall temperature is more than that of evaporator wall temperature.
This is due to the condenser wall is indirect contact with the cooling water.
The difference (Tevw -Tcw) is plotted and shown in figure 6-42. The
difference between condenser wall and evaporator wall temperatures
increases with the increase of water flow rate.
The vapor temperature development with time, the average evaporator HTC,
hev, and the effective thermal conductivity are shown to decrease with the
increase of the flow rate of water through the condenser; this can be shown
in figures 6-43, 6-44and 6-46 respectively.
The evaporator thermal resistance is shown to increase with the increase of
cooling rate of water. The latter increase is shown largely through the steady
stage region. See figure 6-45.
139
1200
1000 Qele=900 W
F=1
Lev=0.6 m
800
600
400
200
0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045

Diameter, Do, (m)
Fig. 6-39 Variation of Startup Time Constant with Tube Diameter
85
mcw=0.027 mcw=0.0378 mcw=0.0673
80
75
Evaporator Wall Temperature, Tevw ( C)
70
o
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
mcw=0.1 mcw=0.3
30
25
20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)

Different Water Flow Rates through the Condenser.
140
70
65 mcw=0.0673
mcw=0.027 mcw=0.0378
60
o
55
50
45
40
35
30
mcw=0.1 mcw=0.3
25
20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6- 41 Variation of Condenser Wall Temperature with Time for
22
mcw=0.3 mcw=0.1 mcw=0.0673 mcw=0.0378 mcw=0.027
20
18
Temperature Difference, (Tevw-Tcw) ( C)
o
16
14
12
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-42 Variation of Temperature Difference with Time for Different
Water Flow Rates through the Condenser.
141
85
80
mcw=.027 mcw=.0378 mcw=.0673 mcw=0.1
75
70
Vapor Temperature, Tv ( C)
65
o
60
55
50
45
40
mcw=0.3
35
30
25
20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
5000
mcw=0.027 mcw=0.0378 mcw=0.0673

4500
Average Evaporator HTC,hev (W/m2 .oC)
4000
3500
3000
mcw=0.1
mcw=0.3
2500
2000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
142
0.0075
0.007
Evaporator Thermal Resistance,Rev ( C/W)
0.0065
mcw= 0.1
o
mcw= 0.3
0.006
0.0055
0.005
0.0045
0.004
0.0035
mcw= 0.027 mcw= 0.0378 mcw= 0.0673
0.003
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
70000
Effective Thermal Conductivity, Keq (W/m. C)
60000 mcw= 0.027 mcw= 0.0378

o
50000
40000
30000
mcw= 0.0673 mcw= 0.1 mcw= 0.3

20000
10000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
143
One of the more interesting parameter is the time constant τsp. The effect of
increasing water flow rate through the condenser give best results, where it
can be shown from figure 6-47, the time constant τsp, decreases with the
increase of the cooling water flow rate. The decrease of τsp is about 50%
corresponding to the applied range of cooling water up to 0.3 Kg/s.
The net heat load qnet is also increased with the increase of cooling water
flow rate; this is depicted in figure 6-48.
Figure 6-49a summarizes the results obtained from figure 6-44, where the
average evaporator HTC hev decreases with the increase of water flow rate.
This decrease in hev is due to the decrease of the difference in temperatures
upon which the net heat loads transfer. It worth mentioning that, the
decrease of hev is about 15% through the applied range of the cooling water
rate.
In the same sequence the development of both the equivalent of the overall
HTC Ueq and the effective thermal conductivity Keff, is shown in figures 6-
49c and 6-49d respectively, they decrease with the increase of the cooling
water flow rate; where the CTPT works under lower range of temperature. In
the opposite trend is the evaporator thermal resistance Rev it increases with
the increase of the flow rate of water through the condenser. This can be
shown in figure 6-49b.
144
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35

Cooling Mass Flow Rate, mcw (kg/sec)

with Water Flow Rate through the Condenser.
1400
1300 mcw=0.3
mcw=0.1 mcw=0.0673
1200
1100
1000
Net Heat Load, qnet (W)
900
800
700
600
mcw=0.0378 mcw=0.027
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-48 Variation of Net Heat Load with Time for Different Water
Flow Rates through the Condenser.
145
4400
4200
Average Evaporator HTC, hev (W/m . C)
2 o
4000 (a)
3800
3600
3400
3200
3000
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35

Cooling MassFlow Rate, mcw (Kg/Sec)
Fig. 6- 49a Variation of hev in The Transient Startup Stage with Water
Flow Rate through the Condenser.
0.005
0.0048 (b)
o
0.0046
0.0044
0.0042
0.004
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35

Fig. 6-49b Variation of Rev in The Transient Startup Stage with Water
146
78000
Equivalent Overall HTC, Ueq (W/m2. C)
76000 (c)
o
74000
72000
70000
68000
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35

Fig. 6-49c Variation of Ueq in the Transient Startup Stage with Water
45000
o
44000
(d)
43000
42000
41000
40000
39000
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35

Fig. 6-49d Variation of keff in The Transient Startup Stage with Water
147
6-4-6 Effect of Ambient Temperature on the Performance of
the Closed Two Phase Thermosyphon, Tamb.
In this section it will be discuss the effect of varying the ambient

temperature Tamb from 15 oC up to 35 oC on the performance of the CTPT.
The other effective parameters are let to have constant values:
Qele = 900W, F=1, mcw=0.027 Kg/s, Lev=0.6 m, Do=0.035 m.
The study of the effect of the ambient temperature includes;
- Ambient temperature effect on the evaporator wall temperature Tevw.
- Ambient temperature effect on the condenser wall temperature Tcw.
- Ambient temperature effect on the vapor temperature Tv.
- Ambient temperature effect on the average evaporator HTC hev.
- Ambient temperature effect on the time constant τsp.
Figure 6-50 presents the development of the evaporator wall temperature
Tevw with time, the variation is shown corresponds to Tamb range of 15
O
C up to 35 OC, through the steady state and transient regions.
As shown from the figure under consideration, the increase in the ambient
temperature causes an increase in the evaporator wall temperature. Also,
shown from figure 6-51, that, the condenser wall temperature increases with
the increase of the ambient temperature. As a result of the increase in the
evaporator wall temperature Tevw, the vapor temperature is also increased.
This increase is shown to be continued through the three regions. See figure
6-52.
The effect of the average evaporator HTC, hev by the increase of the ambient
temperature Tamb is shown in figure 6-53, where it can show the
development of the hev with time through the different values of Tamb.
148
90
85
Evaporator Wall Temperature, Tevw ( C)
80 o o o o
o
Tamb=35 C Tamb=30 C Tamb=25 C Tamb=20 C o

75 Tamb=15 C
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Different Ambient Temperatures.
80
75
70 Tamb=35 C
o
Tamb=30 C
o
Tamb=25 C
o o o
Tamb=20 C Tamb=15 C
o
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6- 51 Variation of Condenser Wall Temperature with Time for
Different Ambient Temperatures
149
80
75 Tamb=35 C
o o
Tamb=30 C
o
Tamb=25 C o
Tamb=20 C Tamb=15 C
o
70
65
o
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Ambient Temperatures.
5000
o o o
Tamb=35 C o o
Tamb=30 C Tamb=25 C Tamb=20 C Tamb=15 C

4500
o
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Ambient Temperatures.
150
Figure 6-54 indicates the development of hev with Tamb. The increase is
more pronounced through the transient starting region. The last and more
effect are shown in figure 6-55, where it can show that, the time constant
decreases with high rate with the increase of the ambient temperature. This
decrease in τsp is due to the increase in the average evaporator HTC hev,
The later result is more obvious by inspection figures 6-56 and 6-57,
which show the relationship of the two dependent parameters, the evaporator
HTC hev and the evaporator resistance Rev with the time constant τsp. As
indicated from figure 6-56 h ev plays a great role in changing the time
constant τsp with all main parameters Qele, F, Lev, Do. mcw, and Tamb. The
second figure shows that hev has a direct effect on changing Rev, and then the
change in the time constant agrees with the change in both hev and Rev for the
case of variation of Qele and F respectively. But, for the case of variation of
Lev and Do, the change in Rev was considered small and it oppositely
disagreed with the change in the time constant. It was expected that the time
constant will decrease too according to the reduction in Rev, but In this case
the time constant increased as a result of the reduction in hev values which
had a great effect. The different influences of hev and Rev on the values of
time constant τsp were clearer as observed from table 6-1.
151
4400
Average Evaporator HTC , hev (W/m2. C)
4200
o
4000
3800
3600
3400
3200
3000
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
o
Ambient Temperature, Tamb ( C)
Fig. 6-54 Variation of hev in the Transient Startup Stage with Ambient
Temperature
1200
1150
1100
1050
1000
950
900
850
800
750
700
650
600
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
o
Ambient Temperature, Tamb ( C)
with Water Flow Rate through the Condenser.
152
1200
1100 Tamb Qele= 700 - 2000 W

1000 F = 0.3 - 1
Lev mcw Lev=0.45 - 0.7 m
900
Do
Do = 0.025 - 0.042 m
Time Constant, (Sec)
mcw = 0.027 - 0.3 kg/s

800 o
Qele Tamb = 0.025 - 0.042 C
700
600
500
400
300
F
200
100
1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000
2o
Average Evaporator HTC, hev, (W/m . C)
Fig. 6-56 Effect of Average Evaporator HTC on Startup Time Constant
1200
1100 Tamb Qele= 700 - 2000 W
F = 0.3 - 1
1000 mcw Lev=0.45 - 0.7 m
Do Do = 0.025 - 0.042 m
900
mcw = 0.027 - 0.3 kg/s

800 Tamb = 0.025 - 0.042 oC
Lev
700
Qele
600
500
400
300 F
200
100
0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008

Evaporator Thermal Resistance, Rev , (OC/W)
Fig. 6-57 Effect of Evaporator Thermal Resistance on Startup

Time Constant τsp
153
Table 6-1 the effect of hev and Rev on the values of time constant τsp
Percentage Change of the Rate of Rate of Rate of

