Transactions of the IMF

The International Journal of Surface Engineering and Coatings

ISSN: 0020-2967 (Print) 1745-9192 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ytim20

The Electroforming—Filament Winding Process: A

Method of Producing Metal Matrix Composites

S. J. Harris, A. A. Baker, A. F. Hall & R. J. Bache

To cite this article: S. J. Harris, A. A. Baker, A. F. Hall & R. J. Bache (1971) The
Electroforming—Filament Winding Process: A Method of Producing Metal Matrix Composites,
Transactions of the IMF, 49:1, 205-213, DOI: 10.1080/00202967.1971.11870190

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00202967.1971.11870190

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 The Electroforming-Filament Winding Process :
A Method of Producing Metal Matrix Composites
by S. J. Harris, A. A. Baker*, A. F. Hall and R. J. Bache
Dept of Metallurgy, University of Nottingham
MS received 29 March 1971

SUMMARY-Electroforming coupled with filament winding can be used as a method of producing sophisticated metal
matrix composites; this process has a close analogy to that already in use with plastic matrices. The main limitation
of the Electroforming-Filament Winding Process (EFW) occurs when structures with a high winding angle are
produced. In this case even at relatively low angles the level of porosity in the composites becomes high. The
reasons for this and other parameters introducing porosity into the structure are examined, eg the effect of fibre
size, composite growth rate, the use of non-conducting fibres and multi-filament tows. It has been found that a
change in geometry is produced at the composite-electrolyte interface when any of the above variables is imposed
upon the EFW process and this leads to localized alterations in electrodeposition growth behaviour. At high
winding angles the resulting increase of porosity has been explained in terms of fibre crossover points which
locally increase the radial fibre growth rate. This problem is due to the helical method of filament winding and it is
suggested that it may be overcome by using a polar winding method.

INTRODUCfiON directions and hot pressing. Both of these processes can be

ATTEMPTS have been made to increase the strength and
creep resistance of electroformed metals by the incorpor-
ation of fine dispersions of ceramic particles. This approach
has been of limited success because the process allows
coagulation ·of the fine particles and does not provide
sufficiently high dislocation densities, that is without resort-
ing to further mechanical processing which defeats the
object of electroforming.1 •2 However, most of these diffi-
culties can be overcome dramatically by reinforcement of
the electroform with strong, stiff fibres such as metal wires,
for example high strength steel piano wires, and ceramic
fibres, for instance, boron, silicon carbide and carbon.
Potentially, a range of materials with high specific mech-
anical properties may be produced by a modification of the
conventional electroforming process.
This type of strengthening is particularly well known in
the form of glass fibre reinforced plastics and in the use of
high tensile steel rods in concrete and, more recently,
carbon fibres in plastics. The fibres are arranged so that
they are preferentially loaded and therefore take most of
the applied stress. A more detailed treatment of the prin-
ciples of fibre reinforcement is given by Kelly and Davies.3
An ideal fabrication process for fibre reinforced metals
must allow for control over fibre spacing, orientation and
volume fracture; furthermore it must do this without
damaging fibres. Filament winding is a very important
technique used in the fabrication of high strength plastic
components reinforced with either glass or carbon fibres,
such as pressure vessels, rocket cases and other thin skinned
solids of revolution, 4 which satisfies these requirements. To
obtain strengthening in more than one direction the fibres,
pre-coated with resin, are wound either at a high angle or
at oo and 90° to the axis of rotation. The first type is
produced on a helical or lathe type of machine with typical
fibre angles of -60°. With the 0° and 90° type a polar
winding machine is used (putting down low angle helical
winding alternately at oo and 90°). Components which
cannot be made directly by filament winding may be pro-
duced by laminating preformed sheet (warp sheet) or tape.
It is possible to use a filament winding process to produce
the warp sheet. Components such as panels or compressor
blades can be produced by stacking or laminating layers
of warp sheet with the fibres orientated in the desired
*Now at the Aeronautical Research Laboratories, Melbourne,
Australia.
closely paralleled with metals using electroforming as a
method to apply the matrix.
Recently a number of papers 5 - 7 have reported on a method
of producing fibre reinforced metals based on a filament
winding and electroforming technique. In this paper a more
detailed investigation on the advantages and limitations of
this process is described and some examples of the use of
the process to form actual composites are given.
THE ELECTROFORMING-FILAMENT WINDING PROCESS
In the process described by Baker, Harris and Holmes, 5
continuous conducting or non-conducting fibres are wound
onto a rotating cathodic mandrel submerged in an electro-
plating bath, see Fig 1. The metal is deposited on the
mandrel surface and on the fibres (if they are conducting)
until the fibre layer is wound on. The main system used for
this investigation was nickel (deposited from a sulphamate
bath) reinforced with 50 p.m. tungsten wires. With non-
conducting fibres the matrix grows from the mandrel
surface alone.
In the simple winding system used the fibres follow a
helical path, which as will be shown later sets an important
limitation on the winding angle that can be used with the
process. The volume fraction of fibres that can be incor-
porated by the process is determined by the rate of depo-
sition and the rate at which the fibres (monofilaments or
multifilaments) are wound onto the mandrel. Two products
are possible, as described earlier for fibre reinforced plastics.
The first is the continuously wound component and the
second is warp sheet for further processing. Most of the
limitations dealt with here are associated with the pro-
duction of the wound component.
It is of course most important that the electrodeposited
metal should produce a continuous matrix. The ability of
various electrolytes was investigated in this respect using a
simple model to simulate the process. 8 • The solutions
investigated and the results obtained are shown in Table I.
As can be seen, it is only simple salt electrQiytes and alu-
minium from non-aqueous solution that will function with
the process. This is because such solutions have good
micro-throwing power and this allows metal to be thrown
into the fine crevices between fibres.
The most important geometrical limitation of the process
when used for producing filament wound components is

