Chapter 3

Pythagorean Theorem

One of the best known mathematical formulas is Pythagorean Theorem, which

provides us with the relationship between the sides in a right triangle. A right triangle

consists of two legs and a hypotenuse. The two legs meet at a 90° angle and the

hypotenuse is the longest side of the right triangle and is the side opposite the right

angle.

Pythagorean Theorem also known as Pythagoras Theorem states that the

square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of squares of the lengths of

other two sides of the right-angled triangle. Or, the sum of the squares of the two legs of

a right triangle is equal to the square of its hypotenuse.

Another example according to the Pythagorean Theorem is that the sum of the

areas of the two red squares, squares A and B, is equal to the area of the blue square,

square C. Thus, the Pythagorean Theorem stated algebraically as a 2 +¿ b2 = c 2.

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3.1 Given triangle ABC, prove that a² + b² = c².
 
First construct a perpendicular from C to segment AB.
 
 

In a right triangle, the altitude from the right angle to the hypotenuse divides the

hypotenuse into two segments (e and f).  The length of each leg of the right triangle is

the geometric mean of the lengths of the hypotenuse and the segment of the

hypotenuse that is adjacent to the leg, therefore

c a c b
=   and   . =
a e b f

If I cross multiply each ratio I get:   

ce=a2 and   cf =b2

then adding a and b yields: 

a 2+b 2=ce +cf , 

factoring out c on the right side gives: 

a 2+b 2=c (e + f ) ,

And looking at the above diagram:

c=(e +f ) 

 so by substitution we get :

a² + b² = c².

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3.2 Another way to prove Pythagorean Theorem is using the figure below

Notice that the area of the large square could be expressed in two ways:

1
(a+ b)2 or summing the area of the four triangles ( ab) and the area of the smaller
2

square(c 2 ).

 4 ( 12 ab)+ c
2

 Since these both represent the area of the larger square we will set them equal to one

another.

(a+ b)2=4 ( 12 ab)+c 2

Use algebra to simplify the above equation.

a 2+2 ab+ b2=2 ab+ c2

a 2+2 ab+ b2−2 ab=2 ab+c 2−2 ab

a ²+ b ²=c ²

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3.3 The next proof is taken verbatim from Euclid VI.31 in translation by Sir Thomas L.

Heath. The great G. Polya analyzes it in his Induction and Analogy in Mathematics (II.5)

which is a recommended reading to students and teachers of Mathematics.

In right-angled triangles the figure on the side subtending the right angle is equal

to the similar and similarly described figures on the sides containing the right angle.

Let ABC be a right-angled triangle having the angle BAC right; I say that the

figure on BC is equal to the similar and similarly described figures on BA, AC.

Let AD be drawn perpendicular. Then since, in the right-angled triangle ABC, AD

has been drawn from the right angle at A perpendicular to the base BC, the triangles

ABD, ADC adjoining the perpendicular are similar both to the whole ABC and to one

another [VI.8].

And, since ABC is similar to ABD, therefore, as CB is to BA so is AB to BD

[VI.Def.1].

And, since three straight lines are proportional, as the first is to the third, so is the

figure on the first to the similar and similarly described figure on the second [VI.19].

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Therefore, as CB is to BD, so is the figure on CB to the similar and similarly described

figure on BA.

For the same reason also, as BC is to CD, so is the figure on BC to that on CA;

so that, in addition, as BC is to BD, DC, so is the figure on BC to the similar and

similarly described figures on BA, AC.

But BC is equal to BD, DC; therefore the figure on BC is also equal to the similar

and similarly described figures on BA, AC. Therefore the result is the square of BC is

equal to the sum of the square of BA and the square of AC.

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3.4 The area of the above trapezoid can also be expressed in two ways.  One is by

1
using the formula for the area of a trapezoid (b +b )
2 1 2

Let’s use the diagram above to fill in the formula for the area of a trapezoid we

1
have (a+b)(a+ b)
2

The second way to express the area of the above trapezoid is by summing each

1 1 1
geometric figure we have ab+ ab + c 2
2 2 2

Since these two expressions are the area of the above trapezoid we will set them

equal to each other and use algebra to simplify the equation

1 1 1 1 2
. ( a+b )( a+b ) = ab+ ab+ c
2 2 2 2

1 2
( a +2 ab+ b2 )=ab+ 1 c 2
2 2

a 2+2 ab+ b2=2 ab+ c2 .

a ²+ b ²=c ²

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3.5

We start with two squares with sides a and b, respectively, placed side by side.