Variable change change in change in
in hev Rev τsp
ΔQele = 186% 77% 41.5% 27%
ΔF = 233% 53% 80% 500%
ΔLev = 56% 43% 23.6% 43%
ΔDo = 68% 38% 8% 73%
Δmcw = 1011% 13 15.4 50%
ΔTamb = 133% 17 14 31.4
154
6-5 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISSCUSIONS
6-5-1 Introduction
The details of the experimental test rig were discussed in chapter 4.
Here in this section the results obtained on the two phase thermosyphon will
be presented:
The experimental results include:
1- Measurements of the vapor temperature under different values of the
electric heat load (Qele) and filling ratio F.
2- Measurements of the heat load variation with time through the
transient regions.
3- Depending on measurements of the different temperatures through the
two phase thermosyphon tube, it will calculate the coefficient of
performance of the thermosyphon for transferring heat.
4- The average evaporator HTC (hev) is calculated based on the
experimental measured values and it will be shown its variation with
the electric power.
5- Also it will be shown the evaporator thermal resistance development
with the supply electric power.
6- The equivalent overall heat transfer coefficient (Ueq) besides the
effective thermal conductivity (Keff) will be shown its development
with the electric load Qele
For the sake of comparison, it will be present the corresponding
theoretical results with the experimental ones.
155
6-5-2 Effect of Electric Power
The experiments were performed at constant values of cooling water flow

rate through the condenser (mcw=.027 Kg/s), evaporator length (Lev=0.6 m),
filling ratio (F=1), and thermosyphon tube diameter (Do=0.035 m). Figures
6-58a through 6-58d present the vapor temperature with time for different
values of the electric power (Qele=700 to 1200W). In figure 6-58a, through
the transient start up stage, the heat transferred from the heaters causing a
gradually increase in the evaporator wall temperature from ambient
temperature to reach steady state temperature.
The transferred heat from the evaporator wall to the fluid in the
evaporator pool causes the fluid evaporation. So, the vapor temperature
approaches the evaporator wall temperature. After reaching the steady state,
the shut down stage begins by turning off the electric power (Qele=0).
Through the shut down stage, the vapor temperature decreases with time.
The decrease rate of vapor temperature through the shut down stage is less
than its increase rate through the start up stage. So, the shut down stage takes
more time for all temperatures to reach the ambient temperature. From
figures 6-58a through 6-58d, the vapor temperature Tv is direct proportion to
the electric power Qele.
Figure 6-59 shows the average vapor temperature through the transient
start up region with time for different values of electric power. In this figure,
the vapor temperature, Tv increases with the increase of electric power Qele.
Based on the experimental measured values of the radial heat flux
evaporator pool and evaporator film temperatures, the average evaporator
HTC is calculated (equations 5-8, 5-9, and 5-10).
156
80
70 Qele =700 W, F=1

(a) Experimental
Vapor Temperature T v ( C)
60 Theoretical
o
50
40
30
20
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Stages at Electric Power Qele=700 Watt
80
70 Qele =900 W, F=1

(b) Experimental
Theoretical
Vapor Temperature Tv ( C)
60
o
50
40
30
20
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
157
80
Qele=1000 W, F=1
70 (c) Experimental
Theoretical
60
o
50
40
30
20
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Time, t (min)
80
1200watt, F=1
70 (d) Experimental
Theoretical
Vapor Temperature, T v ( oC)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-58d Experimental and Theoretical Vapor Temperature for
Three Stages at Electric Power Qele=1200 Watt
158
80
70
60
O
50
40
30 F=1
Theoretical
Experimental
20
10
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Fig. 6-59 Comparison between Theoretical and Experimental Vapor

Temperature with Heat Loads
Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient, hev, (W/m2. C)
5000
o
4500 F=1
Experimental
4000 Theoretical
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 100010501100115012001250
Electric Power,Qele, (W)
Fig. 6-60 Comparison between Theoretical and Experimental
Evaporator HTC with Electric Loads
159
Figure 6-60 shows the direct proportion between the electric power
and the average evaporator HTC. The evaporator thermal resistance is
inversely proportional to the evaporator HTC as calculated from equation (5-
12). Figure 6-61 shows the inverse proportion between the electric power
and the evaporator thermal resistance.
Based on the experimental evaporator wall and condenser wall
temperatures, both of the equivalent overall HTC Ueq and effective thermal
conductivity Keff are calculated from equations (5-12) and (5-13)
respectively. Figures 6-62 and 6-63 show that both of equivalent overall
HTC and effective thermal conductivity, are direct proportion to the electric
power.
The start up time constant τsp decreases with the increase of electric power as
160
0.014
F=1
Theoretical
0.012
Experimental
o
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300

Fig. 6-61 Comparison between Theoretical and Experimental
Evaporator Thermal Resistance with Electric Loads
100000
Equivelant Overall HTC, Uoverall (W/m2. oC)
F=1
theoretical
80000 Experimental
60000
40000
20000
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300

Electric Power,Qele (W)
Fig. 6-62 Comparison between Theoretical and Experimental Overall
HTC with Electric Loads
161
70000
F=1
o
60000 Theoretical
Experimental
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300

Heat Load,Qele (W)

Thermal Conductivity with Electric Load
1600
F=1
Theoretical
1400
Experimental
1200
Time Constant , tsp (Sec)
1000
800
600
400
200
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
Fig. 6-64 Comparison between Theoretical and Experimental Time
Constant with Electric Load
162
6-5-3 Effect of the Filling Ratio, F
Figures 6-65a through 6-65d show the vapor temperature variation

with time for different values of filling ratios (F=0.6 to 1). The experimental
effect of filling ratio on the thermosyphon performance is studied at constant
values of water flow rate through the condenser (mcw =.027 Kg|s), the
electric power (Qele =900w), and thermosyphon tube diameter (Do =0.035
m). The vapor temperature with time for different values of filling ratios has
the same trend of the electric power through the three stages (start up, steady
state, and shutdown stages).
The radial heat flux q (equation 5-4) is constant depending on the constants
of both electric power (Q=900W) and the geometric dimensions of the
thermosyphon tube. With increase the filling ratio from F=0.5 to 0.7, the
vapor temperature slightly increases due to the increase of hydrostatic
pressure inside the evaporator pool. While, through the range of filling ratio
(F=0.8: 1), the vapor temperature decreases with time due to the increase of
evaporator thermal resistance. The important notice from the figures 6-65a
through 6-65d, is that the vapor temperature takes more time to reach steady
state with increasing the filling ratio.
The average vapor temperature for different values of filling ratio is
shown in figure 6-66. This figure ensures the presented results in figures 6-
65a through 6-65d. Experimentally, the effect of the filling ratio on the
equivalent overall HTC, effective thermal conductivity, and the time
constant, is shown in figures 6-67, 6-68, and 6-69 respectively. Both of the
equivalent overall HTC and effective thermal conductivity have the same
trend of vapor temperature through the range of filling ratio of (F=0.5 – 1).
163
80
Q ele=900 W, F=0.6
70
(a) Experimental
Theoretical
Vapor Temperature, T v ( C)
60
o
50
40
30
20
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-65a Experimental and Theoretical Vapor Temperature for
Three Stages at Filling Ratio, F=0.6 and Qele=900 Watt
80
Q ele=900 W, F=0.7
70 (b) Experimental
Theoretical
60
o
50
40
30
20
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-65b Experimental and Theoretical Vapor Temperature for
164
80
Qele=900 W, F=0.8
70 Experimental
(c)
Theoretical
60
o
50
40
30
20
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-65c Experimental and Theoretical Vapor Temperature for
80
Qele=900 W, F=1
70 (d) Experimental
Theoretical
60
o
50
40
30
20
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-65d Experimental and Theoretical Vapor Temperature for
Three Stages at Filling Ratio, F= 1 and Qele=900 Watt
165
80
70
60
o
50
40
30 Qele=900 W
Theoretical
20 Experimental
10
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Filling Ratio, F
Fig. 6-66 Comparison between theoretical and experimental results for
the effect of filling ratios on vapor temperature Tv.
100000
Qele=900 W
90000 Experimental
Equivelant Overall HTC , Ueq (W/m2.oC)
Theoretical
80000
70000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1

Filling Ratio, F
Fig. 6-67 Comparison between Theoretical and Experimental Overall

HTC with Filling Ratios
166
50000
Effective Thermal Conductivity , Keff (W/m.oC)
Q ele=900 W
Experimental
Theoretical
40000
30000
20000
10000
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1

Filling Ratio, F

Thermal Conductivity with Filling Ratios
1000
Qele=900 W
Experimental
800 Theoretical
Time Constant ,tsp (Sec)
600
400
200
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1

Filling Ratio, F
Fig. 6-69 Comparison between Theoretical and Experimental Time

Constant with Filling Ratios
167
Figure 6-69 shows that the start up time constant τsp which increases with the
increase of the filling ratio, F.
6-5-4 Coefficient of Performance of the Closed Two-Phase
Thermosyphon
In order to calculate the coefficient of performance (C.O.P) of the
thermosyphon, an overall energy balance is carried out and the results are
shown in figures 6-70 and 6-71. A fraction of the input power to the heater
which representing the heat load, is transferred as an effective power
throughput. The rest of energy is partially stored in the thermosyphon tube
wall and working fluid. Also, a fraction of the input energy is loosed through
the surface of the system to the ambient. At steady state the rate of change in
the energy stored in the CTPT and insulation becomes zero. In this case, the
input power to the evaporator equals the sum of the effective power
throughput and the rate of heat losses to the ambient by natural convection.
At these studied conditions, the rate heat loss is nearly equals 25% of the
input power. From the experimental results, the thermal energy losses can be
calculated from equation (5-3).
Figures 6-70 and 6-71 show the distribution of the supplied electric
power to the heaters (Qele = 900 and 1200 W), the net heat load rejected
through the condenser (Qnet )and the thermal energy losses (Qele – Qnet ) with
time for the conditions of filling ratio F=1, and cooling water mass flow rate
(0.027 Kg/Sec). This effect includes the transient and steady state. The
coefficient of performance for the closed two-phase thermosyphon is defined
as the ratio of the net heat load qnet to the electric power Qele. It can be
calculated from the equation:
q net
C.O.P  *100 ------------------------------------------------------(6-2)
Qele
168
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
Heat Load (Watt)
900
800
700 Electric Power
600
Net Heat Load
Losses
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-70 Transient Start up Response of Electric Power Qele =1200 Watt
1200
1100
1000
900
800
Heat Load (Watt)
700
600
500 Theoretical
Experimental
400
Losses
300
200
100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time, t (min)
Fig. 6-71 Transient Start up Response of Electric Power Qele =900 Watt
169
Table (6-2) shows the coefficient of performance values for the closed
two-phase thermosyphon. The range of deviation is from 72 up to 80%.
This ensures that the closed two-phase thermosyphon is an effective tool to
heat transfer industry due to its high efficiency, reliability, cheap cost and its
ability to transfer large quantities of heat per unit area with small
temperature difference (latent heat) along the thermosyphon.
Table (6-2) the coefficient of performance of the thermosyphon
Qele Qnet Qnet