205
 TABLE l. CLASSIFICATION AND OPERATING CONDITIONS OF ELECTROPLATING SoLUTIONS

Electrode position Solution composition and normal Possible

Deposited metal operating condition application of Type of
solution* deposit
(CD=current density) composite
Nickel Sulphamate(a) (ll(X) Nickel sulphamate 600 g/1 High temperature Continuous
Nickel chloride 10 g/1 structural
Boric acid 40 g/1
Temperature 60 to 70°C
pH 3·8 to 4·2 CD up to 8600 A/m2
Nickel I cobalt alloy Sulphamate (X) Nickel sulphamate 200 g/1 High temperature Continuous
(60/40) tCobalt sulphamate 24 g/1 structural
Boric acid 35 g/1
Temperature 45°C pH 3·8 to 4·2
CD 215 Ajm2
Copper (i) Sulphate (X) Copper sulphate 188 g/1 Bearings Continuous
Sulphuric acid 74g/l
Temperature 15 to 50°C
CD 320 to 540 A/m2
(ii} Fluoborate (X) Copper 120 g/1 Continuous
Fluoboric acid 31 g/1
Temperature 27 to 49°C
CD up to 4300 A/m2
(iii) Pyrophosphate(b)(Y} Copper pyrophosphate 94 g/1 Semi-continuous
Potassium pyrophosphate 300 g/1
Ammonia 2ml/l
Temperature 50 to 60°C
pH 8·0 to 8·6 CD up to 320 A/m2
(iv) Cyanide(a) (2)(Y} Copper 38 g/1 Discontinuous
Free potassium cyanide 28 g/1
Temperature 54 to 66°C
pH 11·5 CD 215 A/m2
Bronze (i) Copper cyanide I Copper 32 g/1 Bearings Discontinuous
(90 I 10) stannate (a) (3)(Y) Tin 16 g/1
Sodium hydroxide 10 g/1
Free sodium hydroxide 15 g/1
Temperature 60 to 65°C
pH 8·5 to 9·0 CD 540 A/m2
(ii) Copper cyanide/ Copper 15 g/1 Discontinuous
pyrophoshate (c) (Y) Stannous tin 0·5 g/1
Stannic tin 4 g/1
Free potassium cyanide 5 to 10 g/1
Temperature 60°C pH 9·5
CD 215 to 430 A/m2
Lead Fluoborate(a)(X) Lead 100 g/1 Bearings Continuous
Free fluoboric acid 44 g/1
Temperature 15°C CD 160 to
215 A/m2
Lead/tin alloy Fluoborate (a l (X) Lead 62 g/1 Bearings Continuous
(70/30) Tin 28 g/1
Free fluoboric acid 40 g/1
Temperature 27 to 38°C
CD 320 A/m2
Silver Cyanide (Y) Silver cyanide 44g/l Bearings Semi-continuous
Potassium cyanide 45 g/1
Sodium carbonate 15 g/1
Potassium hydroxide 4g/l
Temperature 38 to 47°C
CD up to 1180 A/m2
Aluminium Ethereal (Z) Aluminium trichloride 16 g/1 Structural Continuous
Lithium aluminium medium
hydride in ether temperature
Temperature 23°C CD 160 to
1180 A/m2
*Annotation as follows
Manufacturer Trade Name
(a) W. Canning and Co Ltd, UK (1) Ni-Speed (2) Cuprax (3} Penybron
(b) Albright and Wilson (MFG) Ltd, UK Pyrobrite
(c) The Enquist Chemical Co Inc, USA Lustralite
(X) Simple salt solution (Y) Complex salt solution (Z) Non-aqueous solution
tMade by dissolving cobaltous carbonate in sulphamic acid
206
 Harris, Baker, Hall and Bache: The Electroforming-Filament Winding Process

