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TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 1 Multiethnic Teaching

Methods in Higher Education: Perception, Practice, and Benefits

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TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 1

Multiethnic Teaching Methods in Higher Education: Perception, Practice,

and Benefits

Dr. John Opara

Abstract

Differences in grade point average (GPA) and graduation rates, among ethnic and gender

groups of students, questions the effectiveness of the lecture teaching method in

postsecondary schools, and elevates the need for alternative teaching methods. This

study analyzed the perception, practice, and benefits of multiethnic teaching methods,

using primary and secondary criteria to determine the levels of practice of multiethnic

teaching methods.

GPA measured academic performance. Perception, practice, and benefits were measured

by survey responses. A relationship between ethnicity and practice was found, and the

GPA of students in schools that practiced multiethnic teaching methods at greater levels

was found higher by 10%. Thus, it was concluded that significant benefits are derivable

from multiethnic teaching methods.

TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 2

Staggering differences in grade point average (GPA) and differences in

graduation rates among ethnic groups of students (APA, 2002; Appel, Catwright, Smith

& Wolf, 1996, 2005) question the effectiveness of the prevalent lecture-based teaching

method in postsecondary schools as benefiting some ethnic groups more than others. The

end to this problem is not foreseeable because enrollment of ethnically diverse students is

skyrocketing, constantly magnifying the achievement gap. This situation calls for a

reinvigorated improvement and search for alternative teaching methods to support the

lecture teaching approach and all endeavors to improve the academic performance and

grades of students. Declining academic achievement suggests there should be greater

application of practices, such as multiethnic teaching methods in higher education.

According to Zirkel (2008), one of the fundamental assumptions of multicultural

education is that practices and policies designed within a multicultural framework will

improve the academic performance and grades of students. However, a number of

factors flaw these assumptions, limiting the practice of multiethnic teaching methods.

These factors include the growing controversies over the method's benefits and paucity of

systematic research confirming that multiethnic teaching methods and practices enhance

student academic performance (Drew, 2006; Borman, 2003; Zirkel, 2008). There is a

need for more systematic qualitative study in defined areas of multicultural education that

distinguish the academic benefits derivable by its practices (e.g., Arismendi-Pardi, 2006;

Newmann, Bryk, & Nagaoka, 2001; Pearce, 2006; Schiro & Lawson, 2004; Tam &

Bassett, 2004; Villalpando, 2002). In addition, though tremendous ground has been

covered in the field of mathematics (e.g., ethnomathematics) multiethnic teaching

methods fall within the zone of multicultural educational practices that have not been
TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 3

widely researched nor widely applied (Arismendi-Pardi, 1999; D’Ambrosio, 1997; Drew,

2006; Zirkel, 2008).

Purpose

This study analyzed comparatively, along ethnic and gender lines, the perception,

practice, and benefits of multiethnic teaching methods among students and faculty in four

higher education institutions, to determine whether there exists a significant benefit in

using a multiethnic teaching method that reflects on GPA.

Assumption

The assumption is that if a group of students, in an institution with a greater

application of multiethnic teaching practices, has a significantly higher GPA compared to

students in another school with a lesser application and both schools are of the same level

determined through institutional comparison. Then it is logical to conclude that benefits

exist in the use of multiethnic teaching methods, and the difference in GPA results from

the degree of emphasis on multiethnic educational practices. (Post Secondary Education

Commission, 2009b; Rakhsha, 1996; Reyes, 2007; Smith, 1997, 1990; Winter, 2007;

Yap, 2005; Zirkel, 2007).

Variables

Variables or factors, such as admission/academic requirements, academic status

of the schools and students, department or subject, diversity ratio, cultural responsiveness

or cultural climate, and population should be similar, or the same in the two schools. The

key independent variables were: (a) ethnicity, (b) gender, and (c) diversity or

multicultural education training. The dependent variables were the perception, practice,

and GPA of students.

TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 4

Operational Definitions

Diversity index. Diversity index is a factor of the total proportion of minority

students, and the overall mix of groups of students for each institution in a given

academic year (Hart, 2009). Usually this is used to identify colleges where students are

most likely to encounter undergraduates from racial or ethnic groups different from their

own. The index factor ranges from zero to one, with one being the highest score

indicating highest level of diversity (Meyer & McIntosh, 2009).

Diversity orientation. Diversity orientation refers to all committed positive and

collaborative efforts by stakeholders, faculties, and staff in an institution, aimed at

defining and addressing diversity issues. Promoting a culture that values and supports

diverse student backgrounds as a means of enhancing student academic success, through

seminars, training, and courses, such as multiethnic teaching, is under the umbrella of

diversity orientation.

Equity pedagogy. Succinctly defined, equity pedagogy means using or mixing

different teaching styles to meet the diverse needs of students, particularly minority

students. Equity pedagogy is one of the five components of multicultural education.

Faculty diversity orientation. This refers to faculties' use of instructional

methodology that includes content on ethnic and racial issues, and research or writing

addressing women, ethnicity, or race.

Grade point average. The GPA of a student is calculated by dividing the grade

points earned by the number of credits attempted. Stanford University (2008) calculates

GPA as the sum of all grade point values divided by the sum of units for all courses
TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 5

graded. Whereas GPA may only refer to a single semester, a cumulative grade point

average is the mean GPA from all semesters.

Multiethnic teaching method. A multiethnic teaching method is a nontraditional

teaching approach that embodies a series of practices, techniques, and models that

integrate or emulate group mores and practices of one’s culture of origin and concomitant

sense of belonging.

Literature Review

The literature review addresses four main themes: (a) the perception of

multiethnic teaching methods among students and faculty, (b) the practice, (c) the

benefits of multiethnic teaching methods, and (d) multiethnic teaching methods and

student grade point average (GPA).

The Perception of Multiethnic Teaching Methods as Important

The perception of multiethnic teaching methods as important varies among

faculty, researchers, students, and institutions. The perception of multiethnic teaching

methods as very important among faculty members are (a) diversity, (b) differences in

completion rates among Whites and ethnic minority students, (c) institutional cultural

responsiveness, (d) faculty diversity, and (e) multicultural training and controversies on

the benefits of multiethnic teaching methods.

As diversity increases, the importance and need for alternative instructional

methods escalates, given increasing ethnic diversity and declining academic performance

(Hurtado, 2009; Marklein, 2007; New Research on Faculty Attitudes, 2009; Post

Secondary Education Commission, 2009a). According to the National Center for

Education Statistics (2006), college enrollment is expected to increase by an additional

TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 6

13% between 2006 and 2015 across the educational spectrum and so will diversiity.

Banks (1991) noted that the changing ethnic texture of the U.S. population has major

implications for all the nation's institutions, and educators should transform the

challenges of increasing ethnic diversity in the classrooms into educational opportunities

for all students.

Teachers will have to find ways to ensure the success of students, and that

includes finding alternative ethnic perspectives. However, not all faculty members

respond to the need for alternative perspectives or recognize the need in spite of

increasing diversity in the classroom and its benefits (Chinn & Gollnick, 2004; Tagg,

2003). The effectiveness of the traditional and conventional teaching methods remains

highly questioned as the academic performance gap between Black, Hispanic, Native

American, White, and Asian American students widens at the higher education level

(APA, 2002; Schmidt, 2007).

Perhaps inadequate attention to ethnic factors and inhibitions in instructional

practices is a contributing factor, as studies (Banks, 1991; Drew, 2006; Ogbu, 1978,

2003) noted. This calls for ethnic and cultural responsiveness or sensitivity, which

affects faculty perception of multiethnic teaching methods as important. Especially when

perceived as critical like the K-12 environment, where efforts and practices to improve

student academic achievement are considered important hurdles to constantly meet

accreditation and funding requirements (Altbach, 2001; Braskamp, 2009; Weissbarg,

Fritschler, & Magness, 2008). Concerned educators and institutions are inclined toward

embracing multicultural educational practices not only as innovative school improvement

ideas for maintaining quality of education (Council for Higher Education Accreditation,
TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 7