C.O.P  * 100
(Watt) (Watt) Qele
500 380 76%

700 508 72.6%
900 745 80.33%
1000 780 78%
1200 937 78.1%
170
Also shown in the figures 6-58 through 6-69, the corresponding
theoretical results of vapor temperature Tv, evaporator heat transfer
coefficient hev, thermal resistance Rev, equivalent overall HTC Ueq, effective
thermal conductivity Keff, and time constant τsp for the sake of comparison.
The comparison is mainly analyzed for electric power and filling ratio.
These governing parameters are previously mentioned in table 3-2. The
comparison between experimental and theoretical results, were plotted in
figures 6-58 through 6-69.
It is evident from these figures, the experimental results agreed to a
great extent with the theoretical network model results in start up, steady,
and shutdown stages. The indicated slight increase in the network model
results over the experimental results may be returned to many sources of
heat losses which are neglected in the theoretical network model conditions;
these sources may be assumed as:
1- The axial heat leakage from the evaporator wall to condenser wall by
conduction through the adiabatic wall of the tube.
2- The heat losses throughout the upper and the lower end caps of the
thermosyphon tube.
3- The heat lost from the outer insulation of thermosyphon combination
to the ambient air by natural convection.
Figures 6-65 through 6-66, show that the experimental vapor temperature
results are in good agreement with the theoretical model. At the time of 35
minutes approximately, the deviation is in the range of 1 ºC or less (less than
± 2%). Figures 6-60 through 6-64 illustrate the comparison between the
theoretical and experimental results for the dependent variables: evaporator
heat transfer coefficient hev, evaporator thermal resistance Rev, equivalent
overall HTC Ueq and effective thermal conductivity Keff, in addition to the
171
time constant τsp corresponds to various values of electric power. These
figures demonstrate the good agreement between the theoretical and
experimental results. The deviations at the small electric power are in the
range of ± 36-46% for hev and Rev respectively, while it is about -11 to -16%
for Ueq and Keff respectively. At high rate of electric power, the deviation
between the theoretical and experimental results nearly diminishes for all
previous dependent variables. The overestimation is also noticed for the
transient startup time constant in figure 6-64, where it is about +25%
corresponds to small heat load rates and it diminishes at high ranges of
electric power.
Similar comparisons are performed for the equivalent overall HTC Ueq
and effective thermal conductance Keff , and the startup time constant for
various values of filling ratios (F= 0.5 - 1.0) corresponding to constant
values of electric load ( Qele = 900 Watt), evaporator length (Lev =0.6 m),
cooling water mass flow rate (mcw = 0.027 Kg/Sec), and outer tube diameter
(Do=0.035 m). The comparison shown in figures 6-69 through 6-71,
illustrates the good agreement between the theoretical and experimental
results. There is a relative disagreement at high filling ratios. This may be
returned to the experiments that had been run at different ambient
temperatures. Generally, the deviations are less than -15% for Ueq and Keff
corresponds to all ranges of filling ratios. For the startup time constant, the
deviation between the theoretical and the experimental results is about 20 %.
172
6-6 COMPARISON BETWEEN PRESENT AND PREVIOUS WORK.
An attempt to construct a computerize program using the numerical

method (Rung Kutta) was carried out to solve a set of first order, linear,
ordinary, differential equations. Constructed program made by Q-BASIC
language included Rung-Kutta method was used to solve the governing
equations which presented by FAGHRI [5] for the heat pipe. Figure 6-72
indicated the results of the constructed program (theoretical model) and
compared with the experimental results of El-Genk and Huang [6] for the
water-copper heat pipe. The heat pipe has inner and outer diameters of 17.3
and 19.1mm, respectively. Lengths of the evaporator, adiabatic, and
condenser sections are 393, 47, and 170mm, respectively. Two layers of
copper screen wick (150 meshes) with a total thickness of 0.3 mm were
used.
Figure 6-72 shows the vapor temperature development at different electric
power (530, 470, 418, and 365 W) with time. This figure illustrates the good
agreement between the experimental results of Ref. [6] and the present
theoretical results. The deviation between the two results was less than 5%.
A comparison between the present theoretical results and previous works of
Ref. [30] was performed to confirm the accuracy of the present model for
the closed two-phase thermosyphon. Figure 6-73 shows a comparison of the
effect of the initial filling ratios, F, on the mean temperatures of the
evaporator pool Tep, evaporator film, Tef, condenser film, Tcf, adiabatic wall
Tad, and vapor Tv. As mentioned previously, the vapor temperature was
considered as the average value of the evaporator pool, evaporator film, and
condenser film temperatures.
173
400
390 Exp. Result [6],Qele=530W
present work,Qele=530W
Vapor Temperature, Tv (K)
370 present work,Qele=470W

Exp. Result [6],Qele=418W
360 present work,Qele=418W

present work,Qele=365W
340
330
320
310
300
290
280
270
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Time, t (min)
Temperature with Time.
80
Qele=1770W, mcw=0.027 Kg/s
Tep,exp[30]
75 Tep, th[present]
Tef,exp[30]
Tef, th[present]
Temperature, T , ( C)
70 Tcf,exp[30]
o
Twcf,th[present]
Tad,exp[30]
65 Tad,th[present]
Tv,exp[30]
Tv,th[present]
60
55
50
0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85
Initial Filling Ratio, F
Temperature with Filling Ratios.
174
From this comparison, it was concluded that the approximation
between the present theoretical results and the experimental one of Ref. [30]
is fairy good. Another comparison with the experimental data of Ref. [30]
was performed for the effect of cooling water mass flow rate on the
preceding temperatures. Figure 6-74 shows that the temperatures decrease
with increasing of cooling water mass flow rate for both experimental and
theoretical studies. The deviation of the temperature values of the present
theoretical results and the measurements of Ref. [30] was less than 6%.
175
6-7 THE TIME CONSTANT CORRELATION, τsp
An analytical study is performed on the experimental data to derive an

empirical correlation for the startup time constant for water/copper
thermosyphon. This correlation mainly based on the two effecting operating
parameters, the heat load Qele and the filling ratio F. The following
correlation basically suggested combining all parameters in the form:
b c
τsp =a * (Qele) * (F) ---------------------------------------------------(6-3)
The least-square method is used with the aid of both experimental

data to assign the constants in the above correlation (equation (6-3)).
Derivation of this method is presented as:
 n 
 X X1 2
 e  
 Y 
b  
 X1 X X X
2 
    1  ………………………(6-4)
1 1 2 *  YX 

 X2 2
 c  YX 2 
 X X X
1 2 2

Where the factors can be defined as:

X1= log Qele X2= Log (F)
Y= Log (τ ) e = Log (a) ……………………….(6-5)
The foregoing set of equations (matrix) is solved numerically by MATLAB

LANUAGE to get the unknowns a, b, and c. The final empirical correlation
for the closed two-phase thermosyphon (CTPT) is given as:
176
τsp =1021 * (Qele)-0.0238 * (F)0.8732 -------------------------------------(6-6)
As shown in figure 6-75 the predicted correlation shows the main

dependence of startup time constant on the filling ratio. The heat load has an
inverse and small effect on the time constant. It is indicated from the figure
that there is a good agreement between the experimental and the predicted
values, the maximum deviation reaches 15%. This illustrates the accuracy of
prediction of the empirical correlation that combines the affecting operating
parameters for the calculation of the time constant. Despite the relatively
small error, the derived empirical correlation could be as a useful tool in
hand for the design and analysis of such thermosyphons. In addition, it is
considered a good approximation for predicting the response time required
for a certain conditions.
177
95
F=0.5 , Qele=2140W
90
Tep, exp[30]
85
Tep,th[present]
80
Tef, exp[30]
75
Tef,th[present]
Temperature, T, ( C)
70
O
65 Tcf, exp[30]
60 Tcf,th[present]
55 Tad,exp[30]
50 Tad,th[present]
45 Tv,exp[30]
40
Tv,th[present]
35
30
25
20
15
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16

Cooling Water Flow Rate, mcw , (Kg/s)
Temperature with Cooling Water Flow Rate
1000
Prediction Time Constant
Experimental Time Constant
900
Emperical Time Constant, tsp (Sec)
800
+15 %
700
600
-15 %
500
400
300
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Actual Experimental Time Constant, tsp (Sec)
Fig. 6-75 Relationship between the Empirical Correlation and the
Experimental Time Constant Data for CTPT.
178
CHAPTER VII
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
7-1 SUMMARY
The main object of the present study is to derive a theoretical network
model to predict the transient behavior of closed two-phase thermosyphon
(CTPT) during start up, steady, and shut down states. Experiments were
performed to investigate the more interesting parameters that influence the
performance of the thermosyphon and to confirm the validity of the
theoretical model. Water is used as a working fluid at low temperature
range. The theoretical model describes the thermosyphon by six sub-models,
conduction in walls for evaporator, adiabatic, condenser and convection in
evaporator pool, evaporator film, and condenser film. Energy balances for
each sub-model were applied to estimate temperatures, heat transfer
coefficients, thermal resistances, time constant, and other thermal
characteristics that describe the required transient response of the closed
two-phase thermosyphon.
Water/copper Thermosyphon that used in the experimental work was
1m long with inner and outer diameters of 32 and 35 mm respectively.
Length of evaporator, adiabatic and condenser sections were 600, 150, 250
mm respectively. Heating was accomplished electrically, and cooling water
at room temperature was used to cool the condenser. A central temperature
measuring probe was used to measure the axial temperature of the fluid
along the center-line of the thermosyphon. The theoretical network model
was performed through the ranges of electrical power of 500 to 2000W,
filling ratios from 0.3-1.0, evaporator length from 0.45 to .70 m, and
thermosyphon tube diameter from 0.025 to .042 m, cooling water flow rate
179
through the condenser from 0.027 to 0.3 kg/s, and ambient temperature from
15 to 35 Oْ C. The experimental work was performed at lower ranges of the
preceding parameters.
Chapter one is an introduction to heat pipes and thermosyphon history, the

most important characteristics and applications of CTPT, types of working
fluids and their temperature ranges, selection of container material according
to working fluid type, and the thermosyphon operating limits.
Chapter two presents the main object of this study by a literature review on
both the theoretical and experimental investigations aqpplied on the closed
two-phase thermosyphon (CTPT) at different operating and design
conditions.
Chapter three presents the theoretical network model, the assumptions and
deriving individually the governing equations for every sub-model of the
whole CTPT. In addition to, the empirical correlations in this model, the
calculations of areas, thermal resistances, time constant, solution procedure,
and program description.
Chapter four describes the experimental set up of the closed two-phase

thermosyphon (CTPT), the details of each component constituting the
experimental setup of the CTPT. The experimental measurements and the
calibration of the measuring probes, the thermosyphon preparation, and the
experimental procedure are also presented.
Chapter five includes thermal relationships for thermal loads, heat transfer
coefficients, thermal resistances, time constant and other thermal
180
characteristics of CTPT, in addition to the effective operating parameters
ranges.
Chapter six includes the results analysis and discussions of:

- Theoretical results.
- Experiment results.
- Comparison between theoretical and experimental results and
comparison of the present and previous works.
Chapter seven lists the summary of each of this study and the conclusions
obtained from the theoretical network model and the experimental work, in
addition to the recommendations for future study.
7-2 CONCLUSION
The main object of this study is to estimate the transient response of
the closed two-phase thermosyphon by deriving a theoretical network model
and to validate this model with experimental tests. Based on the
experimental and the theoretical results in the transient operation for the
current water/copper thermosyphon and the study of the effective parameters
that influence the operation of the closed two-phase thermosyphon, the
following conclusions have been reached:
1 - Owing to the problem concerning the practical difficulty of predicting the
dynamic response during the startup of the closed two-phase thermosyphon
CTPT in industrial applications, a theoretical network model was developed
as a fine tool to estimate the internal thermal resistances and the time
constant during the transient startup and shutdown stages.
2 - For the design purposes and/or provision of practical advice, the designed
simulation program checked by the operational limits enable also estimating
181
all dependent parameters of the closed two-phase thermosyphon based on
the transported thermal load in the steady state operation: temperatures, heat
transfer coefficients, equivalent overall HTC, effective thermal conductivity.
3 - The practical importance of mathematical network model of
water/copper thermosyphon to run accurately and rapidly with high
response, and performance, the elapsed computational time reaches about
150 seconds only.
4 - An influence analysis of the startup response time of the TPCT to various
parameters has shown how to act on operational heat transfer conditions and
geometrical dimensions in order to optimize and reduce its response time.
As a matter of fact, this model can be considered as a useful code for
providing technological consultation for optimizing system response.
5 - The internal thermal characteristics of the evaporator play a great role on
determination of the thermosyphon performance in the transient operation
stages. It was found that the average thermal resistance of heat carriers in
evaporator has the major effect (changed by 70%) on the whole
thermosyphon thermal resistance more than that of the condenser film
(changed by 23%).
6 – The average HTC of the evaporator (pool and film) is the dominant
parameter in changing the thermal resistance and time constant. It is
considered as an accurate estimation in interpreting the variations in the
current analytical study of the transient thermal response of the
thermosyphon to reach steady state operation.
7 - The capability of water/copper thermosyphon to transport high thermal
heat loads in the applications of low temperature ranges has been verified in
the present work through the heat load range Qele = 500-2000 W, the
effective thermal conductivity of the thermosyphon at steady state reaches
182
30-54 kW/m.ºC, which is about 77-138 folds higher than that of the best
conductor copper (k=390 W/m.ºC).
8- The start-up time constant depends on the transported load rate, i.e. Qele
increased by 186% while the corresponding reduction in the time constant is
about 27%.
9- The change in the time constant is about 5 times corresponding to a
variation equals 3 times in the filling ratio. It worth mentioning that, in
practice the time constant for water/copper thermosyphon must has a lower
value as 2 minutes. This corresponds to a filling ratio F=0.3.
10- The startup time constant increases by 43%, corresponds to the increase
of evaporator length by 56%, this means that the shorter evaporator lengths
improve the transient response thermosyphons where it takes smaller time to
reach steady state.
11- The outer diameter of the thermosyphon tube has an important effect on
the evaporator HTC hev. The later reduces as the outer diameter increases.
The same effect is shown for the overall equivalent HTC Ueq and the
effective thermal resistance Keff.
12- The evaporator length has more effect on the evaporator thermal
resistance than the thermosyphon tube diameter.
13- The evaporator thermal resistance shows a large variation with the
change of the outer thermosyphon tube diameter through the transient
shutdown region which is due to the reduction in the redial heat flux and the
evaporator heat transfer coefficient.
14- The start-up time constant decreases by 50% and 31.4% correspond to
the increase of water flow rate through the condenser and the ambient
temperature respectively.
15- The experimental results confirmed and proved the feasibility of the
183
theoretical model predictions particularly in the high studied variable ranges,
where the discrepancies of the presenting results vanished. The comparison
between theoretical and experimental results showed overestimation at low
variable ranges where the deviation reached 25% in time constant
16- Based on the experimental results, an empirical correlation for the

startup time constant was derived as a function of the thermal load rate and
the filling ratios.
7-3 PROPOSAL FOR FUTURE WORK
1- Developing the current theoretical model by reducing the working fluid

quantity in the evaporator pool with keeping the filling ratio constant and
investigating the transient startup performance of the reduced
thermosyphon thermal inertia.
2- Studying the transient response of the closed two phase thermosyphon
using other working fluids.
3- Study the performance of the conventional closed two-phase
thermosyphon during the dynamic shutdown operation.
4- Deriving the proposed theoretical network model for the double tube
thermosyphon (DTT), studying the effect of the flow patterns in the
annulus hot channel on the predicted parameters of DTT at higher
thermal loads, and experimentally validation of its accuracy.
5- Investigation experimentally the effect of the evaporator length and
thermosyphon tube diameter on the transient response of CTPT.
184
6- Applying the current model to simulate the annulus thermosyphon that
uses heating up and cooling down on the outside and inside areas of
evaporator and condenser sections.
185
REFERNCES
1- C. C. Silverstein," Design and Technology of Heat Pipes For Cooling
and Heat Exchange " , Hemisphere Puplishing Corporation, Washington
(U.S.A), 1992.
2- G.P. Peterson "An Introduction to Heat Pipe Modeling, Testing, and
Applications" John Wiely & Sons, Inc. New York(U.S.A),1994.
3- D.A. Reay and P.A. Kew “ heat pipe, theory, design and applications”
Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DPFifth edition 2006.
4- Amir Faghri, “Heat Pipe Science and Technology”, Taylor& Francis,
(U.S.A), 1995.
5- Z. J. Zuo, and A. Faghri " A Network Thermodynamic Analysis of The
Heat Pipe" Int. Heat Mass Transfer Vol. 41 no.11, pp. 1473-1484, 1998.
6-Mohamed S. El-Genk, and Lianmin Huang " An Experimental
Investigation of The Transient Response of A Water Heat Pipe" Int. Heat
Mass Transfer Vol. 36 no.15, pp. 3823-3830, 1993.
7- Balram Suman, Sirshendu De, and Sunando DasGupt " Transient
Modeling of Micro-grooved Heat Pipe" Int. Heat Mass Transfer xx, 2004xx.
This work is supported by a grant from BRNS, Government of India, under
the scheme no.2001/36/12/brns/726.
8- Y. Wang and K.Vafai " An Experimental Investigation of The Thermal
Performance of an Asymmetrical Flate Plate Heat Pipe" Int. Heat Mass
Transfer 43 (2000), 2657-2668.
9- Y. Wang and K.Vafai " Transient Characterization of Flate Heat Pipes
During Startup and Shutdown Operations" Int. Heat Mass Transfer 43
(2000), 2641-2655.
10- M. S. El-Genk and J.M. Tournier " A Heat Pipe Transient Analysis
Model" Int. Heat Mass Transfer Vol.37, pp. 753-762, 1994.
186
11- Salem A. Said and Bilal A. Akash " Experimental Performance of Heat
Pipe" Int. Comm. Heat Mass Transfer, Vol.26, No.5,pp.679-684,1999.
12- S. Murrer, P. Lybaert, L.Gleton, and A. Sturbois " Experimental and
Numerical Analysis of The Transient Response of AMiniature Heat Pipe"
Applied Thermal Engineering 25 (2005) 2566-2577.
13- H.M.S. Hussein, M.A. Mohamad, A.S. Elasfouri "Transient
Investigation of a Thermosyphon Flat-Plate Solar Collector" Applied
Thermal Engineering VOL.19, (1999), pp. 789-800.
14-J.G.Reed, and C. L. Tien "Modeling of The Two-Phase Thermosyphon
" Trans. ASME Vol. 109,August 1987, PP.722-730.
15-C.Harley, and A.Faghri "Complete Transient Two-Dimensional
Analysis of Two-Phase Closed Thermosyphons Including the Filling
Condesate Film" Tans. ASME Vol. 116, May 1994, pp. 418-426.
16-Mohamed S. El-Genk, and Hamed H. Saber "Heat Transfer
Correlations for Small, Uniformly Heated Liquid Pools" Int. Heat Mass
Transfer Vol.41 no.2, pp. 261-274, 1998.
17-Z. J. Zuo, and F.S. Gunnerson " Numerical Modeling of The Steady-
State Two-Phase Closed Thermosyphon" Int. Heat Mass Transfer Vol.37
no.17, pp. 2715-2722, 1994.
18-Charles C. J. Vincent, and Jim B.W. Kok "Investigation of the Overall
Transient Performance of the Industrial Two-Phase Closed Loop
Thermosyphon" Int. Heat Mass Transfer Vol. 35 no.6, pp. 1419-1426, 1992.
19-K. S. Ong, and Md. Haider-E-Alalhi " Experimental Investigation on
the Hysteresis Effect in Vertical Two-Phase Closed Thermosyphon" Applied
Thermal Engineering Vol.19, (1999), pp.399-408.
20-Hichem Farsi, Jean-Louis Joly, Marc Miscevic, Vincent Platel, and
Nathalie Mazet " An Experimental and Theoretical Investigation of the
187
Transient Behavior of A Two-Phase Closed Thermosyphon" Applied
21-Yong Joo Park, Hwan Kook Kang, and Chul Ju Kim " Heat Transfer
Characteristics of A Two-Phase Closed Thermosyphon to The Fill Charge
Ratio" " Int. Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 45 (2002) 4655-4661.
22-S. H. Noie " Heat Transfer Characteristics of A Two-Phase Closed
Thermosyphon" Applied Thermal Engineering Vol.25, (2005), pp.495-506.
23- Hideaki Imura, Yasushi Koito, Masataka, and Haruhito Fujimura "
Start-up from the Frozen State of Two-Phase Thermosyphons" Applied
24-K. S. Ong, and Md. Haider-E-Alalhi " Performance of A R-134a-
Filled Themosyphon" Applied Thermal Engineering Vol.23, (2003),
pp.2373-2381.
25-Chen Xiang-Qun, Zhang Zhengfang and Ma Tongze " Heat Transfer
Correlation of The Evaporator Section In A Two-Phase Closed
Thermosyphon" 8th Int. Heat Pipe Conference Beijing, China, 1992.
26- Chen Xiang-Qun, Ma Tongze, and ZHANG Zhengfang " Heat
Transfer Characteristics In The Evaporator Section of A Two-Phase Closed
Thermosyphon" 8th Int. Heat Pipe Conference Beijing, China, 1992.
27-He Jialun, Ma Tongze, and ZHANG Zhengfang "Investigation of
Boiling Liquid Pool Height of A Two-Phase Closed Thermosyphon" 8th Int.
Heat Pipe Conference Beijing, China, 1992.
28- Chen Xiang-Qun, Zhang Zhengfang and Ma Tongze " Natural
Convection Heat Transfer IN A Two-Phase Closed Thermosyphon" 8th Int.
Heat Pipe Conference Beijing, China, 1992.
29- Omega Group Company, "Temperature Measurement Handbook" ,
Omega Engineering, Inc.. 1983.
188
30- Saadawy M. S., El-Adawy, M. M. Shamloul, and Loula Ahmed
"Study of The Performance Analysis Wickless Heat Pipe" A thesis
submitted for the requirement of the degree of M.Sc. in mechanical
engineering.
189
APPENDIX-A
Thermophysical properties of distilled Water as working fluid
The thermophysical properties of the vapor and saturated liquid of water

