CH3 Am

CHAPTER 3: Analog
Modulation
Topics Covered in Chapter 3
Part 1: Amplitude Modulation
1. Mathematical definition
2. Bandwidth and Modulation index
3. Power
4. AM modulator
5. AM demodulator
Part 2: Angle Modulation
BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Dept of Communication Engineering, FKEE
INTRODUCTION
 There are 3 properties of an analog signal that can
be varied (modulated) by information signal
 amplitude, frequency and phase
 Amplitude modulation varies the amplitude of the
carrier signal in accordance with the amplitude of
the message signal.
 Frequency and phase modulation are both forms of
angle modulation where the frequency or phase is
varied according to the message signal.
 Both are often referred as frequency modulation
although there are actual distinctions between the
two because changing the frequency changes the
phase and vice versa.
MODULATION
 In radio communication, modulation means combining
signals, i.e. the message signal which we want to
transmit with radio frequency (carrier) signal.
 Modulation is the process of modifying the
characteristic of one signal (carrier) in accordance with
some characteristic of another signal (message).
 The information/message signal is usually known as the
modulating signal and the higher frequency signal which
is being modulated is called the carrier.
 The carrier frequency is usually higher than the highest
frequency of the information signal to be transmitted.

PART 1: AMPLITUDE
MODULATION
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
 Amplitude modulation is the process of changing
the amplitude of the carrier frequency in
proportion with the instantaneous value of the
modulation signal.
 Relatively inexpensive, low-quality form of
modulation that is used for commercial
broadcasting of both audio and video signal.
 Also used in two-way mobile radio communications
i.e. citizen band (CB) radio.
 AM modulators are nonlinear devices  2 input
and 1 output, modulating signal and carrier signal.

 Modulating signal will modulate the carrier signal
so that the information contains in the modulating
signal can be efficiently radiated by an antenna
through free space at radio frequency (RF).
 Modulating signal 𝑣𝑚 (𝑡), may contains a single
frequency or multiple frequency such as human
voice.
 There are several types of amplitude modulation,
most commonly used is amplitude modulation
double sideband full carrier (AM DSBFC) or simply
known as amplitude modulation (AM).
 Other types of amplitude modulation are DSB-SC,
DSB-RC, SSB, VSB.
 Advantages of AM
 simple
 effective
 inexpensive
 AM is used in AM radio broadcast, TV, aircraft, CB radio, computer
modem.
 Disadvantages of AM
 wasted power in carrier (no info carried)  not efficient
 even when m=1, 2/3 of PT is still in PC.

Information,
vm MODULATOR
v2  v1 sin 2f c t
Carrier Signal
Vc

MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF AM
 Let the carrier signal, 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡), and the modulating signal, 𝑣𝑚 𝑡 be
𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 (2.1)
𝑣𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 (2.2)
 Modulating signal uses the peak value of the carrier as a reference
point, i.e. modulating signal value adds to or subtract from the peak
value of the carrier.
𝑉𝑒𝑛𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑣𝑚 (𝑡)
𝑉𝑒𝑛𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 (2.3)
 This signal is known as the envelope of the modulated wave, 𝑉𝑒𝑛𝑣 𝑡 .
 The instantaneous value of the modulated wave is
𝑉𝐴𝑀 = (𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑉𝐴𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
(2.4)
where cos(A  B) cos(A  B)

 sin A sin B  
2 2
 Thus
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝐴𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + cos 2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 )𝑡 − cos 2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 )𝑡
2 2
carrier LSB USB
 modulated wave does not contain frequency

modulation
 the effect of modulation is to translate modulating signal in
the frequency domain so that it is reflected symmetrically
about the carrier frequency

AM SIGNAL WITH THE ENVELOPE

AM FREQUENCY SPECTRUM & BANDWIDTH
 AM modulators are non-linear device, non-linear mixing occurs
 Output envelope is complex wave made up of dc voltage, the carrier
frequency and the sum (fm + fc) and difference (fc – fm) frequencies
 Sum and difference frequency are displaced from the carrier frequency
by an amount equal to the modulating signal frequency
 Therefore, AM spectrum contains frequency component spaced fm Hz on
either side of the carrier
 Figure 2.3 shows the frequency spectrum of AM DSBFC wave
fc-fm fC fc+fm fc-fm fc fc+f

m
2fm
Figure 2.3: Frequency spectrum for a. single frequency b. complex signal like music
 Bandwidth = Maximum freq. - minimum freq.
BW = (fc+fm) – (fc – fm)
= fc + fm – fc + fm (2.6)
= 2fm
 Several baseband signals may be transmitted simultaneously on
different carrier frequencies (multiplexing) provided the sidebands
do no overlap.
 The information in the baseband (information) signal is duplicated in
the LSB and USB and the carrier conveys no information.

MODULATION INDEX
 Modulation index, 𝑚 is merely defined as a parameter, which
determines the amount of modulation.
 For proper AM to occur
𝑉𝑚  𝑉𝑐
 Modulation index,
𝑉𝑚
𝑚=
𝑉𝑐
 Or in percentage ,
𝑉𝑚
𝑀= × 100%
𝑉𝑐
 By this definition, we could distinguished three different
types of amplitude modulation.
 Under modulated AM for 𝑚 < 1
 Ideal AM for 𝑚 = 1
 Over modulated AM for 𝑚 > 1

 𝑚 < 1 : under modulation
 𝑉𝑚 < 𝑉𝑐
 signal strength obtained at the receiver is not exactly the same as
the signal strength at the transmitter.
 No distortion to the signal, just reduced signal strength.
Figure 2.4 (a) m < 1, under modulation.