The total area of the two squares is a 2+b 2

The construction did not start with a triangle but now we draw two of them, both

with sides a and b and hypotenuse c. Note that the segment common to the two

squares has been removed. At this point we therefore have two triangles and a

strange looking shape.

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 As a last step, we rotate the triangles 90‫ﹾ‬, each around its top vertex. The right

one is rotated clockwise whereas the left triangle is rotated counterclockwise.

Obviously the resulting shape is a square with the side c and area c 2.

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 Chapter 4

Pythagorean N-tuple

Pythagorean Quadruple

A Pythagorean quadruple is a tuple of integers a, b, c and d, such that

a 2+b 2+ c 2=d 2. They are solutions of a Diophantine equation and often only positive

integer values are considered. However, to provide a more complete geometric

interpretation, the integer values can be allowed to be negative and zero (thus allowing

Pythagorean triples to be included) with the only condition being that d > 0. In this

setting, a Pythagorean quadruple (a , b , c , d) defines a cuboid with integer side lengths

¿ a∨, ¿ b∨¿, and ¿ c|, whose space diagonal has integer length d. Pythagorean

quadruples, with this interpretation are thus also called Pythagorean boxes. So we can

assume, unless otherwise stated, that the values of a Pythagorean quadruple are all

positive integers.

A Pythagorean quadruple is called primitive if the greatest common divisor of its

entries is 1. Every Pythagorean quadruple is an integer multiple of a primitive

quadruple. The set of primitive Pythagorean quadruples for which a is odd can be

generated by the formulas:

a=m 2+ n2− p2−q2

b=2(mq+np)

c=2(nq−mp)

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d=m2 +n 2+ p 2+ q2

where m, n, p, q are non-negative integers with greatest common divisor 1 such that

m+n+ p+q is odd.

All Pythagorean quadruples (including non-primitives, and with repetition,

though a , b∧c do not appear in all possible orders) can be generated from two positive

integers a∧b as follows:

If a∧b have different parity, let  p be any factor of a 2+b 2 such that  p2 <a2 +b 2.

a 2 + b 2 − p2 a 2 + b2 + p 2
Then c=  and d= . Note that  p=d−c .
2p 2p

A similar method exists for generating all Pythagorean quadruples for which a

a b
and b are both even. Let l= and m=  and let n be a factor of l 2 +m2 such that n2 <l 2 +m2
2 2

l 2 +m 2−n2 l 2 +m 2+ n2
. Then c=  and d= . This method generates all Pythagorean
n n

quadruples exactly once each when l and m run through all pairs of natural numbers

and n runs through all permissible values for each pair.

Examples of Pythagorean Quadruple

¿1 ,2 ,2 ,3 ¿¿ 2 ,10 ,11 ,15 ¿¿ 4 ,13 ,16 ,21 ¿¿ 2 ,10 ,25 ,27 ¿

¿2 ,3 ,6 ,7 ¿¿ 1 ,12 ,12 ,17 ¿¿ 8 ,11 ,16 ,21 ¿¿ 2 ,14 ,23 ,27 ¿
¿1 ,4 ,8 ,9 ¿¿ 8 ,9 ,12 ,17 ¿¿ 3 ,6 ,22 ,23 ¿¿ 7 ,14 ,22 ,27 ¿
¿4 ,4 ,7 ,9 ¿¿ 1 ,6 ,18 ,19 ¿¿ 3 ,14 ,18 ,23 ¿¿ 10 ,10 ,23 ,27 ¿
¿2 ,6 ,9 ,11 ¿¿ 6 ,6 ,17 ,19 ¿¿ 6 ,13 ,18 ,23 ¿¿ 3 ,16 ,24 ,29 ¿