KEY (a) winding angle ;

a Lead screw (b) fibre diameter;
b Micro-switch (c) use of multi-strands;
c Motor and qearbo X (d) growth rate and the effect of depth of immersion of
--· a
~ ---
d Araldite qear chai n
7. V.! the mandrel in the electrolyte ;
e Distributor arm
b b I Stainless steel dru m (e) the effect of non-conducting fibres;
q Brass bush (f) the effect of heat treatment.
---
d r--
8 h
i
k
Carbon brush
Demountable coup! inq
Araldite sleeve
These factors all arise if the process is to be used to form
suitable composites out of realistic fibre-matrix systems.
For example, the control of winding angle allows a bal-

n :·:
f8 k
e

k;,.......,
.~

~..
'I
-
•[ anced structure to be produced, which as discussed pre-
viously would have a much wider engineering application
than a uniaxially aligned system. In addition, most strong
. '• high modulus fibres are only available in tows of many
I I I rL~
h-
>
! '
... : fibres in which each fibre has a small diameter, for instance
..
+
q
w ",,
-,Pump~ carbon fibre~. 104 fibres and -8 fLm diameter.
,_L Condition Inq COMPOSITE EVALUATION ON MODEL SYSTEM
tank
The composites were produced with a nickel matrix depos-
ited from a Ni-speed solution operating at 6o·c and at
current densities up to 3200 A/m 2 • Copper-nickel alloy

/
Immersion
heater
Anode
Baq
.___
Mom bath
Fig l. Diagram of winding frame and electroforming bath.
porosity. This is more than usually serious because porosity
in thick sections allows entrapment of electrolyte, which
leads to blistering and embrittlement during subsequent
heat treatment. Another fault which has been suggested10
to exist in the structure of these composites is the weak
impingement boundary between growths on conducting
fibres.
In the present paper interest is focussed on the problem
of porosity because impingement boundaries do not appear
to provide an insuperable problem in composites containing
small diameter fibres.
The types of porosity in conducting fibre composites have
been classified by Alexander, Withers and Macklin, 6 who
again used sulphamate nickel for the matrix. Type 1 voidage
occurred when the growth from two neighbouring filaments
impinged before growth from the substrate has reached
the point of intersection. When a fibre rested in a valley
formed in a previous layer and sealed off the crevice
beneath it, thus preventing further growth behind, type II
voidage resulted. Both types are represented in Fig 2. It
has been shown by several workers 5 •6 that porosity levels
tend to increase with fibre volume fraction.
(a) Typr I voids (b) Type 2 .olds
Fig 2 Potential void sites (Withers et a/ 6 ).
In the present work an attempt has been made to investi-
gate several geometrical factors and their effect on com-
posite porosity using mainly conducting fibres. Such factors
are:
.. Temperature
controller
wires were used as a model conducting fibre because they
were easily obtainable at various diameters and also greatly
simplify the porosity determinations by having the same
density as the nickel matrix. Diameters of 25, 38, 51. 80,
102, 130 fLm were chosen. For the experiments with non-
conducting fibres, lacquered copper wires of 40 [LID overall
diameter were used.
The finished composite was in the form of a ring, see
Fig 9(a). Density measurements were made by mensuration
and weighing of accurately surface ground rings. The use
of wires with a similar density to the nickel matrix avoided
the need for correction of the theoretical density with the
wire volume fraction.
Samples were cut from rings for metallographic examin-
ation. It was found that unless samples were examined in
the etched state the porosity level was not truly shown. This
fact was also noted by Wallace and Greco 9 and may be due
to local flowing of the matrix during polishing. In the
majority of cases electrolytic etching in a 50% ortho-
phosphoric acid solution provided the most satisfactory
results.
RESULTS
WINDING ANGLE
The winding angle () taken from the normal to the axis of
rotation is given by:
np
() = tan-1 ~ (1)
where n =traverse speed in rpm
p = pitch of lead screw thread
N = mandrel motor speed in rpm
D = diameter of mandrel
Composite rings were produced at angles varying between
2 minutes and 2 degrees at each of three fibre volume
fraction levels, that is 25%, 35% and 45%. The composite
growth rate was maintained at 75 [LID per hour. Porosity
levels determined on each ring are plotted against winding
angle () in Fig 3. The results indicate that voidage increases
with both volume fraction and winding angie. A metallo-
graphic examination revealed porosity distributions such as
those given in Figs 4 and 5. As both these factors increase,
the voids become larger and more irregular in shape despite
having a satisfactory fibre distribution. The latter show
that type I and type II voidage are to be observed at low
winding angles and early stages of composite manufacture.