 𝑚 = 1 : ideal modulation
 𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝑐
 will produce greatest output at the receiver without distortion
 maximum info signal amplitude is transmitted
 more info signal power is transmitted  producing stronger, more
intelligible signal
 hard to achieve especially when the modulating signal amplitude
varies randomly over a wide range – only the peak of the signal will
produce 100% modulation.
Figure 2.4(b) m = 1, ideal modulation.

 m > 1 : over modulation
 Vm > Vc
 cause distortion
 negative peaks have been clipped off.
 The original shape of the signal is destroyed.
Figure 2.4(c) m > 1, over modulated AM

 Modulation index can be calculated directly from the AM
wave. Figure 2.5(a) shows the measurement of modulation
index using the minimum and maximum value while Figure
2.5(b) using peak-to-peak value.
Vm Vmax  Vc
m 
15
10
Vm Vc Vc
Vmax Vmax  Vc  Vc  Vmin
5 Vmin
Vc Vmax  Vmin
Vm 
Amplitude (V)
0
2 (2.9)
V  Vmin
Vc  max
-5
-10
2
-15
Figure 2.5(a) Measuring
0 0.5
time
1
x 10
1.5
-3 m using max and min
value
15
10
Vmax  Vmin
m
Vmax p  p Vmax  Vmin
5
Vmin p  p Vmax p p  Vmin p p
m
Amplitude (V)
0
Vmax p p  Vmin p p
-5
(2.10)
-10
Figure 2.5(b)
Measuring m using
-15
0 0.5 1 1.5
time
x 10
-3
peak-to-peak value

 From equation
Vm V
v AM  Vc sin 2f ct  cos 2 ( f c f m )t  m cos 2 ( f c f m )t
2 2
 We know that 𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 /𝑉𝑐 , 𝑉𝑚 = 𝑚𝑉𝑐
 Thus
mVc mV
vAM  Vc sin 2 f ct  cos 2 ( f c  f m )t  c cos 2 ( f c  f m )t (2.11)
2 2
 Its Fourier transform then
𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝐴𝑀 𝑓 = 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2
𝑚𝑉𝑐
+ 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚
4
𝑚𝑉𝑐
+ 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚
4
Example 2.1
A carrier signal with a peak voltage of 2.0V is
amplitude modulated with a 10kHz sine wave. The
modulation voltage has an effective value of 750mV.
Compute the following:
 The percent modulation, m
 The instantaneous voltage of the positive and negative
envelope when the 10kHz sine has completed 68µs of its
cycle.
 Illustrate the resulting AM waveform

Power
 The term R correspond to the fact that antenna (which is a
load) will have its own impedance and dissipate power for a
resistor is 2
Vrms V2
P  (2.21)
R 2R
 In the previous discussion, we assume the impedance of the
antenna is unity (R = 1).
 From the sideband voltage VLSB  VUSB  mVC
2
VC2 m 2VC2 m 2VC2
PT   
2R 4  2R 4  2R
m2 m2
PT  PC  PC  PC
4 4
 m2 
PT  PC 1   (2.22)
 2 
 Upper and lower sidebands power are equal, therefore
2
 Vm 
 
PLSB  PUSB   2 
2R
2
 mVc 
 
  2 
2R
m 2  Vc 2  m 2Vc 2
  
4  2R  8R
 If m=1
3 2
PT  PC , PC  PT
2 3
1 1
Psidebands  PT , PLSB  PUSB  PT
3 6
for m < 1 , PLSB + PUSB are even less !!
 In practice, carrier signal will be modulated by several signals

simultaneously. The total modulation index or effective modulation
index has to be calculated.
Example 2.2
 A 400 W carrier is modulated to a depth of 75%.
Calculate the total power in the modulated wave
 Solution
 m2   0.752 
PT  PC  1    400 1  
 2   2 
 512.5W

Example 2.3
 An AM broadcast station’s peak carrier voltage of 2
kV has been amplitude modulated to an index of
75% with a 2 kHz test tone. The station broadcast
frequency is 810 kHz. Compute the following:
 The lower and upper sidebands frequencies, fLSB and fUSB
 The peak modulation voltage, Vm
 The peak lower and upper sideband voltages, VLSB and VUSB
 The maximum signal amplitude, Vmax

Example 2.4
A spectrum analyzer with an input impedance of 50  is
used to measure the power spectrum of an AM signal at
the output of a preamplifier circuit. The AM signal has
been modulated with a sine wave. The effective power PC
is 745 mW, and each sideband, PUSB and PLSB is 125 mW.
Compute the following:
 The total effective power, PT
 The peak carrier voltage, VC
 The modulation index, m, and the percentage of modulation
index M
 The modulation voltage Vm
 The lower and upper sideband voltages, VLSB and VUSB
 Sketch the waveform that you would see with an
oscilloscope if it were placed in parallel with the spectrum
analyzer
MODULATION BY SEVERAL SINE WAVES
 In practice, modulation of a carrier by a several
sine waves simultaneously is the rule rather than
exception.
 To calculate the resulting power
 Let V1, V2 and V3 etc. be the amplitude of the information
signals, the resultant voltages, VT becomes
(2.24)
VT  V12  V2 2  V32  .........

 dividing both sides by VC
2 2 2 (2.25)
VT  V1   V2   V3 
          ..........
VC  VC   VC   VC 
 m2 
PT  PC 1  
that is  2 
2  m2 
 mT  m12  m2 2  m32  .......... I T R  I C R 1 
2
 (2.27)
 2 
 mT 2   m2 
PT  PC  1   (2.26) IT
 1  
 2  IC  2 
IT  mT 2 
or  1  
 The equation of the total IC  2 
current and carrier current is
derived from the total power
equation :-

Example 2.5
The antenna of an AM transmitter is 8 A when only
the carrier is sent, but it increases to 8.93 A when
the carrier is modulated by a single sine wave. Find
the percentage of modulation and the antenna
current when the percentage of modulation changes
to 0.8.

OTHER TYPES OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION
 DOUBLE SIDEBAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER (DSBSC)
 DOUBLE SIDEBAND REDUCED CARRIER (DSB RC)
 SINGLE SIDEBAND (SSB)
 VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND (VSB)

Power Content of DSB SC Signals
 We know
1 T2 2
P  lim  vDSBSC  t dt
T  T T 2
1 T2 2 2
 lim  Vc vm  t  cos  2 f ct dt
T  T T 2
Vc2 1 T2 2
 lim  vm  t  1  cos  4 f ct  dt
2  T T 2
T
Vc2
 Pm (2.44)
2
where Pm indicates the power in the signal vm(t).