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¿6 ,6 ,7 ,11 ¿¿ 6 ,10 ,15 ,19 ¿¿ 9 ,12 ,20 ,25 ¿¿ 11 ,12 ,24 ,29 ¿
¿3 ,4 ,12 ,13 ¿¿ 4 ,5 ,20 ,21 ¿¿ 12 ,15 ,16 ,25 ¿¿ 12 ,16 ,21 ,29 ¿
¿2 ,5 ,14 ,15 ¿¿ 4 ,8 ,19 ,21 ¿¿ 2 ,7 ,26 ,27 ¿

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Pythagorean 5-tuple
A Pythagorean 5-tuple is consists of five positive integers a , b , c , d ,∧e such that

a ²+ b ²+c ²+ d ²=e ². Such a 5-tuple is commonly written (a , b , c , d , e ).This identity does

not give all solutions because it produces only reducible polynomials y , z , t (once

p , q , r , s are nonconstant). Examples of solutions which cannot be obtained by the

approaches in the answers below are also interesting.

Given a solution ( x , y , z , t , w), methods to construct a new solution

( x ' , y ' , z ' ,t ' , w ' ) are also of interest. For instance,

x ' =w+ y + zx ' =w+ y + z ,

y '=w+ z + xy '=w+ z + x ,

z '=w+ x+ yz '=w+ x+ y ,

t '=tt '=t ,

w '=2 w+ x+ y + z

One way to generate integer solutions is as follows: Let ¿ ( p+qi+rj+ sk ), where

p , q , r , s are rational integers and {1 , i, j , k } is the usual RR-basis for the algebra of

quaternions. Let v ' =( p−qi−rj−sk ) and ¿ v v ' =( p 2+ q2 +r 2 +s 2).. If we expand v 2 in the

form x + yi+ zj+tkx+ yi + zj+tk for integers x , y , z , t then we have x 2+ y 2+ z 2 +t 2=w 2 ,. This is

somewhat analogous to generating the Pythagorean triple ¿ by taking

( ℜ(x+iy)2 )2+( ℑ(x+ iy)¿¿ 2)2=¿ ¿ . It may be better to work with Hurwitz quaternions for

this question.

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 Answer extended following the answer of Alex qubeat below, and slight

rephrasing of the original question to place more emphasis on polynomials: At least in

the context of polynomials in R[u]R[u] (it is easy to run out of letters in this game, so uu

denotes an indeterminate here), more solutions may be manufactured using the fact

that the solutions to x (u)2+ y (u)2 + z (u)2 +t(u)2=w(u)2 with

x (u), y (u), z (u) , t(u) , w(u) ∈ R [u] have a semigroup structure. Alex's answer combines a

fixed solution with an essentially ``constant" solution, to produce other solutions, but

solutions can be combined in other ways.

A parametrization of solutions is

x=2 ad

y=2bd

z=2 cd

t=a 2+ b2+ c 2−d 2

w=a 2+ b2 +c 2+ d 2 .

It is easy to see that this generates all rational solutions if a,b,c,d are rational

numbers, and (consequently) all integers solutions up to a similarity factor, if a,b,c,d are

integers. Or you could also use this:

x=−a2+ b2 +c 2 +d 2−2 a( b+c +d )

y=a2−b 2+ c 2+ d2 −2b (a+ c+ d)

z=a 2+ b2−c 2 +d 2−2 c (a+ b+d )

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t=−a 2+ b2 +c 2−d 2−2 d ( a+b+ c)

w=2( a2−b 2+ c2 +d 2 ).

Another way to generate parametrisations is to repeatedly apply a

parametrisation of triples:

Say we start with:

2 s s 2−1
( x ( s) , y (s))=( , ),
s2 +1 s 2 +1

satisfying

x (s )2+ y (s)2=1.

To parametrise solutions to x 2+ y 2+ z 2=1, write x 2+ y 2=1−z 2 which we set equal to

w 2, so that a parametrised solution ( w(t), z( t)) to w 2+ z2 =1 gives rise to a parametrised

solution

( w(t) x (s), w (t) y (s) , z (t))=¿) to x 2+ y 2+ z 2=1.