(H2 O) were given as follow:
Boiling point at Atmospheric Pressure : 100oC
Coefficient of Expansion at 70oC : 5.95*104 l/K
Specific Heat of Saturated Liquid at 70oC : 4.191 kJ/kg. K
Molecular Weight : 18
Table A-1 Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Water
Tempr- Late- Liquid Vapor Liqui Liquid Vapor Vapor Vapor Liqui
nt
ature
heat
density density d viscos- viscos- pressu- specif- d
ther ity. ity re c heat surfa
m-al μl μl
ce
cond tensi
u- *10 2 on
KJ/kg ctivit
o
C Kg/m3 Kg/m3 y N.s/m2 Bar KJ/kgoC
N.s/m2
W/mo N/m *102
C
20 2448 998.2 0.01 0.162 1.00 0.96 0.02 1.85 7.4
40 2402 992.3 0.05 0.63 0.65 1.04 0.07 1.86 6.96
60 2359 983 0.14 0.649 0.47 1.12 0.2 1.87 6.62
80 2309 972 0.29 0.668 0.36 1.19 0.47 1.88 6.26
100 2258 958 0.6 0.68 0.28 1.27 1.01 1.88 5.89
120 2200 945 1.12 0.682 0.23 1.34 2.02 1.89 5.5
140 2139 928 1.99 0.683 0.20 1.41 3.9 1.9 5.06
160 2074 909 3.27 0.679 0.17 1.49 6.44 1.91 4.66
180 2003 888 5.16 0.669 0.15 1.57 10.04 1.92 4.29
200 1967 865 7.87 0.659 0.14 1.65 16.19 1.93 3.89
190
APPENDIX B
Transient Thermosyphon Program
191
192
193
194
APPENDIX-C
Error Analysis
Evaluation of Error in the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
The overall heat transfer coefficient is calculated from equation (5-12). The
maximum relative error in the heat transfer coefficient is determined as
Where:-
U eq m   (Tew,0  Tcw,o ) m  Qnet m  Acs m                  (C  1)

 (Tew, 0  Tcw,o ) m is the maximum relative error in temperature drop ΔT0
Qnet m
is the maximum relative error in heat transferred Qnet
Acs m
is the maximum relative error in cross section area Acs.
Evaluation of these relative errors is given as:
(A). Error in measuring the heat transferred (Qnet)
The heat load Qnet. is calculated by equation (5-2), whilst the value of
maximum relative error in measuring the heat load is given as :
Qnet m =  m.cw / m cw m + (Tcw,o –Tcw,i ) / (Tcw,o –Tcw,i ) m
= m.cw / m cw m +{ Tcw,om + Tcw,im }/ (Tcw,o –Tcw,i ) m
= (1/10)*100 + {(.2+.2)/7}*100= 16.23 %
(B) Error in calculating the cross section area , Acs

The cross section area , Acs is calculated by equation;
 
Acs   * d 02  d i2 / 4 ---------------------------------------------------------------- (C-2)
Whilst the value of maximum relative error in calculating the cross section
area is given as:
Acs m
 d i2 / d i  d 02 / d 0
m m
 2 * d i / d i  2 * d 0 / d 0
m m
=(2*.1/32)*100+(2*.1/35)*100=1.1%
195
( C ). Error in temperature drop, T0
The temperature drop T0 is calculated from equation (5-7) and the
value of maximum relative error in temperature drop is given as:
T0 m

 Tew ,0 m
 Tcw,0 m
/T
ew , 0  Tcw ,0 
m

= {(.25+.25)/12}*100 = 4.167 % .
Substituting in equation (C-1), then the maximum relative error in
calculating the heat transfer coefficient is:
Ueqm = 16.23+1.1 + 4.167 = 21.49 % .
Summarizing the above results, the following table (C-1) shows the accuracy
of the measuring parameters.
Table (C-1) Accuracy of measured and calculated parameters
Error Parameter Percentage

error
measured Net heat load 16.23
calculated Cross section area 1.1
measured Temperature difference 4.167
calculated Overall heat transfer coefficient 21.49
196
APPENDIX- D
THERMOSYPHON LIMITS
The constrains to heat transport capability of DTT are mainly
correlated in this section. These limits are viscous, sonic, flooding, and
boiling limits.
1- Viscous limit
At low temperatures, the vapor pressure difference between the

evaporator and the condenser regions of thermosyphon may be extremely
small. The viscous forces within the vapor region may actually be bigger
than the pressure gradients. The vapor pressure gradients may be not
sufficient to generate flow and it is assumed zero at the end of the pipe. As
the pipe temperature and the heat rate increase, the viscous limit occurs and
the pressure drop in the vapor is then equal to the total vapor pressure in the
pipe. The maximum axial heat rate for the viscous limit is presented as
following:
Av * H fg * D o2 *  v * Pv
Q  .......... .......... .......... .......... .....( D  1)
64 *  v * L e
2-Sonic limit
The evaporator and condenser sections of thermosyphon represents a

vapor flow channel with mass addition and extraction due to the evaporation
and condensation, respectively. The vapor velocity increases along the
evaporator length, reaching its maximum value at the end of the evaporator
section. When the heat rate increases, the vapor generation increases then the
197
vapor velocity becomes higher. When the velocity reaches the sonic value,
the vapor flow is chocked and no further increase in the vapor flow or heat
transport is possible without an increase in the vapor temperature. Then, the
heat transport rate reached sonic limit, is given by:
Q  0.474 * Av * H fg *  v * Pv .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( D  2)
3-Flooding limit
The flooding limit is due to the interaction between the counter

current liquid and vapor flows occurring at the liquid vapor interface in the
thermosyphon. With the increase of the axial heat flux, the relative velocity
between the liquid and vapor increases so the viscous shear interfacial forces
retard the condensate from returning to the evaporator and leads to a
flooding condition in the condenser section. This causes a partial dry-out of
the evaporator. The maximum heat rate in the flooding limit is expressed as:
 
2
Q  K * H fg * Av *[ g * l ( l  v )]0.25  v0.25  l0.25 ...............(D  3)
Where K  3.2 * tanh 2 ( Bo) 0.25 Bo  Do * [ g * (  l   v )]1 2
4-Boiling limit
In the thermosyphon, as the radial heat flux increases, nucleate boiling

occurs in the evaporator section. Further increase in the heat flux results in
more vigorous boiling. At the critical heat flux, the vapor bubbles coalesce
near the pipe wall, which essentially blocks the liquid working fluid from
198
touching the wall. At this point, the wall temperature increases rapidly. The
correlation for the maximum radial heat flux at the boiling limit is given by:
2