 The last step follows from the fact that vm2(t) is a slowly varying
signal and when multiplied by cos (4fct), which is a high
frequency sinusoid, the result is a high frequency sinusoid with a
slow varying enveloped.
Figure 2.32(a) A time-
domain display of a
DSB SC AM signal (b) A
frequency-domain
display of a DSB AM
signal
 Advantages of DSBSC compared to AM
 power conservation  can be allocated to both sidebands 
longer distance
 easy to generate
 Disadvantages of DSBSC compared to AM

 Rarely used because the signal is difficult to recover at the
receiver  requires carrier reinsertion  complex circuitry
 Take the same BW as in AM  not efficient

SSB
 In DSB, info is transmitted twice, once in each
sideband
 One sideband may be suppressed  SSBSC / SSB
 In SSB, when no info or modulating signal is
present, no RF signal is transmitted
 In a standard AM transmitter, carrier is still
transmitted even though it may not be modulated
 Refer Figure 2.36 and 2.37

Figure 2.36 SSB
signal with carrier
Figure 2.37 SSB
signal without
carrier
Example 2.9
For a 100W total available power in the sidebands, compare
the power in the sidebands when the modulation is standard
AM with m = 100%, vs a SC design where 90% of the carrier
power is suppressed. How many times greater is the sideband
power in the suppressed carrier case?
For m = 1, PT = PC(1 + m/2) = PC(3/2)

PC = 66.7W & PSB =100 – 66.7 =33.3W
DSB-SC PC = 66.7W x 0.9 = 60.0W (reduced)
New PSB =33.3W +60.0W = 93.3W
The power ratio = PSBnew/ PSBold = 2.8
In dB = 4.5 dB
Means in AM info transmitted only 33.3% but in DSB-SC is 93.3%.

Example 2.10
A 500 W DSB-SC system with 100% modulation
suppresses 50% of the carrier and the suppressed
carrier power goes to the sidebands. How much
power is in the sidebands and how much is in the
carrier? By how many dB has the sideband power
increased?
With 100% modulation, final Pc = 500W and total Psb =
250W, if Pc is diverted to SB, the new Pc = 500 – 250 =
250W and the new Psb = 250 +250 = 500W. The
increase in power is 500/250 = 2 = 3dB.

Advantages of SSB compared to AM
 power conservation
 all the power previously devoted to the carrier and other
sideband can be channeled into the signal sideband  producing
stronger signal farther and more reliable at greater distance
 BW conservation
 spectrum space occupied by the SSB signal is only half of AM and
DSB  allow more signal to be transmitted in the same
frequency range  less interference between signals
 less fading
 carrier and sidebands (on separate freq) may reach the RX
shifted in time and phase
 they may reach the RX in such a way that they cancel out one
another rather than adding up to the desired AM wave
 in SSB : fading does not occur
 noise reduction
 because of the less BW  less noise

Disadvantages of SSB compared to AM
 complex RX can use envelope detection technique

unless carrier is regenerated  adds to cost,
complexity and size
 tuning difficulties
 requires more complex and precise tuning  need of more
accurate, complex and expensive tuning circuit

VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND (VSB)
 carrier and 1 complete sideband are transmitted,
but only small (vestige) part of the second
sideband is transmitted
 used in TV broadcasting
 TV signal consists of the picture (video) signal and
the audio signal which have different carrier freq
 Audio carrier is frequency modulated
 Picture carrier is amplitude modulated
 Video info typically contains freq as high as 4.2
MHz  8.4 if fully DSB
 excessive amount of BW  wasteful because not all of it
is required to reliably transmit a TV signal
 Advantages of VSB compared to SSB
 design of sideband filter is simplified  no need of sharp cut
off filter
 improved low-frequency response
 Factors to be considered when choosing AM
 BW allocation
 Power
 Signal to noise ratio
 Complexity
 Cost
 Distance

FIGURE 2.38 Single-banded systems: (a) conventional DSBFC AM;
(b) full-carrier single sideband; (c) suppressed-carrier single
sideband;
Tomasi
Copyright ©2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Electronic Communications Systems, 5e Dept of Communication Engineering, FKEE Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
FIGURE 2.38 Single-banded systems: (d) reduced-carrier
single sideband; (e) independent sideband; (f) vestigial
sideband
AM MODULATOR CIRCUIT
 Amplitude modulation voltage is produced by a
circuit that can multiply the carrier by the
modulating signal and then add the carrier.
 Product of the carrier and modulating signal can be
generated by applying both signals to a nonlinear
component such as a diode.
 Intermodulation products, third, fourth, and
higher-order harmonics, are produced by diodes
and transistors.
 Tuned circuits filter out the modulating signal and
carrier harmonics, leaving only carrier and
sidebands.
AM Circuit Block Diagram
Analog
multiplier Summer
Modulating
signal
VAM
Carrier
VCsin2fct

 There are two types of amplitude modulators.
They are low-level and high-level modulators.
 Low-level modulators generate AM with small

signals and must be amplified before transmission.
 High-level modulators produce AM at high power

levels, usually in the final amplifier stage of a
transmitter.

Low-Level Amplitude Modulators
1. Diode Modulator with Tuned Circuit Filter
R1
Modulating
Signal, fm
R2 Diode
Carrier, fc AM
i LC tank circuit
R3 C L Resonant at the carrier
frequency

 A simple diode modulator consists of
resistive mixing network, diode
rectifier and LC tuned circuit.
 Carrier is applied to one input resistor
and modulating signal to the other
input resistor.
 Mixed signal appear across R3.
Network causes signals to be linearly
mixed, that is algebraically added.
 Diode removes the negative cycles
when forward biased which is then
applied to the tuned LC circuit.
 LC resonates at carrier frequency,
causing oscillation, creating negative
half cycle for every positive cycle.

2. Transistor Modulator
 Transistor modulation consists of a resistive mixing
network, a transistor, and an LC tuned circuit.
 The emitter-base junction of the transistor serves
as a diode and nonlinear device.
 Modulation and amplification occur as base current
controls a larger collector current.
 The LC tuned circuit oscillates (rings) to generate
the missing half cycle.

 Single transistor configured for AM by
modulating the base current.
 The transistor is biased into a nonlinear
operating region instead of acting as a
linear amplifier, it combines signals that
are applied to its base.
 The nonlinear mixing produces sum &
difference frequencies at carrier
frequency ±n (information signal
frequency), where n is 1, 2, 3 …
 The LC circuit is tuned to resonate at the
carrier frequency & acts as a high
impedance at resonance, so frequencies
at the carrier frequency are available at
the output.
 For frequencies further away from
resonance, the LC circuit appears as a low
impedance & these products are
effectively shorted out.
High-Level AM
 In high-level modulation, the modulator varies the
voltage and power in the final RF amplifier stage
of the transmitter. The result is high efficiency in
the RF amplifier and overall high-quality
performance.
 High-level modulators include:
 Collector modulator
 Series modulator

Collector Modulator
 The collector modulator is a
linear power amplifier.
 Low level modulating signals are
amplified to a high-power level.
 A modulating output signal is
coupled through a modulation
transformer to a class C
amplifier.
 The secondary winding of the
modulation transformer is
connected in series with the
collector supply voltage of the
class C amplifier.