2006; Eaton, 2009; Harcleroad, 1983; Marklein, 2007), but as a means of improving the

academic performance of students and keeping the doors open for accreditation and

funding. Such moves represent organizational cultural responsiveness that impacts

perception and steers faculty in the right direction. In essence, faculty perception on the

importance of multiethnic teaching methods depends on their perception of institutional

cultural responsiveness and indirectly on statutory requirements and funding (Council for

Higher Education Accreditation, 2006; Eaton, 2009; Harcleroad, 1983; Hurtado, 2009;

Marklein, 2007).

Faculty overall perception of the importance of multiethnic teaching approaches

to some extent depends on diversity among faculty, regardless of diversity in the student

population. However, training and courses taken in diversity and multicultural education

dilute the effect of ethnic homogeneity among faculty regarding perception of the

importance of multiethnic teaching methods (Ofori-Dankwa, 2000), as explained in the

next section. Faculty trained in diversity/multicultural teaching approaches are more

likely to perceive multiethnic teaching methods as highly important in a diverse

classroom than those untrained in these methods (Chinn & Gollnick, 2004).

Students' perception of the importance of multiethnic teaching methods depends

on how deeply and effectively teachers apply it in instructional delivery to enhance their

learning in a diverse classroom (Alfred, Louis, & Mervyn, 2005; Amosa, 2005; Banks,

1991). Accreditation and funding requirements are tied to academic achievement, and

institutions pressure educators to increase efforts and practices to improve students'

academic achievement as a way of meeting the goals of accreditation and funding

requirements. This, in turn, improves the effectiveness of educators and students'

TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 8

perception (Eaton, 2009, Ladson-Billings, 2006; Villegas & Lucas, 2002). However, in

an ethnically homogeneous academic setting, efforts at improving students' academic

performance through multiethnic teaching practices may never be necessary, and its

perception as important among faculty, students, and the institution might be low (New

Research on Faculty Attitudes, 2009).

The Practice of Multiethnic Teaching Methods

All teaching methods can be classified as traditional and nontraditional. The

traditional method is synonymous with the conventional lecture-based method, which is

teacher focused, unlike the student-centered approach favored by multicultural educators

(Chiou, 2008; Domask, 2007; Renea, 2005). On the other hand, the nontraditional

teaching methods are student or learner centered. The learner-centered teaching method

is considered nontraditional as it deviates from the traditional lecture method

Conner (2004) argues that a learner-centered teaching method would be most

appropriate at the higher education level, because students are mostly adults who bring

diverse ethnic experiences that can be activated and applied to engage them in learning

and in the construction of knowledge. Conner challenged the predominance of lecturing.

Other studies (e.g., Garcia-Capero, 2008; Gurin, Dey, Hurtado & Gurin, 2002; Halagao,

2004; Kozulin, 2003; Rogers & Freiberg, 1994; Rugutt et al., 2003; Tagg, 2003) have

identified the shortcomings of the traditional lecture method, suggesting that more needs

to be done to focus attention on other beneficial teaching methods that may enhance

students' academic achievement.

One of the main shortcomings of the lecture method is that it does not meet the

multiethnic needs of students' learning and limits the construction of knowledge because
TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 9

rote and passive learning (Garcia-Capero, 2008; Renzulli, 1999a, 1999b) characterize it.

This shortcoming needs to be supplemented to avoid some of the factors that constitute

obstacles to learning, such as presenting knowledge in an abstract, decontextualized way,

which, according to Boaler and Greeno (2000), D’ Ambrosio, 1997, is alienating for

non-Western students. The combination of both the traditional and nontraditional

teaching methods may apparently be the solution.

On the other hand, some educators hold a different view about the lecture

teaching method based on their research findings. Beers (2005) concluded that the

nontraditional methods have no advantage over the traditional, since there was no

difference in student objective scores in the use of the two methods. He noted, however,

that students preferred the nontraditional method. Winship (2006) also observed that

nontraditional methodology is critical for the engagement of students' interest in learning,

and demands the involvement of educators in honing the effectiveness of this approach.