2 g * ( l   v) 
q B  C *  0 .4  0 .012 * r *  * q e .......... .......( D  4 )
 l 
Where
qe= critical heat flux for pool boiling
qe  0.142 * H fg * v * [ l * g * ( l  v )]0.25
0.44 0.55
D  D 
C  3.54 *  i  *  i  *V  n
 Lc   Le 
Where
V  n is the ratio between the volume of liquid to the total volume of
thermosyphon.
199
‫ﻭﻗﺩ ﺃﺠﺭﻴﺕ ﺘﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﻋﺩﻴﺩﺓ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﺨﻁﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺸﻭﺩﺓ ﻭﻗﺩ ﺃﻅﻬﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺍﻟﻨﻅﺭﻴـﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴـﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻷﺘﻲ‪:‬‬
‫‪ -1‬ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺌﺩﺓ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺘﻌﻭﺩ ﺇﻟﻲ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻭﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﺭﻴﺎﻀﻲ ﻷﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻠـﻕ‬
‫ﻟﻠﺘﻁﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴل ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻘﻁﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺘﺤﺘﺎﺝ ﺇﻟﻲ ﺃﻥ ﺘﺒﺩﺃ ﻤﻥ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻴﻁ ﺇﻟﻲ ﺤﺎﻟـﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺜﺒﺎﺕ ﻤﺭﺍﺭﺍ ﻭﺘﻜﺭﺍﺭﺍ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻷﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻤﻭﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﺭﻴﺎﻀﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻨﺒﻁ ﻟﻤﺤﺎﻜـﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴـﺭ ﺍﻟﺯﻤﻨـﻲ ﻷﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻟـﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ‬ ‫‪-2‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻠﻕ ﺘﻨﺒﻊ ﻤﻥ ﺍﺴﺘﺨﺩﺍﻤﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻤﻴﻡ ﻭﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻁﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﺤﻴـﺙ‬
‫ﺍﻅﻬﺭ ﺩﻗﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﻭﺴﺭﻋﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺩﺍﺀ ﻓﺎﻟﻭﻗﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻘﻀﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺘﺸﻐﻴل ﺍﻟﺒﺭﻨﺎﻤﺞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺴﺏ ﺍﻵﻟﻲ‬
‫ﺤﻨﻲ ﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺒﺎﺕ ﻋﺩﺓ ﺜﻭﺍﻨﻲ ﻗﻠﻴﻠﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﺜﺒﺘﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻁﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻟﻠﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﻓﻲ ﻤﺩﻯ ﻅﺭﻭﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴل ﺍﻵﻤـﻥ‬ ‫‪-3‬‬
‫ﺩﻭﻥ ﺘﺨﻁﻲ ﺃﻱ ﻤﻥ ﺤﺩﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴل)‪ (operation limits‬ﺃﻭ ﻅﻬﻭﺭ ﺍﺭﺘﻔـﺎﻉ ﻜﺒﻴـﺭ ﻓـﻲ ﺩﺭﺠـﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺃﺜﻨﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴل ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﺩﺍﻴﺔ ﻭﺤﺘﻰ ﺤﺩﻭﺙ ﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻻﺴﺘﻘﺭﺍﺭ )‪.(steady state‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﺴﺎﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻅﺭﻴﺔ ﺘﺘﻔﻕ ﺠﻴﺩﺍ ﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴل ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺭ‪ .‬ﺒﺎﻹﻀﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟـﻲ‬ ‫‪-4‬‬
‫ﻓﺎﻋﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﻜﻔﺎﺀﺓ ﺃﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺤﻴﺙ ﺒﻠﻎ ﻤﻌﺎﻤل ﺍﻨﺘﻘـﺎل ﺍﻟﺤـﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﻠـﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻜـﺎﻓﺊ‬
‫ﺤﻭﺍﻟﻲ ‪ KW/m2.ºK 42‬ﻭﻤﻌﺎﻤل ﺍﻟﺘﻭﺼﻴل ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﻴﻌﺎﺩل ‪ 105‬ﻤﺭﺓ ﻟﻤﻌﺎﻤل ﺍﻟﺘﻭﺼﻴل ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻨﺤﺎﺱ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﺜﺒﺘﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﺭﻨﺔ ﺩﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻭﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﺭﻴﺎﻀﻲ ﺤﻴﺙ ﺘﻭﺍﻓﻘﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺍﻟﻨﻅﺭﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺒﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﻜﺒﻴـﺭﺓ‬ ‫‪-5‬‬
‫ﻟﻜل ﺍﻟﻌﻭﺍﻤل ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﺴﺔ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺴﻭﺒﺔ ﻨﻅﺭﻴﺎ‪ ،‬ﻭﺒﻠﻐﺕ ﺃﻗﺼﻰ ﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻼﻨﺤـﺭﺍﻑ ﺤـﻭﺍﻟﻲ‬
‫‪.%20‬‬
‫ﻭﻟﺫﻟﻙ ﺘﻌﺘﺒﺭ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﻤﺸﺠﻌﺔ ﻻﺴﺘﻤﺭﺍﺭ ﺍﻷﺒﺤﺎﺙ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﻬﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺫﻭﻟﺔ ﻨﺤﻭ ﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﻭﺘﻨﺎﻭل ﺍﻟﻤﺯﻴـﺩ‬
‫ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺅﺜﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﺨﺭﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺒﺭ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻠﻕ‪.‬‬
‫‪200‬‬
‫ﻭﻟﺫﻟﻙ ﻻﺒﺩ ﻤﻥ ﻭﺠﻭﺩ ﺘﻭﺼﻴﻑ ﺘﻔﺼﻴﻠﻰ ﻟﻼﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺒﺭ ﻟﻠﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻯ ﻟﺘﺠﻨـﺏ ﺍﻟﻭﺼـﻭل ﻟﺘﻠـﻙ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺠﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺘﻬﺩﻑ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﺴـﺘﻨﺒﺎﻁ ﻨﻤـﻭﺫﺝ ﺭﻴﺎﻀـﻲ ﻨﻅـﺭﻱ ﻟﻤﺤﺎﻜـﺎﺓ ﺍﻷﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴـﺭ‬
‫ﺯﻤﻨﻴﺎ)‪ (transient‬ﻟﻠﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﻭﺃﻴﻀﺎ ﻟﺤﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﻭﺍﻤل ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﺃﺜﻨﺎﺀ ﺒﺩﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴل ‪(start‬‬
‫)‪ up‬ﻋﻨﺩ ﺩﺭﺠﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻴﺔ ﻤﺭﻭﺭﺍ ﺒﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻻﺴﺘﻘﺭﺍﺭ)‪ (steady state‬ﻭﺤﺘﻰ ﺍﻟﻭﺼﻭل ﺇﻟـﻰ‬
‫ﺇﻴﻘﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴل )‪ . (shut down‬ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻭﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻨﺒﻁ ﻴﻘﺴﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺴﺘﺔ ﻨﻤﺎﺫﺝ ﻓﺭﻋﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻤﺘﺭﺍﺒﻁﺔ)ﻗﻁﺎﻋﺎﺕ( ﻭﻫﻰ‪ :‬ﺍﻨﺘﻘﺎل ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺒﺎﻟﺘﻭﺼﻴل ﺨﻼل ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺙ ﻗﻁﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻘـﺴﻡ ﺇﻟﻴﻬـﺎ ﺠـﺩﺍﺭ‬
‫ﺍﻷﻨﺒﻭﺒﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻻﺘﺯﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﻟﻠﺴﺎﺌل ﻭﻁﺒﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺌل ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻜﺜـﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﻭﺠـﻭﺩﻴﻥ ﺒـﺎﻟﻤﺒﺨﺭ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻻﺘـﺯﺍﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﻟﻁﺒﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺌل ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻜﺜﻑ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺜﻑ‪ .‬ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻭﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﺭﻴﺎﻀﻰ ﺘﻡ ﺍﺴﺘﻨﺒﺎﻁﻪ ﺒﺘﻁﺒﻴﻕ ﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻻﺘﺯﺍﻥ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﻁﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺴﺎﺴﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻷﻗﺴﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻔﺭﻋﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﺤﻴﺙ ﺘﻡ ﺍﺴﺘﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﻋﺩﺩ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻌـﺎﺩﻻﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻀﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺒﻬﺎ ﻴﻤﻜﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﺒﺅ ﺒﺎﻟﻤﻌﺎﻤﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺭﺓ ﺯﻤﻨﻴﺎ‪ .‬ﻭ ﻟﺤل ﺘﻠﻙ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺘﻡ ﻋﻤل‬
‫ﺒﺭﻨﺎﻤﺞ ﺒﺈﺤﺩﻯ ﻟﻐﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺭﻤﺠﺔ ﻤﺴﺘﺨﺩﻤﺎ ﻁﺭﻴﻘﺔ )‪ (RUNG KUTTA‬ﺍﻟﺭﻴﺎﻀﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺘﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﻡ ﺒﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺤﻴﺙ ﻨﻔﺫﺕ ﻭﺤﺩﺓ ﺒﺤﺜﻴﺔ ﻤﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻤﻜﻭﻨﺔ ﻤﻥ‪ :‬ﺃﻨﺒﻭﺒﺔ ﻤـﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﺤـﺎﺱ‬
‫ﺍﻷﺼﻔﺭ ﻗﻁﺭﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﺩﺍﺨﻠﻲ ‪ 32‬ﻤﻡ ﻭﺴﻤﻜﻬﺎ ‪ 1.5‬ﻤﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﻁﻭل ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻰ ‪ 100‬ﺴﻡ ‪ ،‬ﻤﻘـﺴﻤﺔ ﺇﻟـﻰ ﺜـﻼﺙ‬
‫ﺃﻗﺴﺎﻡ‪ :‬ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺨﺭ ﺒﻁﻭل ‪ 60‬ﺴﻡ ‪ 15،‬ﺴﻡ ﻟﻠﺠﺯﺀ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺯﻭل ﻭ‪ 25‬ﺴﻡ ﻟﻠﻤﻜﺜﻑ‪ .‬ﻭﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﺨﻁﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺜﻴـﺔ‬
‫ﺘﻡ ﻋﻤل ‪ 4‬ﺴﺨﺎﻨﺎﺕ ﻜﻬﺭﺒﻴﺔ ﺘﻤﺜل ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﻘﻠﺔ ﺇﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺨﺭ ﻭﻴﺘﻡ ﺘﻭﺼﻴﻠﻬﺎ ﺒﻤﺼﺩﺭ ﻜﻬﺭﺒﻲ ﻤﺘﻐﻴـﺭ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺩ ﻟﻠﺘﺤﻜﻡ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺒﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺭﻴﺩ ﺘﺘﻡ ﻋﻥ ﻁﺭﻴﻕ ﺴﺭﻴﺎﻥ ﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺭﻴﺩ ﺒﻤﻌﺩل ‪ 0.027‬ﻜﺠﻡ‬