Series Modulator
 A series modulator produces high-level
modulation without a large and expensive
modulation transformer used in collector
modulators.
 A series modulator replaces the modulation
transformer with an emitter follower.
 The modulating signal is applied to the
emitter follower.
 The emitter follower is in series with the
collector voltage.
 The collector voltage changes with
variations in the amplified audio
modulating signal.

Circuitry for DSB-SC
 One approach to produce DSB-SC signal is to
generate a regular AM signal & then filter out the
carrier. However, this is usually not a practical
approach.
 The carrier signal is very close in frequency to the
sidebands, so the filter would have to be very exact &
stable with time & temperature.
 It must be designed to work at one frequency.
 The carrier is larger than the sidebands & reducing the
carrier by filtering might still leave the carrier too strong,
relative to these sidebands.

Dept of Communication Engineering, FKEE 56
 Another approach is to use a circuit that only produces
sidebands (no carrier).
 A preferred approach is using a balanced modulator.
 For a perfect balanced modulator, the output is zero
when either input is zero.
 This is in contrast to regular AM, where there is a carrier
signal even if the modulating signal is zero.
Balanced Modulator/Latice Modulator

Single Sideband Circuits
 Two methods of generating single sideband (SSB)
signals are:
 Filter method
 Phasing method

Generating SSB Signals: The Filter
Method
 The filter method is the simplest and most widely
used.
 The modulating signal is applied to the audio amplifier.
 The amplifier’s output is fed to one input of a balanced
modulator.
 A crystal oscillator provides the carrier signal which is
also applied to the balanced modulator.
 The output of the balanced modulator is DSB.
 An SSB signal is produced by passing the DSB signal
through a highly selective bandpass filter.

SSB Transmitter: The Filter Method
Linear power
DSB SSB amplifier
Balanced signal Sideband signal

modulator filter
Microphone Audio
amplifier
Filter
response
Lower Upper curve
sidebands sidebands
Suppressed
carrier
Single Side Band Generation - Phasing
Method
 SSB generation at lower frequency using either: (a)
one carrier & one of two selectable filters, (b) one
of two selectable carriers & a single filter.
4.0 AM BEE3123 BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

 The phase-shift method of SSB generation appears
complex but is very effective.

 The output of any balanced modulator is a DSB
signal with components that have been shifted in
frequency & also shifted in phase by 90°.
 The method is based on a simple fact: two signals
that differ in phase by 180° (opposites or "flipped
over") cancel each other & produce a zero result if
they are added together.

 The phase-shift method uses two identical balanced
modulators & two 90° phase shifters.
 The output of the carrier oscillator goes to one
balanced modulator, where it is modulated by the
information-bearing signal.
 The output of the carrier oscillator also goes to a 90°
phase shifter, where it is modulated in the second
balanced modulator by the information-bearing signals,
also shifted by 90°.
 The outputs of the two balanced modulators are added
together in a summing circuit, & the result of this sum
is a perfect SSB signal, one that requires no filtering.
 Advantage of this method is that filters for suppressing
unwanted frequency components are not needed.
AM DEMODULATOR
 Demodulators, or detectors, are circuits
that accept modulated signals and recover
the original modulating information
 Demodulation of DSBFC AM
 Diode Detector.
 Transistor Detector

Diode Detector
D1 C2
AM signal
R1 C1
 On positive alternations of the AM signal, the

capacitor charges quickly to the peak value of
pulses passed by the diode.
 When the pulse voltage drops to zero, the
capacitor discharges into the resistor.
 The time constant of the capacitor and resistor is
long compared to the period of the carrier.

 The capacitor discharges only slightly when the
diode is not conducting.
 The resulting waveform across the capacitor is a
close approximation to the original modulating
signal.
 Because the diode detector recovers the envelope
of the AM (modulating) signal, the circuit is
sometimes called an envelope detector.
 If the RC time constant in a diode detector is too
long, the capacitor discharge will be too slow to
follow faster changes in the modulating signal.
This is referred to as diagonal distortion.
Figure 4.21 Envelope detection of a conventional AM signal

Transistor Detector
 AM input is applied to Q1 base
(common emitter)
 C1 is the coupling capacitor 
block DC from the input source R1 R3 C2
 R1 and R2 establish base bias
and R3 establish collector bias
 Transistor is biased-for-class B Info signal
operation that allows positive AM input C3
pulses on the output signal
Q1
 C2 filter out carrier frequency C1
 C3 removes DC component R2
Figure 4.23 Transistor demodulator

DSB and SSB Demodulation
 To recover the intelligence in a DSB or SSB signal,
the carrier that was suppressed at the receiver
must be reinserted.
 A product detector is a balanced modulator used in
a receiver to recover the modulating signal.
fc + fm + flo = 2fc + fm
Balanced fc + fm – flo = fm Low-pass fm
modulator filter
fc + fm
USB SSB
signal
fc = flo
Balanced Modulator Used as a Product Detector

RECEIVER PARAMETERS
 Parameters used to evaluate the ability of a
receiver to successfully demodulate radio signal :-
 Selectivity
 Ability of a receiver to accept a given band of frequency and
reject all others.
 i.e. using the bandwidth of the receiver at the – 3dB points
 not necessarily show rejection characteristic
 Most common used two points; another at -60dB  ratio of
the two called shape factor
B( 60 dB )
SF  (2.40)
B( 3dB )

SELECTIVITY
 Refers to the ability of a receiver to select a signal of a
desired frequency while rejecting those on close
adjacent frequencies.
 A receiver with good selectivity will isolate the desired
signal in the RF spectrum and eliminate all other
signals.
 Obtained by using tuned circuits.
 LC circuit tuned to resonate at a desired frequency.
 The Q of these tuned circuits determines the
selectivity.
 Q is the ratio of inductive reactance to resistance
fr
BW 
Q
0
-3dB
BW=fr/Q
BW=f2-f1
f1 fr f2
 Sensitivity
 The minimum RF signal that can be detected at the input
of a receiver and still produce a usable demodulated info
signal.
 Also called receiver threshold
 Depends on the noise power present at the input of the
receiver, the receiver’s noise figure, sensitivity of the AM
detector and the bandwidth improvement factor of the
receiver.
 The best way to improve sensitivity is by reducing the
noise level reduce temperature, reduce bandwidth of
the receiver, or improving receiving noise figure