Current trends in higher education manifest a shift of preference toward the

nontraditional teaching methods by some faculty (Schumacher & Kennedy, 2008).

Benefits of Multiethnic Teaching Methods

Documented evidence shows that multiethnic teaching methods, like many

multicultural educational practices, can be used to enhance students' learning (Amosa,

2005; Banks, 1991; Schiro & Lawson, 2004). Studies (e.g., Allport, 1954; Banks et al.,

2005; Stephan & Vogt, 2004; Zirkel, 2008) have shown that knowledge construction,

prejudice reduction, and empowering school cultures can enhance students' academic

achievement. A relationship exists between ethnicity, gender, and the benefits of a

 TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION
10

multiethnic teaching method as reported by some researchers (Amosa, 2005; Tam &

Bassett, 2004; Villalpando, 2002), and confirmed by the results of this study.

Some of the main factors that affect the perception and practice of multiethnic

teaching methods are (a) diversity among faculty and students, (b) faculty training or

courses taken in diversity or multicultural education, and (c) institutional cultural

responsiveness ("Faculty Involvement," 2009; Marklein, 2007; New Research on Faculty

Attitudes, 2009). There are benefits resulting from the practice of multiethnic teaching

methods reported by some researchers illustrated in Table 1 below.

Tam and Bassett (2004), in their study, showed that female students benefited

more from diversity measures, such as a multiethnic teaching method. They concluded

that all students, regardless of ethnicity, minority, or nonminority, benefited. It is

noteworthy that these benefits result partly from diversity measures or culturally

responsive actions, such as the student-centered ethnomathematics (D’Ambrosio, 1997)

and multiethnic instructional approaches, taken by faculty to enhance the academic

success of minority students.

Table 1

Some Researchers and the Benefits of Multiethnic Teaching Methods Reported
______________________________________________________________________
Researcher
______________________________________________________________________
Austin (1993a, p. 431)
Tam and Bassett (2004)
Amosa (2005)
Alfred, Louis, & Mervyn (2005)
Hallam (2006, pp. 50 & 51)
Christensen (2006, pp. 185 & 186)
Villalpando (2002, pp. 126 & 127)
Pearce (2006, pp. 13 & 21)
TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION
11
Benefits
Taking ethnic courses and contact with other ethnic
groups led to greater benefits in cognitive and
affective development, especially in institutions that
emphasize diversity through policies, faculty
teaching, and research.
Ethnic diversity measures improve the quality of
educational experience and students learn more. A
student from a very diverse school has a higher
GPA than a student from a nondiverse school.
Female students benefit more from diversity.
Multiethnic content integration led to significantly
higher levels of engagement among culturally and
linguistically different students than did their White
peers. Engagement with a multiethnic teaching
style is affected by ethnicity.
Teaching based on multicultural approach enhances
academic performance. Not doing so leads to
frustration and failure.
The nontraditional PLR empowers and engages
more students in learning. Through the
incorporation of conversational or discourse styles
(ethnographic in nature) the PLR enhances
engagement and learning among students.
Methods that approximate cultural norms enhance
students' remembering and critical thinking skills
and may improve academic performance.
Faculty diversity orientation or the use of
instructional methodology that includes content on
ethnic and racial issues, research or writing
addressing ethnicity or women, enhances academic
outcomes.
Teaching and instructional methods that identify
and emulate cultural mores, such as high levels of
expectation, strict discipline and parents’
involvement, enhance academic performance
 TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 12

Few, if any, researchers have reported quantitatively how the benefits resulting from the

practice of a multiethnic teaching method reflect on the grades of students. In consideration of

this, some researchers (e.g., Alfred et al., 2005; Amosa, 2005; Santamaria, 2009; Villalpando,

2002) suggested that studies be carried out to determine how reported benefits may reflect on the

grades of students.