W7
 Transactions of the Institute of Metal Finishing, 1911, Vol 49

30.------.------,------,,------, 30r----,,----,-----.-----.----~-,
v1=45'
v1&35'
v1·25' 25

20
20

£.
·;;; 15
::0
"-

10

I 130' 2'
Windinq anqle 5

Fig 3. The effect of winding angle on porosity.

FIBRE DIAMETER
This parameter was investigated at a constant fibre volume
fraction of 45% and at three winding angles (} of 12', 30'
and 1o. The fibre diameter varied between 25 J.Lm and
130 J.Lffi· The results plotted in the form of percent porosity
versus diameter, see Fig 6, indicate that an increase in void-
age occurs as the fibre diameter and winding angle are
raised. At 12' winding angle the porosity level is acceptable
at all fibre dimensions. However, as soon as the winding
angle rises above this level, voidage increases very rapidly.
From an examination of microstructures of these compo-
sites, see Figs 4 and 5, it is apparent that the scale and
number of voids change appreciably with fibre size.
%~--~2~5----,5~0----,7~5----~I0~0,---~12b5~
Fibre diameter ,)Jm
Fig 6. The effect of fibre diameter on porosity for winding
angles of 12', 30' and 1°. Vf =45%.
USE OF MULTISTRANDS
A modification was made to the fabrication processes to
enable five strands of copper-nickel alloy wires (51 J.Lm
diameter) to be handled. Instead of using a guide wheel
on the fibre distributor arm, a small bar of PTFE with
grooves cut at a spacing of 254 J.Lffi was set up to allow
the strands of wire to be separated and wound onto the
mandrel surface. It was found that the use of the five
strands significantly increased the level of porosity over
the range of winding angles investigated, see Fig 7.

GROWTH RATE
It has been shown" that the radial growth rate, R, of a

35r------.------.------.------,

(a) (b)
Fig 4. Photomicrographs of composites containing 45 % volume
fraction of fibres of 25 I'm diameter. 25
(a) Winding angle= 6'. Porosity= 4%. x 50.
(b) Winding angle= 1o. Porosity= 8%. x 50.
~20
·;;;
0

~ 15

10

(a) (b)
Fig 5. Photomicrographs of composites containing 45% vol-
ume fraction of fibres of 130 I'm diameter.
(a) Winding angle =6'. Porosity= 10·5%. x 50.
(b) Winding angle= 1o. Porosity= 23·3%. x 50.
0o~----..,3~r1,.....-----+,-l.-------:1"3-ko;:;;-·-----:!2'
Winding angle
Fig 7. The effect of winding angle on porosity for single and
multi-filaments at 45 % volume fraction.

208
 Harris, Baker, Hall and Bache: The Electroforming-Filament Winding Process

composite produced by the EFW process is given by:

30~--~---~--~~----.-,
Kl+K'N .
R = A mmjmm (2) 3'=331...,.
,"' ,-v-- -- . . . _v- __ , ..,v"'""
where I is the current density in A/mm 2 v
'9-.~on-conducting fibres
-------
v,=45'/.
N is the number of revolutions per minute
20 iI '·
'0
.........
A is the surface area of the mandrel in mm 2
~
....
K and K' are constants for a particular fibre
.?i- ; '~o .....
diameter, mandrel size and electro- ·;:;; 0
~
deposition process. 0
a..
Baket eta/' have shown that an increase in porosity occurs
with increasing R when the mandrel lay several centimetres 10
below the electrolyte surface. In the present work the
mandrel was positioned such that the minimum depth of
immersion resulted. Fig 8 shows that the change in porosity
level in composites produced at growth rates ranging from
40 fLm to 400 [Lffi per hour is very small. This finding con-
flicts with the previous work 5 on this parameter. This is 30' I' 1'30' 2
further commented upon in the discussion. Winding angle
Fig 10. The variation in porosity with winding angle for non-
10.-------,------.---.,.-----, conducting fibres.