 Bandwidth Improvement Factor
 One way of reducing the noise level is by reducing the
bandwidth of the signal
 There is limitation for reducing the bandwidth to make sure
information is not lost
 As RF bandwidth at the input of the receiver is higher than
the IF bandwidth at the output of the receiver, reducing the
RF bandwidth to IF bandwidth ratio effectively reducing the
noise figure of the receiver, thus reducing the noise
 Bandwidth improvement expressed mathematically as
BRF
BI  (2.41)
BIF
 Noise figure improvement expressed as
NFimprovement = 10 log BI

Example 2.11
High-Q tuned circuit is used to keep the BW narrow to ensure that only desired
signal is passed. Assumed that 10H coil with resistance of 20 is connected in
parallel with 101.4pF variable capacitor. The circuit resonates at what freq.?
 What is the inductive reactance?
 What is the selectivity of the circuit?
 What is the bandwidth of the tuned circuit?
 Find the upper and lower cutoff frequencies?

Answers
 1. 1 4. fr
fr   5MHz BW   318.47 kHz
2 LC Q
 2. 5. One half on each side of
X L  2 f r L  314 center freq. of 5MHz is
318.47/2 = 0.159 MHz.
 3. XL 
Q  15.7 Upper, f 2  5  0.159  5.159 MHz
R
Lower, f1  5  0.159  4.841MHz

AM RECEIVER
 They are two types of AM receiver :-
 Tuned RF Receiver (TRF)
 Simplest, limit to single channel low frequency applications.
 high sensitivity
 disadvantages :-
 BW is inconsistent and varies with center frequency when
tuned over a wide range of input frequencies  selectivity
changes.
 Instability due to the large number of RF amplifier all tuned
to the same center frequency  oscillation.
 Gain is not uniform over a wide range of frequency.

Tuned RF Receiver
FIGURE 2.25 Noncoherent tuned radio frequency receiver block diagram

Superheterodyne Receiver
 heterodyne : to mix 2 frequencies together in a
nonlinear device or to translate one frequency to
another using nonlinear device.
 RF amplifier
 provide initial gain and selectivity
 to minimize radiation of the LO (local oscillator) through
the receiver antenna

FIGURE 2.26 AM superheterodyne receiver block diagram
 converter / mixer (Figure 2.27)
 RF is down converted to IF, but shape of the envelope
remains the same  info is conserved, BW is unchanged
 Output of the mixer : infinite no. of harmonic and cross
product including fRF, fLO, fRF + fLO , fRF - fLO .
 LO is designed so that its frequency is always above or
below the desired RF carrier by an amount equal to IF
center frequency. fi,fo
fo + f i
Mixer
fo – fi or fi - fo Tuned circuit or
fi filter
fo
Figure 2.27(a): Mixer output

 fLO is usually higher than fRF because up conversion leads
to a smaller tuning range (smaller ratio of the maximum
to minimum tuning frequency)  much easier to design
an OSC that is tunable over a smaller frequency ratio.
 If mixer and LO are in a single stage, it is called
converter.
 Common IF : 455 kHz
 Adequate selectivity because it is difficult to design sharp
band bass filter if the center frequency is very high
 Center frequency is fixed and factory-tuned  effectively
suppress ACI because of its high selectivity

 Mathematically, the local oscillator frequency is
 For high side injection
f lo  f RF  f IF
 For low side injection

f lo  f RF  f IF
 Where
f lo  local oscillator frequency (hertz)
f RF  radio frequency (hertz)
f IF  intermidia te frequency (hertz)
 What is meant by the terms high and low side injection?
 IF amplifier
 One or more stage(s)
 Provide most gain and selectivity
 IF is much lower than RF  easier to design and good sensitivity
is easier to obtain with tuned circuit
 Demodulator
 to recover the original signal
 eg : diode detector (Figure 4.22)
 Audio amplifier
 to amplify the detected audio signal to be passed to the user

Image Frequency
 An image frequency is any frequency other than the
selected radio frequency carrier that, if allowed to
enter a receiver and mix with the local oscillator, will
produce a cross product frequency that is equal to
intermediate frequency (IF).
2 fIF
fIF fIF
Frequency
IF RF LO Image
Figure 2.27(b) : Image frequency
 Mathematically , for high side injection the image

frequency (fim) is
f im  f lo  f IF or f im  f RF  2 f IF
Example 2.12
Determine the image frequency for a standard broadcast band
receiver using 455-kHz IF and tuned to station at 620 kHz.
The first is determine the frequency of the LO

The LO frequency minus the desired station’s frequency of 620 kHz should equal the IF of
455 KHz
Hence,
fLO – 620 kHz = 455 kHz
fLO = 620 KHz + 455 kHz
fLO = 1075 kHz
Now determine what other frequency, when mixed with 1075 kHz, yields an output
component at 455 kHz
X – 1075 kHz = 455 kHz
X = 1075 kHz + 455 kHz
X = 1530 kHz
Thus, 1530 is the image frequency in this situation. To solve the problem associated with
image frequency, sometimes a technique known as double conversion is employed

Image Frequency Rejection Ratio (IFRR)
 Numerical measure of the preselector ability to reject

the image frequency.
The Image Rejection   1  Q 2  2

f image f RF fsi fs
where The rejection ratio     
f RF f image fs fi
Q  Quality factor of tuned circuit
XL f
  where B  bandwidth
R B
IR (dB)  20 log 

Example 2.13
 From Example 2.12, calculate the image rejection
in decibels, assuming that the input filter consists
of one tuned circuit with a Q of 40.
f image f RF 1530 620

     2.0625
f RF f image 620 1530
  1  Q 2  2  1  40 2 2.0625 2  82.5061
20 log   20 log(82.5061)  38.33dB

PART 2: ANGLE
MODULATION
ANGLE MODULATION
 In angle modulation, the amplitude of the modulated
carrier is held constant and either the phase or the
time derivative of the phase of the carrier is varied
linearly with the message signal m(t).
 Thus the general angle-modulated signal is given by (3.1)
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃(𝑡)
 In angle modulation, (t) is prescribed as being a
function of the modulating signal
 Therefore, if vm(t) is the modulating signal, angle
modulation is expressed as
𝜃 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑣𝑚 (𝑡)
where
𝑣𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
 The difference between FM and PM is more easily
understood by defining four terms with reference
to equation 3.1
 Instantaneous phase deviation
 Instantaneous change in the phase of the carrier at a
given instant of time and indicates how much the phase
of the carrier is changing with respect to its reference
phase
instantaneous phase deviation   (t ) rad