Based on these reported benefits and suggestions for further research endeavors, there is

need for more investigation on the following:

1. What is the effect of gender and ethnicity in the practice of

multiethnic teaching? That is, what is the influence of gender and ethnicity on faculty

diversity orientation?

2. To what extent does a male or female student benefit from

multiethnic teaching practices?

3. Which student ethnic group benefits more from

multiethnic teaching practices?

4. How do benefits reflect on student grades?

Fordham and Ogbu (1986) asserted that the American society is entangled with a social

culture that denies the capacity of intellectual achievement among students, especially Black

students, which needs to be dismantled within and outside the classroom. Based on their views,

Pearce (2006) suggested further research on the cultural entanglements that permeate classrooms

and their impact on academic achievement. The widening achievement gap makes such a study

urgent and crucial in the search for measures to break down all barriers to academic

performance. Studies have revealed and concluded that instructions, approximating certain

ethnic and cultural norms, could lead to greater engagement of some groups of students in
 TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 13

learning (e.g., Hallam, 2006; Pearce, 2006). Exposed are some crucial questions on the impact

of gender and ethnicity on the perception, practice, and benefits of multiethnic teaching

approaches. Answering these questions inform one's understanding of not only how some

pedagogical practices (as part of what happens in the cultural environment) may be benefiting or

denying intellectual achievement among groups of students, but also how some of the factors

affect faculty perception and practice of these pedagogical methods.

Findings

The following are the findings from this study:

1. Students and faculty differ significantly on the perception of multiethnic teaching

methods as important in helping students improve on their learning.

2. There is a significant relationship between ethnicity and the practice of multiethnic

teaching methods by faculty.

3. There was no statistically significant relationship, at α = 0.05, between a teacher's gender

and the practice of multiethnic teaching methods.

4. There was statistically significant difference in benefits, at α = 0.05, between White and

non-White students from multiethnic teaching methods.

5. There was no statistically significant difference in benefits from multiethnic teaching

methods, at α = 0.05, between male and female students

6. The GPA of students in schools that practiced multiethnic teaching methods at greater

levels was higher by 10%.

Conclusions

Based on the results/findings from the research questions, some conclusions were made

on the perception, practice, and benefits of multiethnic teaching methods among students and
 TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 14

faculty. The conclusions are as follows: (a) majority of students and faculty perceive multiethnic

teaching approaches as very important in learning; (b) ethnicity is a key factor that affects the

practice of multiethnic teaching methods; (c) gender has no significant influence on the benefits

and practice of multiethnic teaching methods; (d) non-White students benefit more from

multiethnic teaching methods than White students ; (e) students’ GPA are higher in schools that

practice multiethnic teaching methods at greater levels.

Figure 1. Gender and ethnic differences: Perception of faculty and students on the importance of
multiethnic teaching methods

Out of the five key factors that affect the perception of the importance of multiethnic

teaching methods, the most influential on the greatest number of students is the ability of

multiethnic teaching methods to help in meeting students' educational goals, followed by

learning. For the faculty, out of the five key factors that influence the perception of the

importance of multiethnic teaching methods, the most influential is feedback, followed by

 TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 15

diversity. Figures 2 and 3 show factors that influence students' and faculties' perception of the

importance of multiethnic teaching methods in helping students in learning.

Figure 2. Factors that influence students' perception of the importance of multiethnic teaching
methods

Figure 3. Factors that influence faculties' perception of the importance of multiethnic teaching
methods

Ethnicity
 TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 16

There is a significant relationship between ethnicity and the practice of multiethnic

teaching methods by faculty. There is a comparatively higher incidence of low practice among

White and Asian faculties than among Black and Hispanic faculties. Figure 4 shows the

relationship between ethnicity and level of practice among faculty in the institutions studied.

Figure 4. Ethnicity and the practice of multiethnic teaching methods

Gender and Practice

There is no statistically significant relationship between a teacher's gender and the

practice of multiethnic teaching methods. However, within institutions, multicultural education

model institutions have a greater percentage of their female faculty population practicing

multiethnic teaching methods to a greater extent. Figure 5 shows the between-institutions

comparison of the levels of practice of multiethnic teaching methods by gender, while Figure 6

shows the within-institutions level of practice.

 TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 17

Figure 5. Between-institutions comparison: Male and female levels of practice of multiethnic

teaching methods

Figure 6. Within-institutions comparison: Male and female levels of practice of multiethnic

teaching methods

Ethnicity and Benefits

There is a significant difference in benefits between White and non-White students from

multiethnic teaching methods. Hispanic students are most engaged by a multiethnic teaching

method, followed by Asians, and then Blacks. White students benefit the least. Figure 7 shows

the key categories of benefits by ethnic groups.

 TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 18

Figure 7. The benefits of multiethnic teaching methods by ethnicity

Gender and Benefits

There is no significant difference in benefits from multiethnic teaching methods between

male and female students. Figure 8 shows the key categories of benefits by male and female

groups.

Figure 8. Gender and the benefits of multiethnic teaching methods

 TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 19

Practice and GPA

There is a difference in GPA between students attending institutions practicing greater

levels of multiethnic teaching methods and students attending those institutions with lower levels

of such practices. The GPA of students is higher in institutions that practice greater levels of

multiethnic teaching methods. Figure 9 shows the mean GPA and the levels of practice of

multiethnic teaching methods in four institutions. Results from respondents accurately predicted

Institutions A and B as model institutions which practice multicultural education at greater levels

than Institutions C and D.

Figure 9. GPA and faculty practice of multiethnic teaching methods

Implications

The significant difference between teachers and students on the importance of METM

suggests the need for greater understanding by faculty on how helpful METM can be to students

and the need for an effective feedback system. The significant relationship that exists between

ethnicity and the practice of METM implies that more attention should be focused on ethnicity

rather than gender in order to boost practice and invariably the benefits of METM, since gender
 TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 20

has no significant relationship with practice, and male and female students benefit equally from

METM. Since non-White students benefit more than White students form METM, and schools

that practice METM to a greater extent or level have students with GPAs higher by 10%

compared to others, METM could be used to target and enhance the achievement of non-White

students. Furthermore, having an ethnically diverse faculty is imperative for institutions that

may want to boost the practice of METM and its benefits, given that ethnicity is directly related

to its practice, and increasing the ethnic diversity of faculty would mean increasing the practice

of METM. Not diversifying faculty ethnically would then imply negligence of the need to

employ all avenues to ensure students' success.

The literature review and the statistical results from this study substantiated the critical

importance of multicultural teaching techniques, such as METM as effective tools, not only for

enhancing the academic performance or success of all students, but for closing the achievement

gap between White and non-White students (Aceves, 2006; Alexander, 2007). Utilizing METM

most effectively involves focusing its key strengths on the groups identified by this study as

beneficiaries from its practice. This and creating greater awareness of the benefits of METM

among students and faculty undergird the recommendations of this study.

Recommendations

Results showed that institutions practicing METM at greater levels have students with

higher GPAs compared to others, which means that significant benefit are derivable from using

METM and suggests that educational practices under METM do impact students' GPA.

However, these benefits may not be significantly realized if practice is not effective.

To have effective practice and realize the benefits of METM, the following key

recommendations are critical:

 TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 21

1. Communication. To create greater awareness of the benefits, develop an effective feedback

system on students' benefits and understand their preferred teaching techniques, possibly

with student rating.

2. More in-depth studies on the practice and effectiveness of METM, considering the

following: (a) socioeconomic factors or status of students, and (b) practice in affluent or non-

affluent institutions, such as the Ivy Leagues.

3. Strict adherence (in further studies) to the use of rigorous steps to determine the significance

and no significance of factors, as was the case in this study with gender, practice, and GPA.

Communication

The goal of communication is to create greater awareness of benefits. Logically, a

greater knowledge of the benefits of METM more than likely induces greater practice. Results

from this study revealed a greater need for METM by students than faculty understands, as well

as a slack in communicating this need to faculty. The slack in communication on the benefits of

METM affects practice, feedback, and invariably the benefits. Three levels of communications

are necessary and recommended for effective METM: (a) communicate to students, (b)

communicate to faculty, and (c) communicate to administration.