A parametrization of all integer quintuples ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ,u , v) satisfying x 21+ x22 + x 23=uv

by a quintuple of polynomials with integer coefficients in the 12 parameters

y 0 , z 0 , z1 , z 2 , z 3 , z 4 , z12 , z 13 , z 14 , z 23 , z 24 , z34 is given by ( x 1)= y ( y 1 y 5 + y 2 y 6+ y 3 y 7 + y 4 y 8 )

x 2= y 0 (− y 1 y 6 + y 2 y 5 + y 3 y 8 + y 4 y 7) x 3= y 0 ¿ u= y 0 ( y 21+ y 22+ y 23+ y24) v= y 0 ( y 25 + y 26 + y 27 + y 28 )

To solve x 21 + x 22 + x 23=uv , we set x 4 = 0 in the general solutiox 21 + x 22 + x 23+ x 24 =uv

obtained in Proposition 2: − y 1 y 8+ y 2 y 7− y3 y 6 + y 4 y 5=0. (14) (The case y 0=0 only

contributes the zero solution which we will not miss.) The integer solutions of (14) can

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be parametrized by 11 parameters as follows. First we write

( y 1 , y2 , y 3 , y 4 )= z0 ( z 1 , z 2 , z 3 , z 4) with zi ∈ Z and ( z 1 , z 2 , z 3 , z 4 ) unimodular such that (

z 1 , z 2 , z 3 , z 4 ).(− y 8 , y 7 ,− y 6 , y 5 ) = 0 (the case y 1= y 2− y 3= y 4 =0 only contributes solutions

(0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , v ) which we will not miss). By [14], Remark after Lemma 9.6, we can write (

− y 8 , y 7 ,− y 6 , y 5 ) =

z 12( z 2 ,−z1 , 0 , 0)+ z 13 ( z 3 ,0 ,−z 1 , 0)+ z14 ( z 4 ,0 , 0 ,−z1 )+ z 23(0 , z 3 ,−z 2 ,0)+ z 24 (0 , z 4 , 0 ,−z 2)+ z 34 (0 , 0 , z 4 ,−z 3)

. This gives a parametrization of the integer solutions of(14) in the 11 parameters z0, z1,

z2, z3, z4, z12, z13, z14, z23, z24, z34. Therefore all integer solutions of x 21 + x 22 + x 23=uv

are parametrized by a polynomial solution with 12 parameters including y0. Another

parametrization of x 21 + x 22 + x 23=uv with 20 parameters can be obtained using [15],

Proposition 3.4 with k = 8. We now parametrize integer Pythagorean quintuples by a

single Pythagorean quintuple over the ring of integervalued polynomials in 14 variables.

This can be used to construct a parametrization by a finite number of integer-coefficient

polynomial Pythagorean .

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Pythagorean 6-tuple
We recall a few facts about the algebra of Lipschitz quaternions. L is a free Z-

module with basis 1 ,i , j , k and a free Z[i]-module with basis 1, j. L can be represented

as an algebra of 4 × 4 integer matrices or as an algebra of 2 × 2 matrices over Z[i] by

identifying w=a+ bi+ cj+dk M 2( w)=a+ bi c +di−c+ dia−bi respectively. An involution on L

is given by the Z-algebra anti-isomorphism a+ bi+ cj+ dk →(a+bi+cj+ dk)∗¿ a−bi−cj−dk.

In the 4 × 4 integer matrix representation, this corresponds to transposition; and in the 2

× 2 Gaussian integer matrix representation, to transposition followed by complex

conjugation. Definition. The norm of w=a+ bi+ cj+dk ∈ L is defined as

(a 2+ b2 +c 2+ d 2)2=det(M 4 (w))=(det M 2 (w))2 and the reduced norm as

a 2+b 2+ c 2+ d 2=w∗w=det M 2( w). For a 2×2 matrix M over L we define the norm of M as

the determinant of the 8×8 integer matrix obtained by replacing each matrix entry w by

M 4 ( w)and the reduced norm as the determinant of the 4×4 matrix over Z[i] obtained by

replacing each matrix entry w by M 2 (w)Remark.

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