1500 – 1900

There was a strong economic expansion from the 1500s to the 1900s, which led to major

transformations in social, cultural, and political sectors of many countries. By the time

Europeans discovered the efficiency of the Transatlantic Trade and the Slave Trade mainly with

India and Africa, countries such as those in the Middle East, China, and Japan either closed off

their doors to European influence or were open-minded in the idea of modernization or

westernization. However, their resistance towards the new change could only last so long as they

need to keep up with the early modern age, thereby eventually adapting a tinge of western

influence among their beliefs and practices. Europeans continued its voyage as it aims to expand

their influence through Imperialism, while other countries fell behind lest they accept

westernization.

In the Middle East, the readings exhibited an attitude of hubris which may very lead to the

downfall of the Ottoman Empire as the Europeans were growing stronger in the Dawn of The

Industrial Revolution. For instance, in Abdullah Wahhab’s The History and Doctrines of the

Wahhabis, he believed that secularists and atheists must be killed, for that is the only one way to

purify the Muslims back to their original state – and the Arabs failed religiously as they

worshipped mythical rituals, saints, and the logical reasoning of understanding God were not to

their benefit. Wahhab aims for modernization of Islam, but with no intervention from the

Westerners. Another demonstration of hubris would be from how women are viewed and are to

be treated in the Middle East. They are to submit to their husband’s wishes and follow the

societal rules, such as, upper class women would stay secluded in their homes, or cover their

faces and bodies while they are in public. But “Legal Opinions” written by Khayr al-Din Ramli

there shows a bit of modernization of Islam as women were given a right to divorce if the
husband could not provide for her or get her out of poverty. In terms of leadership, Oghier talked

about Suleiman in his Turkish Letters where the Sultan himself was not open to foreign ideas but

they were ready to use foreign inventions when necessary or the need arises. There is however

the talk about Janissaries and their preferences to use bows and arrows instead of the modern

weapons of Europe. Moreover, officials are selected by merit and public service, and that the

relatives of the new Sultan are killed off in order to preserve the line of succession to the throne.

Mustafa Kemal, on the other hand, talked about modernization and implementation of new laws

that will back up both women and men, refrain religious rulers from ruling a society, and

liberating the women and stabilization of family life. This is further supported by the “Muslim

Brotherhood” wherein all men and women are equal, laws are reformed, and abolishment of

political parties in order to unite people. But the consequences arose. There was in internal

division between militants and moderates and the influence of modern values in Islamic

countries where not yet very welcomed. Moreover, the Ottoman Empire declined during World

War I and it continued to fall behind as leaders deteriorate in terms of quality in leadership and

some countries in the Middle East rebelled against them. Moreover, they did many things in the

name of Islam, including dress codes for women, honor – killing, les interest in science,

education, and other cultures – all of which are signs o Islamic superiority which led to their

decline.

India, on the other hand, succeeded in some respects such as in education and science. They

welcomed European education as they think that Sanskrit is outdated, as evident in Rammohun

Roy’s Letter to Lord Ahmerst. According to him, this would help people get jobs at the East

India Company. However, major consequences would be the expansion of Catholicism,

increased British trade, negligence of their own religion, segregated education, and only the
middle class ill be able to have more education. They were also tolerable towards different types

of religions and in no way felt theirs was more superior. However, as evident in the Sepoy

Rebellion, Indians were not at all kind to those who try to undermine Hinduism and convert them

to Christianity. As much as there are some who embrace westernization, there are others who are

against it. A charismatic leader and passive activist who practiced Satyagraha, Mohandas Gandhi

himself, is not inclined to civilization through westernization as he believes that India did not

need help from other countries. To him, the white peoples were the root cause between Muslim

and Hindu conflicts. He defines civilization not as having the ability to live in comfortable

homes or owning properties, but instead, of having a “good conduct”.

One leader in the Mughal Empire, Jahangir, is one of the modest leaders who managed to expand

his empire through conquest and rebellions, and of course, influence from his father. He

modified the code of law and westernized it. His twelve decrees consisted of laws such as

prohibition of eating meat in his or his father’s birthday, setting up government schools and

hospitals, including banning widow burning, or sati – laws that would be fair for all, and for the

benefit of all.

The fall of imperial China was predicted by Emperor KangXi. He led many reforms that

improved China and welcomed the idea of Westernization. He talked about how he country will

eventually go into decline if they do not deal with population growth and problems of not dealing

with famine. Weakness of central government and abuse of power by the authorities are also a

factor. By 1800s, China seemed to have it all, economic growth - trade of corn, sweet potatoes,

cotton textiles, silk, production of paper, and printing books. But there was no growth in society.

No proper education from universities or institutions are present, nor where there any historical
changes or scientific revolution as they stuck with a traditionalist society and followed

Confucianism. An example is the partible inheritance wherein the father equally gives half of his

land to his two sons, and then the sons will do the same for their own respective children until

there is no more land to give, hence, farm. Furthermore, emperors such as Qianlong restricted

the trade between the “barbarians” (Europeans) and China, stating that they have already given

them the opportunity to trade goods with them, albeit at a very small-time window. He continues

to reject proposals from British, except the opium trade, as it will violate Chinese principles and

would hurt the “Celestial Empire”. In short, Qianlong thinks so highly of himself and the country

that he feels no need for outside intervention. There were many authors who called out their

leaders, stating the need to establish a reform since clinging onto traditional ways no longer

serves and helps the country. Of course, there exists fear that China will dissolve, Confucianism

will be forgotten, and the universe may cease to exist. Nevertheless, despite pleas from the

authors to accept new technologies, modernization, and learning new scientific knowledge.

Cutting down of trees, which led to mudslides, were happening as the population quadrupled,

%0% of the farmer’s produce were taken away as taxes, land prices go up, and cost of

production goes up. China still did not change which was the reason they fell behind, and the

government becomes corrupt.

Japan, on the other hand, rose to success as it welcomed modernization. But before that

happened there was a crisis in Tokugawa Japan. Neo – Confucianism was welcomed by the

aristocrats of the Tokugawa Era and were incorporated into their learnings. The author listed

certain details of how children are to be taught about how they treat their elders. Women,

however, are not without restraints. They are to have no type of education, and must fulfill filial

piety towards their parents, obey their husbands, prohibited to display a disagreeing attitude, and
must hold their in-laws of the highest importance. In order to stabile Japan, the Tokugawa

empire tightened their control over the Daimyo and their families, severed ties from the outside

world, freeze class divisions, and supported Confucianism – this was the four-part plan. Imperial

Japan, however, started to become known as it continued to make its conquest towards Korea,

Taiwan, and took over part of China. They traded silk, one important source of income. The

reason why Japan became successful than China is because of the need to get raw materials, and

made an investment in their rural economy, ended the reign of the Shogun and Daimyo, and the

Samurai, thereby claiming back their properties (lands) and given to the government. Farmers no

longer paid rent to Samurai but to the government, rice production increased as farmers got land

but still had to pay taxes, building infrastructures were a plus for more efficient trade, and

accepting new education and science, which not many countries like China have not been doing.

Europeans continued to spread Western influence in Africa and later, in Latin America.

Although there are some parts in West Africa with strong government, Africa was not in decline,

but their traditional science, as well as government and literacy were. This opens a window for

Europeans to Imperialize them. Africa exports slaves, gold, peanuts, cottons, and imports guns,

rum and other crops in return. Therefore Imperialism will take place since Africa has value, the

lands are able to grow root crops not grown elsewhere, and the demand for slaves is high.

Latin America, on the other hand, was poor but not yet in decline. This was due to their nation’s

political instability, deindustrialization, and had slavery.