 Instantaneous phase
 Precise phase of the carrier at a given instant of time
instantaneous phase  ct   (t ) rad

 Instantaneous frequency deviation
 Instantaneous change in the frequency of the carrier and is defined as
the first time derivative of the instantaneous phase deviation
 Therefore, instantaneous phase deviation is the first integral of the
instantaneous frequency deviation
instantaneous frequency deviation   '(t ) rad/s

 '(t ) rad/s cycle
or    Hz
2 rad/cycle s
 Instantaneous frequency
 the precise frequency of the carrier at any given instant of time and is
defined as the first time derivative of the instantaneous phase
d
instantaneous frequency  i (t )  ct   (t ) 
dt
 c   '(t ) rad/s
 Substituting 2fc for c gives
instantaneous frequency  fi (t )
 rad   cycles 
and i (t )   2  f c    '(t )  2 f c   '(t ) rad/s
 cycle   s 
 Therefore, phase modulation can be defined as angle modulation

in which the instantaneous phase deviation, (t), is proportional to
the amplitude of the modulating signal voltage and the
instantaneous frequency deviation is proportional to the slope of
first derivative of the modulating signal.
 Frequency modulation is angle modulation in which the
instantaneous frequency deviation ’(t), is proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal, and the instantaneous phase
deviation is proportional to the integral of the modulating signal
voltage.
DEVIATION SENSITIVITY
 For modulating signal 𝑣𝑚 (𝑡), the phase and
frequency modulation are
phase modulation = 𝜃 𝑡 = 𝑘𝑝 𝑣𝑚 𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑
frequency modulation = 𝜃′ 𝑡 = 𝑘𝑓 𝑣𝑚 𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑/s
where 𝑘𝑝 and 𝑘𝑓 are constant and are the deviation
sensitivities of the phase and frequency
modulator respectively.
 Deviation sensitivities are the output-versus-input
transfer function for the modulators, which gave
the relationship between what output parameter
changes in respect to specified changes in the
input signal.
 For phase modulator,  PM is first integral of FM
rad   
kp  
V  V 
  (t )    '  t dt
  k f vm (t )dt
 For frequency modulator,
 k f  vm (t )dt
rad/s   
kf   
V  V 

PHASE MODULATION (PM)
 Variation of 𝜃 𝑡 produces Phase Modulation
 Phase modulation implies that 𝜃 𝑡 is proportional
to the modulating signal. Thus
𝑣𝑃𝑀 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃 𝑡
𝑣𝑃𝑀 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 (𝑡) (3.2)

FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)
 Variation of 𝑑𝜃/𝑑𝑡 produces Frequency Modulation
 Frequency modulation implies that 𝑑𝜃/𝑑𝑡is
proportional to the modulating signal.
 This yields
vFM (t )  Vc sin ct   (t )
 Vc sin ct    '(t )dt 
 
 Vc sin c t   k f vm (t )dt 
 
 Vc sin c t  k f Vm  sin m (t )dt 
 
 k f Vm  (3.3)
 Vc sin c t  cos m (t ) 
 m 
Exercise 3.1
Derive the PM and FM signal using both cosine wave signal.
v(t )  Vc cos ct   (t ) 

vm (t )  Vm cos mt 
for PM
for FM
vPM (t )  Vc cos c t  k p vm (t ) 
 
vFM (t )  Vc cos ct   k f vm (t )dt
 Vc cos c t  k pVm cos(mt )   V cos  t   k V cos( t )dt 
c c f m m
 V cos  t  k V  cos( t )dt 

c c f m m
 kV 
 Vc cos  ct  f m sin(mt ) 
 m 
2∆f
∆f ∆f
fc-∆f fc fc+∆f f
vm(t) = Vm cos 2πfmt
-Vm 0 +Vm
Figure 3.1 Frequency deviation

Figure 3.2: Phase and Frequency modulation ; (a) carrier signal (b) modulating signal
(c) frequency modulated wave (d) phase modulated wave
PHASE DEVIATION & MODULATION INDEX
 Equation 3.2 can be rewritten as
𝑣𝑃𝑀 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽𝑝 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
where 𝛽𝑝 = 𝑘𝑝 𝑣𝑚 (3.4)
 𝛽𝑝 represents the peak phase deviation in radians
for phase-modulated carrier, known as modulation
index.
 One primary difference between PM and FM is how
the 𝛽𝑝 is defined
 PM – modulation index proportional to the amplitude of
the modulating signal, independent of its frequency
 FM – modulation index is directly proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal and inversely
proportional to the frequency of the modulating signal
 For phase modulation, the unit of 𝛽𝑝
 radians 
p  kp   Vm  volts   radians
 volt 
 p  modulation index and peak phase deviation ( , radians)
k p  deviation sensitivity (radians per volt)
Vm  peak modulating signal amplitude (volts)

 For Frequency Modulation, equation 3.3 can be rewritten as
vFM (t )  Vc sin c t   f cos m (t ) 
k f Vm (3.5)
where
f 
m
 𝛽𝑓 also known as modulation index
 radians 
kf  s  V  volts 
 volts 
m
f      unitless 
m ( radians
s
)
 Deviation sensitivity, 𝑘𝑓 , can be expressed in Hertz
per volt rather than cycles per second per volt
allowing 𝛽𝑓 to be written in more practical form
 hertz 
kf   Vm  volts 
f  
volts 
  unitless 
f m (hertz)

FREQUENCY DEVIATION
 The change in the carrier frequency is called the frequency
deviation, ∆𝑓𝑐 , typically given as the peak frequency shift in
hertz.
fc  k f Vm (Hz) or   k pVm (rad)
 For example, a sample transmitter with an assigned rest
frequency of 100MHz deviated by a ±25kHz, the carrier
changes frequency with modulation between the limits of
99.975MHz and 100.025MHz
 The total frequency change, 25kHz x 2 is called the carrier
swing
 Table 1 display the transmission band that use FM and the
legal frequency deviation limit for each category
 Deviation limits are based on the quality of the intended
transmissions, wider deviation results in higher fidelity
 The frequency deviation is a useful parameter for
determining the bandwidth of the FM-signals

 Since 𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚 ∆𝑓𝑐
𝛽𝑓 = =
𝜔𝑚 𝑓𝑚
 The equation 3.3 can again be rewritten as

∆𝑓𝑐
𝑣𝐹𝑀 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 − cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 (3.6)
𝑓𝑚
 Depending on the value of the modulation index

𝛽𝑓 , we may distinguish two cases of frequency
modulation - Narrow-Band FM and Wide-Band FM.