red at the edge of the ring and nodules of nickel had grown
8 0 between the fibres. The composites were also found to be
- o-o 0 extremely weak in a transverse direction to the fibre axis,
suggesting that a continuous matrix did not exist. The effect
~6 of winding angle on the porosity level in these composites
·;:;;
is compared with the conducting fibre data in Fig 10. It
~
0
a.. 4 would appear that the void content is so high that it is
insensitive to winding angle, particularly at 45% fibre
volume fraction, whilst at 25% volume an improvement
2 takes place in this parameter with increase in winding
angle. Photomicrographs showing the distribution of non-
conducting fibres and voidage in these composites are
included in Fig 11.
00 lOG 200 300 400
Growth rate, microns per hour
EFFECT OF HEAT TREATMENT
Fig 8. The effect of composite growth rate on porosity.
V 1 =45%. Winding angle=12'. Heat treatments were carried out to see if the impingement

EFFECT OF NoN-CONDUCTING FIBRES

Nickel matrix composites were prepared using 40 [Lffi dia-
meter laquered copper wires at volume fractions of 25%
and 45% and at a series of winding angles from 6' to 2°.
Inspection of the wound ring was sufficient to show that
they were inferior to the equivalent rings produced with
conducting fibres, see Fig 9. Tree-like nickel growths occur-

(<!) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig II. Photomicrographs showing distribution of non-

(a) (b)
Fig 9. Comparison of appearance of rings with conducting
and non-conducting fibres.
(a) Conducting fibres-as formed and after surface grinding.
(b) Non-conducting fibres-25% and 45% volume fraction.
conducting fibres.
(a) Winding angle=12'. V 1 =25%. Porosity=22%. x50.
(b) Winding angle=1°. V 1 =25%. Porosity=17%. x50.
(c) Winding angle=12'. V,=45%. Porosity=23%. x50.
(d) Winding angle= 1o. V 1 = 45%. Porosity= 24% X 50.

209
 Transactions of the Institute of Metal Fini1·hing, 1971, Vol 49

simple lathe type helical winding. In addition a screw thread

and conventional metal flange were incorporated into the
form. The screw thread demonstrates the versatility of the
process but would serve no useful purpose in any reinforced
component, due to the difficulty in obtaining the desired
fibre orientation in the thread. However, the incorporation
of conventional metal flanges is of considerable importance,
for instance in allowing the joining together of sections of
reinforced material (direct joining for instance by welding
would destroy the reinforced structure). The interfacial
(a) (b)
shear strength of the flange joint, shown in Fig 13, has not
been measured but would probably require improving by
mechanical means, for example by using radial wound-in
pins.
The form was produced by winding onto a contoured
aluminium alloy mandrel with the flange pre-positioned.
Due to the re-entrant form and the presence of the incor-
porated flange the mandrel cannot be drawn and therefore
had to be subsequently remov::.d by dissolving in a sodium
hydroxide solution.

(c) (d) EFFECT OF MANDREL SURFACE ANGLE

Fig 12. Photomicrographs of the effect of heat treatment tem-
perature on the microstructure of the nickel matrix.
(a) As formed. X 135. (b) Heat treated at 500oC for 3 hours.
x 135. (c) Heat treated at 575°C for 3 hours. x 135.
(d) Heat treated at 800oC for 3 hours. x 135.
boundaries could be removed by recrystallization. Samples
containing 35% volume fraction of 38 ,urn diameter copper-
nickel alloy wires were heat treated at temperatures up to
SOOoC for periods up to 3 hours. Photomicrographs taken
on representative sections are shown in Fig 12 (a- d). It
can be observed that recrystallization has started at 575°C
and at 800°C substantial grain growth has taken place,
leaving no trace of the original impingement boundaries.
Although no systematic investigation of the effect of man-
drel surface angle was made it is worth considering, since
it must set a limit to the shape that could be formed. This
limit would be expected to be at a very much lower angle
than could be obtained by winding with sticky resin coated
fibres.
Consider a fibre wound at a low helical angle under
tension onto a sloping mandrel surface. If (J is the angle
at which the mandrel surface is inclined to the horizontal
and P is the normal force, then the tangential force F
along the drum surface is given by:
F = P tan (J (3)
The force F' required to move the fibre is given by:

COMPONENT PRODUCI'ION BY FILAMENT

WINDING
TUBES AND CYLINDERS
Despite some of the limitations of the continuous helical
winding process it was considered worth while to investigate
the feasibility of producing some simple forms. An example
of a tube of 50 ,urn diameter tungsten wires in a nickel
matrix is shown in Fig 13(a) ; the tube is -0·1 in thick and
the winding angle was 12'. The tube was formed on an
aluminium mandrel, which was subsequently removed by
dissolution in a sodium hydroxide solution. It is possible
alternatively to wind onto a stainless steel tube and remove
by pressing ; this method is much better for relatively short
wide diameter tubes. Such techniques allow very close
tolerances to be held on internal dimensions. A constant
volume fraction of fibres over any thickness of tube can
most simply be maintained by altering the mandrel speed
to keep wire input rate constant. A knowledge of the
variation of mandrel velocity to achieve constant wire input
speed allows an instantaneous measurement of the wall
thickness of the tube. Due to the outer surface roughness
this can only be an approximate measurement. In practice
a servo system could be used to control mandrel speed and
also to stop the winding when the desired wall thickness is
reached.
(a) (b)
COMPLEX SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION
Fig 13. Examples of components produced by the EFW process.
To investigate the winding of complex solids of revolution (a) A low angle wound tube of tungsten wires in a nickel
a test specimen shape was produced in nickel and copper- matrix.
nickel alloy wires as shown in Fig 13(b). This shape included (b) A more complex solid of revolution consisting of
most of the slopes and curves that could be encountered by copper-nickel wires in a nickel matrix.

210
 Harris, Baker, Hall and Bache: The Electroforrning-Filarnent Winding Process
F' = Pp.
(p. is the coefficient of friction for the fibre on the drum).
The maximum angle that can be attained before slippage
occurs is when F = F'. Hence, using equations (3) and (4)
tan() = p.
If p. = 0·1 (realistic for a fibre lubricated with plating
solution)
() = 5° 39'
The angle of the conical section of the form shown in
Fig l3(b) is about 30° and slippage did occur when low
angle windings were applied without simultaneous electro-
deposition. However, once electrodeposition was applied
simultaneously the fibres did not slip, suggesting that instan-
taneous welding occurs.
DISCUSSION
THE MECHANISMS OF FORMATION OF POROSITY
It has been shown (see Results) that with both conducting
and non-conducting fibres porosity arises because of the
variation of certain parameters associated with the process.
Since the growth characteristics associated with the two
fibre types are different, the subsequent discussion is divided
in this respect.
CONDUCTING FIBRES
The results indicate that porosity increases when the follow-
ing variables increase:
(a) fibre volume fraction;
(b) winding angle;
(c) fibre diameter;
(d) number of fibres wound on instantaneously.
The effects of depth of immersion and composite growth
rate are a little more difficult to interpret and discussion on
these points will be dealt with later.
Of these factors (a)- (d), items (a) and (b) have the most
serious effects practically and small changes in winding
angle, that is 6' to 2°, have appreciable effects on the
composite integrity. To a certain extent items (c) and (d
can compensate each other, for it is usual that as fibre
diameter decreases then the number of fibres in a tow which
may be handled has to increase.
It was earlier predicted 5 that porosity should decrease
with increasing winding angle. This information was based
upon the idea that a more open network of fibres would
permit feeding of the matrix metal behind the fibres on
the surface of the wound composite. However, it must be
realized that if winding is at the optimum spacing11 then
after the first layer of winding there will be two crossover
points per revolution of the mandrel. If the centre to centre
spacing of the fibres is increased by a factor then the
winding angle, the number of traverses and the number of
crossover points will be increased by the same factor.
Examples illustrating this point are included in Fig 14.
This means that the fibre will run across a valley in the
previous layer, and at a point governed by the tension in
the fibre and the coefficient of friction the fibre will cross
over the one beneath and drop into the next valley, and so
on. This crossover results in a localized increase in radial
(a) Windinq anqle • e Number of cross-overs •12 (b) Windlnq anqle•29 Number of cross-overs· 24
Fig 14. The effect of winding angle on number of crossover points for the same number of winds (schematic).
(4) fibre growth rate. Therefore, crossover density will have a
substantial bearing on porosity because the electroplating
process is effectively stoichiometric and puts down the same
amount of metal in all areas. A sinusoidal relationship has
been deduced 11 between crossover density and winding
angle ; hence porosity would be expected to be related in a
similar manner with winding angle. At the relatively small
angles investigated in this paper, 6' to r' the correlation
between porosity and crossover density, therefore, would
be expected to be approximately linear ; Fig 3 bears out
this statement.
At this stage it would be worth while commenting upon
the effect of growth rate on the integrity of these composite
materials. The results reported here on the effect of growth
rate differ quite considerably from those reported earlier
by Baker et a/. 5 One cannot -.this stage make a comparison
between the two sets of results because changes in experi-
mental procedure have taken place in the intervening
period. The changes can be described under two headings:
(i) A change in the filament winding frame, particularly
with respect to the fibre distributor.
This particular component has been made more rigid, and
as a result more accurate fibre spacing has been achieved.
(ii) The depth of immersion of the mandrel in the electro-
lyte was kept to a minimum.
This effectively reduced the depth to which the fibre had
to pass before reaching the mandrel. It is the latter fact
which is thought to account for the substantial difference
between the results reported here and those of Baker. 5 As
the fibre is conducting and in contact with the mandrel, it
is clear that some deposition will occur on the wire as it
passes through the solution. Since the wire will represent a
surface of substantially higher primary current density than
the mandrel itself, then it is possible that a change takes
place in the form of the electrodeposit. It is suggested
either that the growth on the wire may very well be den-
dritic, or that the effective fibre diameter is increased. Both
these effects could easily lead to enhanced porosity levels
when such fibres are incorporated onto the mandrel surface.
Among the reasons for the increase in porosity which is
observed when the fibre diameter increases are the follow-
ing, which may act either singly or in combination.
(a) For large diameter fibres the mandrel speed is slower
for the same current density. This may lead to an
increase in time taken by the fibre to pass through
the solution which may result in additional growth on
the fibre.
(b) At large diameters it is possible that there may be
a macrothrowing power effect.
(c) With large diameter fibres the geometry of the cross-
overs may be altered because of the decreased flexi-
bility of the wire (for example flexibility decreases
as d 3 ) leading to a greater disturbance at the growth
front.
It is likely that explanations (a) and (b) are more likely
to be correct, otherwise the plot in Fig 6 would have
indicated a transition rather than a gradual trend. When
considering the effect of multifilaments on the porosity
level the same explanation may be applied.
(c) Windinq anqle•39 Number of cross-overs-36
211
 Transactions of the Institute of Metal Finishing, 1971, Vol 49