‫‪ /‬ﺜﺎﻨﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺩﺍﺌﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺭﻴﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﻤﻤﺔ ﻟﺘﻤﺜل ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﻘﻠﺔ ﻋﻥ ﻁﺭﻴﻕ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺜﻑ‪ .‬ﺍﻟﺩﺍﺌﺭﺓ ﻤﺯﻭﺩﺓ ﺃﻴـﻀﺎ‬
‫ﺒﺄﺠﻬﺯﺓ ﻗﻴﺎﺱ ﻋﺩﻴﺩﺓ ﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻘﺩﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺭﺒﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻤﻌﺩل ﺴﺭﻴﺎﻥ ﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺭﻴﺩ‪ ،‬ﻭﺃﻫﻤﻬـﺎ ﻟﻘﻴـﺎﺱ ﺩﺭﺠـﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻲ ﺠﺩﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺒﺎﻹﻀﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻲ ﻤﺠﺱ ﺨﺎﺹ ﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﻜل ﻤﻥ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟـﺴﺎﺌل‬
‫ﺩﺍﺨل ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺨﺭ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺒﺨﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﻭﺠﻭﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﺯﺀ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺯﻭل ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻜﺜﻑ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﺩ ﺘﻡ ﺘﻭﺼـﻴل ﺃﻁـﺭﺍﻑ ﺃﺴـﻼﻙ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺯﺩﻭﺠﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻴﺔ ﺒﺠﻬﺎﺯ)‪ (data logger‬ﻟﺘﺠﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻨﺎﺕ ﺯﻤﻨﻴﺎ ﻭﺘﺨﺯﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﻭﻁﺒﻌﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﻭﻗـﺩ ﺘـﻡ‬
‫ﺍﺨﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻗﻴﻡ ﻤﻨﺎﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻅﺭﻭﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴل ﻋﻨﺩ ﺇﺠﺭﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﺒﺤﻴﺙ ﻴﻜﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﻴﺭ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺤـﺭﺍﺭﻱ‬
‫ﻤﻥ ‪ 1200-500‬ﻭﺍﺕ ﻟﻤﻌﺩل ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻘﻭﻟﺔ ﺒﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺎﺀ ﻭﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻤﻠﻲﺀ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺨﺭ ﻤﻥ ‪. 1-0.3‬‬
‫‪201‬‬
‫ﻤﻠﺨﺹ‬
‫ﻨﻤﻭﺫﺝ ﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺍﺴﺘﺠﺎﺒﺔ ﺍﻻﻨﺎﺒﻴﺏ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻴﺔ ﺒﺩﻭﻥ ﺤﺸﻭ " ﻓﺘﻴل" ﻓﻰ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺒﺭ‬
‫ﻴﻌﺘﺒﺭ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻠﻕ )‪-(thermosyphon‬ﺍﺤﺩ ﺼﻭﺭ ﺍﻷﻨﺎﺒﻴـﺏ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻴـﺔ‪-‬‬
‫ﻭﻤﻥ ﺃﻓﻀل ﺍﻟﻭﺴﺎﺌل ﻟﻨﻘل ﻜﻤﻴﺎﺕ ﻜﺒﻴﺭﺓ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻴﺔ ﻟﻜل ﻭﺤﺩﺓ ﻤﺴﺎﺤﺔ ﻤـﻥ ﻤﻨﻁﻘـﺔ ﺇﻟـﻰ‬
‫ﺃﺨﺭﻯ‪ .‬ﻭﻴﺘﻤﻴﺯ ﺒﻘﺩﺭﺘﻪ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻨﺘﻘﺎل ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺒﻭﺍﺴﻁﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺨﻴﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻜﺜﻴﻑ ﻟﻠﻤﺎﺌﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺩﻡ ﻋﻨﺩ‬
‫ﻓﺭﻭﻕ ﺩﺭﺠﺎﺕ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺼﻐﻴﺭﺓ ﻭﻜﺫﺍ ﺒﺘـﺸﻐﻴل ﻤﺘـﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﺤـﺭﺍﺭﺓ ) ‪.(isothermal operation‬‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﻴﻌﻤل ﻓﻲ ﻭﻀﻊ ﺭﺃﺴﻲ ﺍﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﻭﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﺫﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺭﻀﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋـﻭﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺒﺨـﺎﺭ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺜﻑ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺨﺭ ﻤﺭﺓ ﺃﺨﺭﻯ‪ .‬ﻭﻴﺘﻤﺘﻊ ﺃﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻠﻕ ﺒﺎﻻﺴـﺘﻘﺭﺍﺭ ﻨﻅـﺭﺍ ﻟﻌـﺩﻡ‬
‫ﻭﺠﻭﺩ ﺍﻯ ﺃﺠﺯﺍﺀ ﻤﺘﺤﺭﻜﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺩﻭﺍﺭﺓ‪ ،‬ﺒﺎﻹﻀﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺴﻬﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴل ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺼﻨﻴﻊ ﻭ ﻗﺩﺭﺘﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴل‬
‫ﺍﻟﺫﺍﺘﻲ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻤﺼﺩﺭ ﻁﺎﻗﻪ ﺨﺎﺭﺠﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺒﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻴﻤﻜﻥ ﺘﻘﻠﻴل ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻠﻔﺔ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻴﻨﻘـﺴﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﻁﻭﻟﻴﺎ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺜﻼﺙ ﺃﺠﺯﺍﺀ ﺭﺌﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻭﻫﻰ ‪ :‬ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺨﺭ ﻭﻫﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺌﻭل ﻋـﻥ ﺍﻤﺘـﺼﺎﺹ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ – ﺍﻟﺠﺯﺀ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺯﻭل ﺤﺭﺍﺭﻴﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻜﺜﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺌﻭل ﻋﻥ ﻁﺭﺩ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘـﺴﺒﺔ‪ .‬ﺍﻤﺘـﺼﺎﺹ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﻴﻜﻭﻥ ﻋﻥ ﻁﺭﻴﻕ ﻤﺎﺌﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴل ﺍﻟﺫﻱ ﻴﺠﺏ ﺃﻥ ﻴﻜﻭﻥ ﻤﺘﻭﺍﻓﻕ ﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﻤـﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻤـﺼﻨﻭﻉ ﻤﻨﻬـﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﻟﻀﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻷﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻷﻤﺜل‪ .‬ﻴﺴﺘﺨﺩﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨﻁـﺎﻕ ﻭﺍﺴـﻊ ﻓـﻲ‬
‫ﺘﻁﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﻜﺜﻴﺭﺓ ﻤﻨﻬﺎ ﻨﻅﻡ ﺍﻟﺭﺒﻁ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻁﺎﺕ ﺜﻨﺎﺌﻴﺔ ﺍﻹﻏﺭﺍﺽ‪ ،‬ﺍﺴﺘﺭﺩﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻭﻓﻴـﺔ‪ ،‬ﺇﺯﺍﻟـﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻭﺤﺔ ﻭﺘﺤﻠﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ‪ ،‬ﺘﺒﺭﻴﺩ ﺍﻷﺠﻬﺯﺓ ﺍﻻﻟﻜﺘﺭﻭﻨﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺤـﻭﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺭﺒﻴـﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻐﻼﻴـﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻷﻓـﺭﺍﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﻓﻰ ﺤﻔﻅ ﻭﻨﻘل ﻭﺘﺤﻭﻴل ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻗﺔ‪ ،‬ﺒﺎﻹﻀﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺘﻁﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻨﺎﺒﻴﺏ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻴﺔ ﻓـﻲ ﻤﺠـﺎل‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻭﻭﻴﺔ ﺒﺄﻨﻅﻤﺔ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ‪ ،‬ﺘﺒﺭﻴﺩ ﻗﻠﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ‪ ،‬ﺃﻨﻅﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻁﻭﺍﺭﺉ ﻟﻠﺘﺒﺭﻴﺩ ﻭ ﻜـﺫﻟﻙ‬
‫ﺘﺒﺭﻴﺩ ﻤﺨﺎﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﻭﻗﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﻭﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻀﺏ‪.‬ﺘﻭﺠﺩ ﺃﺒﺤﺎﺙ ﻋﺩﻴﺩﺓ ﺠﺩﻴﺭﺓ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﺒـﺎﺭ ﺘـﺼﻑ ﻋﻤـل ﻭﺃﺩﺍﺀ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻠﻕ ﺜﻨﺎﺌﻲ ﺍﻟﻁﻭﺭ ﻓﻲ ﺤﺎﻻﺕ ﺜﻼﺜﺔ ﻫﻲ ﺒﺩﺍﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘـﺸﻐﻴل ﺍﻟﻌـﺎﺒﺭ ﻭﺍﻻﺘـﺯﺍﻥ‬
‫ﻭﺇﻴﻘﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴل‪ .‬ﻟﻜﻥ ﻜﺜﻴﺭ ﻤﻥ ﺘﻠﻙ ﺍﻷﺒﺤﺎﺙ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻨﻤﺎﺫﺝ ﺭﻴﺎﻀﻴﺔ ﻀﺨﻤﺔ ﻭ ﻤﻌﻘـﺩﺓ ﻭﺘﺤﺘـﺎﺝ ﺇﻟـﻰ‬
‫ﻭﻗﺕ ﻁﻭﻴل ﻭﺤﺴﺎﺒﺎﺕ ﻜﺜﻴﺭﺓ ﻓﻜﺎﻥ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﺭﻭﺭﻱ ﺍﺴﺘﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﻨﻤﻭﺫﺝ ﺭﻴﺎﻀﻲ ﺒﺴﻴﻁ ﻭﺴﻬل ﻭﺫﻭ ﺩﺭﺠﺔ‬
‫ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺩﻗﺔ ﻟﻭﺼﻑ ﺍﻷﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺒﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺘﺯﻥ ﻟﻠﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ‪ .‬ﺒﺎﻹﻀﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺘﻘﺩﻴﺭ ﺜﺎﺒﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﺍﻡ‬
‫)‪ (time constant‬ﻋﻨﺩ ﻤﻌﺩﻻﺕ ﻓﻴﺽ ﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻭﺫﻟﻙ ﻓﻰ ﺤﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴل ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺙ ‪ .‬ﻭﺘﺭﺠـﻊ‬
‫ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺜﺎﺒﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﺍﻡ )ﺯﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻭﺼﻭل ﺇﻟﻰ ﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻻﺴﺘﻘﺭﺍﺭ ( ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻨﻪ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻜﺎﻥ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﺯﻤﻥ ﻜﺒﻴـﺭ ﻓـﻴﻤﻜﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻭﺼﻭل ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺩﺭﺠﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻰ ﻓﺸل ﺃﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻴﻔﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻱ ﻜﻜل‪.‬‬
‫‪202‬‬
‫ﺠــﺎﻤﻌــﺔ ﺍﻷﺯﻫــــﺭ‬
‫ﻜﻠﻴـــــﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺩﺴــــــﺔ‬
‫ﻗـﺴﻡ ﻫﻨﺩﺴـﺔ ﺍﻟﻘـﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﻜـﺎﻨﻴﻜﻴـﺔ‬
‫" ﻨﻤﻭﺫﺡ دراﺳﺔ اﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ اﻻﻧﺎﺑﯿﺐ اﻟﺤﺮارﯾﺔ ﺑﺪون ﺣﺸﻮ " ﻓﺘﯿﻞ" ﻓﻰ‬
‫اﻻداء اﻟﻌﺎﺑﺮ "‬
‫ﺭﺴـﺎﻟـﺔ ﻤﻘﺩﻤـﺔ ﻤـﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻬﻨﺩﺱ ‪ /‬ﻋﺎﺩل ﻜﺎﻤل ﻋﺒﺩﺍﻟﻌﻅﻴﻡ ﺤﺴﻴﻥ‬