Table 1: Specifications for transmission of FM signal
PERCENT MODULATION
 Simply the ratio of the frequency deviation
actually produced to the maximum frequency
deviation allowed by law stated in percent form
f actual
% modulation 
f max
 For example if a given modulating signal produces
±50kHz frequency deviation, and the law stated
that maximum frequency deviation allowed is
±75kHz, then
50kHz
% modulation =  100  67%
75kHz
Example 3.2
 A 1 MHz carrier freq with a measured sensitivity of
3 kHz/V is modulated with a 2 V, 4 kHz sinusoid.
Determine
1. the max freq deviation of the carrier
2. the modulation index
3. the modulation index if the modulation voltage is
doubled
4. the modulation index for 𝑣𝑚 𝑡 = 2 cos 2𝜋 8 × 103 𝑡 V,
express the FM signal mathematically for a cosine
carrier & the cosine-modulating signal of part 4. Carrier
amplitude is 10V

FM RADIO FREQUENCY
 Commercial radio FM band, 88MHz – 108MHz
 Each station allotted to a frequency deviation of
±75kHz (150 carrier swing) and 25kHz of guard
band added above and below the carrier frequency
swing
 Total bandwidth is 200kHz
 Therefore, maximum of 100 stations can be made
available

NARROW-BAND FREQUENCY MODULATION
 Bandwidth ranging from 10 to 30 kHz
 Modulation indices are generally keep near unity so that
the FM bandwidth can be determined in a similar
manner as the AM system i.e. 2 × 𝑓𝑚 .
 This system is widely used in mobile radio systems for
police, fire and taxi services; cellular telephony,
amateur radio and so on.
 Assume that a carrier signal of 𝑣𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 is
being frequency modulated by 𝑣𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 .
 The resulting 𝑣𝐹𝑀 (𝑡) is
𝑣𝐹𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽𝑓 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 (3.7)
 If  is small ( << 0.25)
cos 𝛽𝑓 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 ≈ 1
sin 𝛽𝑓 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 ≈ 𝛽𝑓 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
 Since
cos 𝐴 + 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin(𝐵)
therefore
𝑣𝐹𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 − 𝑉𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 𝛽𝑓 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
but
1
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) − cos(𝐴 + 𝐵)
2
then
1
𝑣𝐹𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽𝑓 𝑉𝑐 cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 − cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
2
Vc
1 1
 f Vc  f Vc Figure 3.3 Amplitude spectrum
2 2
(single-sided plot)
f
fc - fm fc fc + fm

WIDE-BAND FREQUENCY MODULATION
 The general expression for a FM signal can be analyzed
to give the spectral components of a wide-band FM
signal.
 In order to compute the spectrum of an angle-
modulated signal with a sinusoidal message signal, let
Where (t) = Phase deviation
f
 (t )  c
sin(2 f mt )
fm
 The corresponding FM signal is given by (from 3.6)
vFM (t )  Vc cos(2 fct   sin(2 f mt ))

 It cannot be evaluated in a closed form but are
tabulated in the table of Bessel functions of the first
kind of order n
, f
Figure 3.4 Tabulated value for Bessel Function for the first kind of the nth order
 The first column gives the modulation , while the first row gives the
Bessel function.
 The remaining columns indicate the amplitudes of the carrier and the
various pairs of sidebands.
 Sidebands with relative magnitude of less than 0.01 have been
eliminated.
 Some of the carrier and sideband amplitudes have negative signs. This
means that the signal represented by that amplitude is simply shifted
in phase 180 (phase inversion).
 The spectrum of a FM signal varies considerably in bandwidth
depending upon the value of the modulation index. The higher the
modulation index, the wider the bandwidth of the FM signal.
 With the increase in the modulation index, the carrier amplitude
decreases while the amplitude of the various sidebands increases. With
some values of modulation index, the carrier can disappear
completely.

f
Figure 3.5 : Bessel Function

AMPLITUDE SPECTRUM
Figure 3.6 : Amplitude spectrum of different value of f

TRANSMISSION BANDWIDTH OF FM SIGNALS
 Theoretically, a FM signal contains an infinite number of
side frequencies so that the bandwidth required to
transmit such signal is infinite.
 However, since the values of Jn(f) become negligible
for sufficiently large n, the bandwidth of an angle-
modulated signal can be defined by considering only
those terms that contain significant power.
 In practice, the bandwidth of a FM signal can be
determined by knowing the modulation index and using
the Bessel function table.
 By using Bessel function, minimum bandwidth for angle
modulated wave
 BW = 2(n x fm) Hz
 where n is the number of significant sideband
Example 3.3
Calculate the bandwidth occupied by a FM signal with
a modulation index of 2 and a highest modulating
frequency of 2.5 kHz. Determine bandwidth with
table of Bessel functions.
 Referring to the table, this produces 4 significant

pairs of sidebands.
BW  2  4  2.5
 20kHz

Carson’s Rule
 We may thus define an approximate rule for the transmission
bandwidth of an FM signal generated by a single of frequency fm
as follows:
BT  BW  2f  2 f m  2f (1  1 )

or = 2 f m 1   

Example
Assuming a maximum frequency deviation of 5 kHz
and a maximum modulating frequency of 2.5 kHz, the
bandwidth would be
B.W .  2(2.5kHz  5kHz)
 2  7.5kHz
 15kHz
 Comparing the bandwidth with that computed in

the preceding example, you can see that Carson's
rule gives a smaller bandwidth.