NoN-CONDUCTING FIBRES
It was hoped that the effect of winding angle and therefore
of crossovers would have been substantially reduced in this
case, due to the fact that the growth front was not being
sealed off. Experimentally it was very difficult to judge
whether any improvement occurred in this respect, since
other serioQ,s effects were more easily noted. For instance,
the fibre distribution was always inferior to that which
occurred with conducting fibres, even though the winding
conditions were identical. This finding is contrary to the
forecast made by Wallace and Greco• and Cooper,12 in
which it was suggested that more orderly growth would
take place on well distributed fibres and this would lead to
less type I and type II voids. However, if one considers
the growth morphology in a similar manner to that for
conducting fibres, then the tf'asons for inferior fibre distri-
bution become apparent. With non-conducting fibres a
"hump" was situated between adjacent fibres, as shown in
Fig 15. This means that the valleys on this growth front
will be immediately above the fibres so that the fibres on
the next layer wiii be wound on tep of others, except when
a crossover occurs, which accounts for the stray fibres in
the microstructures. Hence, locally, the fibre volume frac-
tion will become excessive and one would expect voidage
in association with groups. Fig 11 shows this effect. With
such regions of disarray existing, fibres may drop between
others before sufficient matrix has grown up. This could
result in a proportion of growth regions becoming sealed
off whilst others would grow at accelerated rates. The
nodules of nickel observed in Fig 9 are the result of the
accelerated growth regions.
boundary. When heat treatment takes place, the existence
of these regions of close contact promotes and assists the
diffusion process during recrystallization. This assistance
can lead to a fully bonded structure with grains being
grown completely across former boundaries.
METHODS OF OVERCOMING THE LIMITATIONS OF THE
PROCESS
It is obvious from the foregoing results and discussion that
the filament winding and electroforming process can only
produce composites with low porosity at small winding
angles. Thus helical winding could not be used to produce,
for instance, pressure vessels with optimum winding angles.
However, this problem could be overcome by using the
more sophisticated polar winding technique. A proposed
method of applying polar winding to the EFW process is
shown in Fig 16. Thus a number of layers of 90• windings
could be applied at a very low winding angle and then
followed by a number of layers of o· windings. The only
problem would be the irregular growth front at the end
of each layer. This would have to be removed by subse-
quent machining unless a plating bath with sufficient level-
ling ability is used.
The EFW process can also be used to produce warp
sheet by winding monolayers onto a stainless steel mandrel.
Once a monolayer is formed this can be removed by slitting
through the sheet at one position. The monolayer 'warp
sheet' can thus be used in a very similar method13 to that
described earlier with respect to plastics, that is by laminat-
ing and hot pressing. A section taken from such a hot
pressed nickel-carbon fibre composite is given in Fig 17(a).
One modification that has been used is to electrodeposit a
braze on the sheet before removing from the mandrel to
lower the pressure and temperature of the pressing opera-
tion. For instance, alternate layers of silver and copper