Communicating to students involves four things: finding out from the students how

METM can enhance their learning; finding out their preference for METM; communicating to

students, through a presentation, the benefits of METM indicated by this study; and, most

importantly, letting students know how helpful their feedback can be to faculty for continued

practice and more benefits.

Communicating to faculty involves a presentation of the results of this study. Such a

presentation has the potential of inducing faculty to reflect on their teaching methods and may
 TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 22

lead to a modification of practice, particularly among faculties that are purely traditional in their

teaching approach. This might motivate and engender support among faculty for further studies

or investigations that relate to nontraditional teaching techniques that are multicultural and

beneficial to students. A faculty presentation should emphasize the following: (a) groups, gender

or ethnic, that practice multiethnic teaching methods; (b) the nature and levels of practice; (c) the

benefits students derive and how it reflects on GPA; and (d) the need for student feedback and

use of student-rating feedback.

Use of Student-Rating Feedback for Improving College Instruction

Creating greater awareness can be done through faculty use of students-rating feedback

for improving college instruction. Colleges and universities use student rating for three reasons:

(a) administrative evaluation of teaching effectiveness and decisions for pay increase, promotion,

and tenure; (b) providing feedback to teachers for improving instructions; and (c) helping

students select courses and instructors (Cohen, 2005, Cohen & Lotan, 1994). There should be

more attention focused on using student rating as a means to strengthen the feedback teachers

receive on instructional approaches, particularly how METM can enhance learning. To improve

effectiveness of METM, the list for student-rating feedback for improving college instruction

should include factors such as the application of METM, so that students can indicate how

METM can enhance their learning and rate instructors on the use of METM. This will create an

opportunity for effective practice and use of METM to enhance learning, given that less

emphasis has been paid to the use of student rating as an instructional improvement tool (Cohen,

2005).

Additionally, there should be an increase in the frequency/timing of student-rating

feedback for improving the METM instructional approach. Instructors and teachers need to have
 TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 23

prior knowledge of instructional methods that are most effective for any group of students in the

class if they wish to enhance academic achievement for not only the next class they will teach,

but the current class or students they are teaching. So application of METM requires effective

communication in advance to facilitate a pre-engagement or pre-instructional feedback at the

beginning of a class. Rating at the end of the class is considered insufficient. Rating and

feedback of the METM instructional methods should be done three times: once at the beginning

(pre-engagement rating) to find if it enhances student learning, and ratings in the middle and end

to enable measuring the effectiveness.

Third, to institutions, policymakers, and governments, a presentation of this study is

recommended. The presentation should focus on the perception, practice, and benefits of METM

among students and faculty, and its policy implication for the success of all students, particularly

minority students for the 21st century. This presentation should, in addition, be geared toward

mobilizing government funds and actions for systematic large-scale studies, following the

procedures in this study.

Further Studies on the Effectiveness and Practice of METM Considering Socioeconomic

Factors Affecting Students and Institutions

Further in-depth studies on the effectiveness and practice of METM is recommended,

considering socioeconomic factors in order to have a complete understanding about the

effectiveness of METM, since gender and ethnicity have been examined in this study. Such

studies should consider the following: (a) socioeconomic factors or status of students, and (b)

practice in affluent or non-affluent institutions, such as the Ivy Leagues. Additionally, studies

are recommended to examine METM and within-school differences in GPA outcomes involving

a greater number of institutions. Large-scale studies that could spur action in the nature of legal
 TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 24

mandates in the government circles for mandatory practice of multiethnic teaching techniques

are recommended also.

Use of Rigorous Procedures to Determine Significance Factors and METM Impact on GPA

Rigorous steps or procedures are recommended to be followed in determining the

significance of gender, and also in determining the impact of METM on GPA, following specific

procedures as in this study and as described below.