‫ﻤﺩﺭﺱ ﻤﺴﺎﻋﺩ ﺒﻤﺭﻜﺯ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﻭﺙ ﺍﻟﻨﻭﻭﻴﺔ‪ -‬ﻫﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺫﺭﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟـﻲ ﻜﻠﻴـﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺩﺴﺔ‪ -‬ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﺍﻷﺯﻫـﺭ ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻭل ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﺭﺠـﺔ ﺩﻜﺘﻭﺭﺍﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺴﻔـﺔ‬
‫ﻴﻌﺘﻤﺩ ﻤﻥ ﻟﺠﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺭﻓﻴﻴﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻭﻗﻴﻊ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻭﻅﻴﻔﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻻﺴﻡ‬

‫ﺃﺴﺘﺎﺫ ﻤﺘﻔﺭﻍ ﺒﻘﺴﻡ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺩﺴﺔ‬ ‫ﺍ‪.‬ﺩ‪ /.‬ﻤﺤﻤﺩ ﻋﺒﺩﺍﻟﻤﻨﻌﻡ ﻋﺒﺩﺭﺒﻪ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻴﻜﺎﻨﻴﻜﻴﺔ – ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺩﺴﺔ –‬
‫ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﺍﻷﺯﻫﺭ‬
‫ﺃﺴﺘﺎﺫ ﺒﻘﺴﻡ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺩﺴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﻜﺎﻨﻴﻜﻴﺔ –‬ ‫ﺍ‪.‬ﺩ‪ /.‬ﻤﺤﻤﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺤﻼﻭﺓ‬
‫ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺩﺴﺔ ‪-‬ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﺍﻷﺯﻫﺭ‬
‫اﺳﺘﺎذ ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪ ‪ -‬ﻣﺮﻛﺰ اﻟﺒﺤﻮث‬ ‫ﺩ‪ /‬ﻤﺤﻤﻭﺩ ﺴﺎﻤﻰ ﺴﻌﺩﺍﻭﻯ ﺍﺒﺭﺍﻫﻴﻡ‬

‫اﻟﻨﻮوﯾﺔ ‪ -‬ھﯿﺌﺔ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﺬرﯾﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻫﺭﺓ – ﺠﻤﻬﻭﺭﻴﺔ ﻤﺼﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺒﻴﺔ‬

‫‪2013‬‬
‫‪203‬‬

‫ﻴﻌﺘﻤﺩ ﻤﻥ ﻟﺠﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﺘﺤﻨﻴﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻭﻗﻴﻊ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻭﻅﻴﻔﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻻﺴﻡ‬

‫ﻭﺯﻴﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺭﺒﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻡ‬ ‫ﺍ‪.‬ﺩ‪ /.‬ﻤﺤﻤﻭﺩ ﻤﺤﻤﺩ ﻤﺤﻤﻭﺩ ﺍﺒﻭﺍﻟﻨﺼﺭ‬
‫ﺃﺴﺘﺎﺫ ﺒﻘﺴﻡ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺩﺴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﻜﺎﻨﻴﻜﻴﺔ –‬
‫ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺩﺴﺔ – ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻋﻴﻥ ﺸﻤﺱ‬
‫ﺃﺴﺘﺎﺫ ﻤﺘﻔﺭﻍ ﺒﻘﺴﻡ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺩﺴﺔ‬ ‫ﺍ‪.‬ﺩ‪ /.‬ﻤﺤﻤﺩ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺼل ﺍﻟﺭﻓﺎﻋﻰ‬
‫ﺃﺴﺘﺎﺫ ﻤﺘﻔﺭﻍ ﺒﻘﺴﻡ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺩﺴﺔ‬ ‫ﺍ‪.‬ﺩ‪ /.‬ﻤﺤﻤﺩ ﻋﺒﺩﺍﻟﻤﻨﻌﻡ ﻋﺒﺩﺭﺒﻪ‬
‫ﺃﺴﺘﺎﺫ ﺒﻘﺴﻡ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺩﺴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﻜﺎﻨﻴﻜﻴﺔ –‬ ‫ﺍ‪.‬ﺩ‪ /.‬ﻤﺤﻤﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺤﻼﻭﺓ‬
‫ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺩﺴﺔ – ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﺍﻷﺯﻫﺭ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻫﺭﺓ – ﺠﻤﻬﻭﺭﻴﺔ ﻤﺼﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺒﻴﺔ‬

‫‪2013‬‬
‫‪204‬‬

‫ﻟﺠﻨﺔ ﺍﻷﺸﺭﺍﻑ‬
‫ﺍ‪.‬ﺩ‪ /.‬ﻤﺤﻤﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺤﻼﻭﺓ‬ ‫ﺍ‪.‬ﺩ‪ /‬ﻤﺤﻤﺩ ﻋﺒﺩﺍﻟﻤﻨﻌﻡ ﻋﺒﺩﺍﻟﻐﻔﺎﺭ ﻋﺒﺩﺭﺒﻪ‬
‫ﻫﻨﺩﺴـﺔ ﺍﻟﻘـﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﻜﺎﻨﻴﻜﻴـﺔ‬ ‫ﻫﻨﺩﺴـﺔ ﺍﻟﻘـﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﻜﺎﻨﻴﻜﻴـﺔ‬
‫ﻜﻠﻴـــﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺩﺴــــﺔ‬ ‫ﻜﻠﻴـــﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺩﺴــــﺔ‬
‫ﺠـﺎﻤﻌـﺔ ﺍﻷﺯﻫــــﺭ‬ ‫ﺠـﺎﻤﻌـﺔ ﺍﻷﺯﻫــــﺭ‬
‫ﺩ‪ /‬ﻤﺤﻤـﻭﺩ ﺴـﺎﻤﻰ ﺴﻌـﺩﺍﻭﻯ ﺍﺒﺭﺍﻫﻴﻡ‬

‫ﻗﺴـﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻔـﺎﻋـﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻭﻭﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻤﺭﻜـﺯ ﺍﻟﺒﺤـﻭﺙ ﺍﻟﻨﻭﻭﻴـﺔ‬
‫ﻫﻴﺌـﺔ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﻟﺫﺭﻴـــﺔ‬
‫‪2013‬ﻡ‬
‫‪205‬‬
206

Al-Azhar University Faculty of Engineering Mechanical Power Engineering Department

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Al-Azhar University Faculty of Engineering Mechanical Power Engineering Department

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AL-AZHAR UNIVERSITY

A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Mechanical

Prof. Dr. Mohamad Abdrabboh Prof. Dr. Mohamed Aly Halawa

Prof. Dr. Mohamad Abdrabboh Prof. Dr. Mohamed Aly Halawa

Name Position Signature

This Dissertation is submitted to Al-Azhar University for the degree of

PhD. in Mechanical Power Engineering Department.

reactors department, Nuclear Research Center, Atomic Energy

No part of this study has been submitted for a degree or a qualification

at other university or institution.

Name: ADEL KAMEL ABD_ELAZIEM HUSSIEN

I wish to express my profound thanks to GOD hoping to accept this

Special appreciation to Dr. Mahmoud Samy Saadawy for his great

My gratitude to all the colleagues and staff members of the Reactor

My thanks to the staff and employees of the Faculty of Engineering,

I wish to express great appreciation to my family for this patience, support

CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION……..……………………..………21

CHAPTER TWO. LITERATURE REVIEW. ………………….……...31

CHAPTER THREE. DEVELOPMENT OF THEORTICAL

CHAPTER FOUR. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURS...70

4-4 The Inner Temperature Probe………….….…………………………..76

4-5 Charging and Evacuation System……………………………….…….78

4-6 Experimental Measuring Devices……….…………………………..…81

4-7-1 Leak out Test…..………….…..…..………………………..85

4-7-2 Thermosyphon Cleaning…….………..……………………86

4-8 Experimental Procedures……………..….……………………………86

CHAPTER SEVEN. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ..…………...179

Fig. 1-1 Operation Principle of Heat Pipe and Thermosyphon………..…23

Fig. 3-1 A Sketch Of The Thermosyphon Heat Transfer Processes….……48

Fig. 4-1a Photograph of Experimental Setup………………………...……71

Fig. 4-3 The Heating System……………………………………………..75

Fig. 4-4 The Cooling System…………………………………………..…77

Fig. 4-5a Axial Inner Temperature Probe…………………………………79

Fig. 4-5b Photograph of Axial Inner Temperature Probe…………..…….80

Fig. 4-6 Data Logger System ……………………………………….……83

Fig. 6-1 Indicated Temperatures during Transient Operation of CPT……100

Table (3-1) The theoretical work conditions……………………………….66

Table (3-3) The experimental work conditions…………………………….66

Energy conservation is becoming increasingly important as the cost of

Fig. 1-3 Emergency Cooling System of Nuclear Reactors

2- Low temperature fluids such as ammonia, acetone, Freon, alcohol,

3- High temperature range or liquid metal working fluids such as

2- Selection of the Container Material

Fig. 1-5 Temperature Range of Thermosyphon and Heat Pipe

2-2 Heat Pipes

2-4 SCOPE of THE PRESENT STUDY

DEVELOPMENT OF THEORTICAL MODEL

in the radial direction.

These processes can be characterized by two main categories: the first

Where: αi = ki/ρi Cpi for conductors, or αi = hi xi/ρi Cpi for carriers

Equation (3-4) is considered the governing equation of each process in

1- The summation of input heat flows equals to the summation of the

A theoretical network simulation is developed for complex processes,

2- Constant thermal properties of wall material (copper), such as

3- Neglecting of the kinetic and potential energy components in the

Fig. 3-2a A Network Analogy Of The Thermosyphon Heat Transfer

Fig. 3-2b One Dimensional Heat Conductor or Carrier

6- The flow of the falling condensate film in the model is considered to

7- The heat energy flow is transferred by conduction and convection in

8- The thermal vapor resistance is relatively small and it can be simply

3-2-1 the Evaporator Wall Heat Conductor

Fig. 3-3 A Network Analogy of The Evaporator Wall conductor

Q12 = Q21 + Q31 , so

Qele=VIcos. Ø ---------------------------------------------------------- (4-1)