)_

Fig 15. Probable growth morphology for composites

containing non-conducting fibres

IMPINGEMENT BouNDARIES
t -
Pulley system mounted on
overhead rail

The results indicate that inpingement boundaries may be

removed by heat treatment in the temperature range 650 - r-
soo•c. This evidence, together with the fact that the cross-
tensile strength 5 of as-formed composites is adequate, shows
that such boundaries are of little importance as far as
composite properties are concerned. This finding is to be Low angle windin~ ~Fibre feed
compared with those of Donovan and Watson-Adams, 10 lead screw .........
who found that impingement boundaries between growths
on 150 and 300 pm fibres did not heal unless heat treatment 1 T ..c::::;
temperatures in excess of soo•c were used, and only then 0-SOOA de~ A tlf Mandrel motor
if levelling agents had been added to the nickel bath. This
difference may be explained on two counts:
1/
(i) the number and size of columnar growths on the ~ b
fibres used ; 1-----~
- - --
(ii) the application of a force, for instance the winding
tension in the present case, which helps the bonding -=j -
-
I

'\--
-

--
High angle windi ng
crank
of the growths.
When small fibres, of the order of 50 microns, are used, Anode-
_-_~-~~--- ~--=-
such is the geometry of the boundaries that both surfaces
are placed adjacent to one another. The existence of tension
Electroforming
solution ~~- ~=-~-~-- Mandrel (cathode)

upon each of the fibres promotes some local deformation ~---- ---- -~:-- ---=_c.:~~ Metal insert
of the metal projecting on the two fronts in question. This
will assist in the formation of a better bond between the Fig 16. Proposed apparatus for producing metal matrix
interfaces for a greater proportion of the impingement composites by polar winding.

212
 Harris, Baker, Hall and Bache: The Electroform;ng-Fi/ament Winding Process
(a) (b)
Fig 17. Hot-pressed and brazed carbon fibre nickel composites.
(a) Hot-pressed. x 85. (b) Brazed. x 85.
were applied to the nickel matrix warp sheet. This process
has been applied to warp sheets of carbon fibre in a nickel
matrix and an example is shown in Fig 17(b).
CONCLUSIONS
The EFW process is capable of fabricating in one opera-
tion simple or complex solids of revolution at low wind-
ing angles.
2 If this process is used to produce high winding angle
composites the structure contains large amounts of void-
age which usually contain electrolyte. Such a situation
brings about blistering and embrittlement of the com-
posite after heat treatment.
3 As winding angle increases so does the number of fibre
crossovers which form as one layer of fibre is wound over
another. At each crossover the radial fibre growth rate
increases, whilst the electrodeposition rate stays constant ;
hence voids occur in the region.
4 Porosity levels are reduced by decreasing fibre diameter.
This may be explained in terms of minimizing localized
fibre growth rates or of reducing the tendency for den-
dritic growths on the fibre whilst passing through the
electrolyte prior to incorporation on the mandrel.
5 Whilst the favourable result obtained on small diameter
fibres would indicate a good chance of success with -8,m
diameter carbon fibres, the use of multifilament tows of
such fibres provides additional problems.
6 The use of non-conducting fibres creates far higher
porosity levels than conducting fibres. This results from
inferior fibre distribution, which in turn is promoted by
the geometry of the growth front.
7 With fibre diameters in the range 25 - 130 ,urn inpingement
boundaries between the numerous growths can effectively
be removed by recrystallization.
8 It is suggested that the limitations imposed by winding
angle, multifilament fibre tows and high volume fractions
on the one stage EFW process may be overcome by either
replacing helical by polar winding or by producing mono-
layer warp sheets which may be used as laminations for
subsequent hot pressing.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are indebted to Rolls-Royce Ltd, Derby, and
the Department of Trade and Industry for financially sup-
porting this work. They would also like to extend their
thanks to Professor J. S. L. Leach for providing laboratory
facilities.
REFERENCES
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1966, 94, 228.
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3 A. Kelly and G. J. Davies, Met Reviews, 1965, 10, 1.
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6 J. A. Alexander, J. C. Withers and B. A. Macklin, NASA,
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11 A. F. Hall, PhD thesis. University of Nottingham 1971.
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213