Gender. In order to avoid any bias, random sampling, as was done in this study, is

strictly recommended. Also, it is erroneous and lacking in depth to determine the significance of

the relationship between gender and the practice of METM without considering the levels of

practice in both male and female groups to be compared. To replicate this study, and to

determine the significance of gender relative to practice, especially when comparison is involved

and levels of practice differ, care should be taken not to run into the conclusion that there is a

relationship between gender and practice based only on numerical count for male and female

groups. Scrutinizing data in detail by looking at the levels of practice of METM in both male

and female faculty, as was done in this study, was essential (due to the comparative nature of this

study) to create the foundation for a valid comparison based on levels of practice and differences

in GPA. Following the logical approach of examining levels of practice proportionately among

male and female faculty in the institutions showed a lack of statistical significance by gender.

The level of practice has implications for validity in the comparison of the impact of

gender, learning outcome, and GPA among the groups. Therefore, it would be erroneous not to

consider levels of practice by gender groups as a factor in determining the significance of gender.

To determine the significance of gender in practice, the following steps must be followed. First,

data should be grouped according to gender (male and female). Second, the questions addressing
 TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 25

gender should be five-point Likert-scale questions, with points probing different levels of

practice. Third, data for each gender group (male or female) must be tallied according to levels

of practice (high or low), as was done in this study. Fourth, an appropriate statistical procedure

should be used that measures and considers not only the numerical strength of each gender, but

also examines each gender's level of practice proportionately and relative to the other, and

compares their differences in arriving at the significance of gender. Tukey-Kramer multiple-

comparison procedures and chi-square multiple-sample tests are recommended for studies of this

nature involving intervening or interacting factors (Balnave & Cupti, 2001; Mendenhall et al.,

2006; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001).

GPA. To determine the impact of METM on GPA the institutional comparison approach

is recommended. Starting with the institution with the highest students' mean GPA in a

descending order, the mean GPA of students in each institution must be tabulated and charted

together with faculty levels of practice. Also tabulated is the mean GPA as a percentage of 4.0

(maximum GPA), after making sure the universities for comparison use the same 4.0 scale.

Practice and GPAs in the institutions are finally compared. Most universities in the United

States use a 4.0 scale, with the exception of Harvard University and Stanford University, which

use the 4.3 scale, and care must be taken to control the differences between institutions.

The rigorous procedures used in this study and recommendations are based on procedures

used in similar studies and the opinions/recommendations of experts (e.g., Balnave & Cupti,

2001; Mendenhall et al., 2006; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001; Tam & Basset, 2004; Villalpando,

2002). The 10% higher GPA observed in institutions practicing METM at greater levels will

most likely be observed in any study that follows the parameters in this study, as was the case in

Tam and Basset, though their study showed an increase of 3% due to diversity measures. This
 TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 26

10% perhaps represents a percentage of minority students that were exceptionally helped by

METM and is a positive outcome in the in the two institutions concerned.

Controlling differences between institutions. Thoroughly controlling the differences

between institutions is essential in order to ensure a truly comparative study on METM. The

following were controlled to make for a truly comparative study in this case: (a) diversity, (b)

population, (c) status, (d) entry requirements, (e) multicultural/ multiethnic initiatives, and (f)

course offering. For example, diversity and population were used to control for the effect of

diversity and ensure similarity, while multicultural and multiethnic initiatives were used to

determine not only the levels of practice, but that METM practices were actually applied in the

institutions. A set of primary and secondary criteria were used to ensure a valid comparison, and

institutions that did not meet the criteria were dropped until the best four for comparison were

chosen. Primary criteria must consider similarity in the institutions, while secondary criteria

considered the application of METM.

Higher education institutions should strive to hire and maintain more ethnically diverse

faculty in order to boost the practice and benefits of METM, since there is a relationship between

ethnicity and multicultural practices (such as multiethnic teaching methods) that can enhance

student outcomes. Faculty should be encouraged, through training and staff development, to

focus on blending teaching techniques to address the needs of all students. Blending the lecture

teaching method with METM is critical, because results show it as effective in helping Black and

Hispanic students in learning.

 TEACHING METHODS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 27

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