Example 3.4
For an FM modulator with a modulation index f = 1,
a modulating signal
vm(t) = Vmsin(2π1000t) and unmodulated carrier
vc(t) = 10sin(2π500kt), determine
1. Number of sets of significant sideband
2. Their amplitude
3. Then draw the frequency spectrum showing their
relative amplitudes

Example 3.5
For an FM modulator with a peak freq deviation Δf =
10kHz, a modulating signal freq fm= 10kHz, Vc =10V
and 500kHz carrier, determine
1. Actual minimum bandwidth from the Bessel
function table
2. Approximate minimum bandwidth using Carson’s
rule
3. Plot the output freq spectrum for the Bessel
approximation

DEVIATION RATIO
 Minimum bandwidth is greatest when maximum
freq deviation is obtained with the maximum
modulating signal frequency
 Worst case modulation index and is equal to the
maximum peak frequency deviation divided by the
maximum modulating signal frequency
 Worst case modulation index produces the widest
output frequency spectrum
 Mathematically,
max peak freq deviation f max
DR  
max mod signal freq f m (max)

Example 3.6
 Determine the deviation ratio and bandwidth for
the worst case (widest bandwidth) modulation
index for an FM broadcast band transmitter with a
maximum frequency deviation of 75kHz and a
maximum modulating signal frequency of 15kHz.
 Determine the deviation ratio and maximum
bandwidth for an equal modulation index with only
half the peak frequency deviation and modulating
signal frequency.

POWER IN ANGLE-MODULATED SIGNAL
 The power in an angle-modulated signal is easily
computed as,
n 
P  1 Vc2  J n2 (  )
2 n 
Vc2

2
 Thus the power contained in the FM signal is

independent of the message signal. This is an
important difference between FM and AM.

 Average power in unmodulated carrier
Vc 2
Pc  W
2R
 Total modulated wave power is
Pt  P0  2( P1  P2  P3  ....Pn )
Vo
2
 V12 V22 V32 Vn2 
Pt   2   ....  where Vn  J n  Vc
2R  2R 2R 2R 2R 
 J P  2( J P  J P  J P ....J P )
2
0 c
2
1 c
2
2 c
2
3 c
2
n c
 The total power in the carrier and the sidebands components

 to unmodulated carrier power
Example 3.7
An FM signal is given as vFM(t)=12cos[(6π x 106t) +
5sin(2π x 1250t)] V. Determine
a. freq of the carrier signal
b. freq of the modulating signal
c. modulation index
d. freq deviation
e. power dissipated in 10 ohm resistor.

Example 3.8
 Determine the unmodulated carrier power for the FM modulator given that  =1,
Vc=10 V, R = 50 Ω. Then, determine the total power in the angle-modulated wave.
 Solution
  not exactly equal because values in Bessel

 table have been rounded off.

Example 3.9

Example 3.10
An FM signal with 5W carrier power is fluctuating at
the rate of 10000 times per second from 99.96 MHz
to 100.04 MHz. Find
a. carrier freq
b. carrier swing
c. freq deviation
d. modulation index
e. power spectrum

Example 3.11
In an FM transmitter, the freq is changing between
100 MHz to 99.98 MHz, 4000 times per seconds. The
amplitude of the FM signal is 5 V, determine :-
1. carrier and modulating freq
2. carrier freq swing
3. amplitude spectrum
4. bandwidth by using Bessel Table and Carson’s rule
5. average power at the transmitter if the modulator
carrier power is 5 W.

Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
 FM signals has non-uniform distribution of noise. The noise at
higher-modulating-signal is higher in amplitude than noise at lower
frequencies.
 Info signal with uniform amplitude will produce non-uniform SNR
after modulation. Higher-modulating-signal frequencies have lower
SNR than lower frequencies. See Figure 7-13.
 Compensate this by boosting the amplitude of higher-freq
modulating signal before modulation process (pre-emphasis). At the
receiver, the high-freq signals are attenuated or de-emphasis after
demodulation. This may improve the SNR at the receiver side.

Example
Given a direct FM frequency modulator (VCO) with a deviation
sensitivity K1 = 1kHz/V, a PLL FM demodulator with a transfer function
Kd = 1V/khz and the following input signals
1 kHz at 4 Vp, 2 kHz at 2 Vp and 3 kHz at 1 Vp
1. Determine the freq deviations at the output of the VCO for the
three input signals and the demodulated voltages at the output of
the PLL demodulator (see fig. 7.17 (a))
2. For the following internally generated noise signals, determine the
SNR at the output of the demodulator. (see fig. 7.17 (a))
1 kHz at 0.1 Vp, 2 kHz at 0.25 Vp and 3 kHz at 0.5 Vp
3. Determine the frequency spectrum at the output of the pre-
emphasis network, the freq deviation at the modulator output, the
demodulator output voltages, the freq spectrums and SNR at the
output of PLL demodulator and at the output of de-emphasis
network. (see fig. 7.17 (b))

Fig. 7.17 (a) SNR without pre- Fig. 7.17 (b) SNR with pre-
emphasis & de-emphasis emphasis & de-emphasis
FM SIGNAL GENERATION
1) Direct FM
 In a direct FM system the instantaneous frequency
is directly varied with the information signal. To
vary the frequency of the carrier is to use an
Oscillator whose resonant frequency is
determined by components that can be varied.
The oscillator frequency is thus changed by the
modulating signal amplitude.
fi  f c  k f vm (t )
 Example of direct FM modulator is Varactor Diode.

 The external modulating signal voltage adds to and
subtracts from DC bias developed by R1 and R2, which
changes the capacitance of diode VD1 and freq of
oscillation by oscillator.
 Positive alteration of modulating signal increase reverse
bias on VD1 and increases freq of oscillation. Negative
alteration of modulating signal decrease the oscillation
freq Varactor Diode
2) Indirect FM
 Angle modulation includes frequency modulation FM
and phase modulation PM.
 FM and PM are interrelated; one cannot change
without the other changing. The information signal
frequency also deviates the carrier frequency in PM.
 Phase modulation produces frequency modulation.
Since the amount of phase shift is varying, the
effect is that, as if the frequency is changed.
 Since FM is produced by PM , the later is referred to
as indirect FM.
 The information signal is first integrated and then
used to phase modulate a crystal-controlled
oscillator, which provides frequency stability.

 In order to minimize the distortion in the phase
modulator, the modulation index is kept small, thereby
is resulting in a narrow-band FM-signal
vPM (t )  Vc cos(2 f c t   (t ))
 (t )  k pVm (t )
 (t )  k f  Vm (t )dt
t
 The narrow-band FM signal is multiplied in frequency by

means of frequency multiplier so as to produce the
desired wide-band FM signal.
 The frequency multiplier is used to perform narrow
band to wideband conversion.
 The frequency deviation of this new waveform is “M”
times that of the old, while the rate at which the
instantaneous frequency varies has not changed
Figure 3.9 BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
FREQUENCY UP-CONVERSION
 Heterodyning
 A low freq modulation carrier can be either up- or down-
converted to a different location in the freq spectrum
without changing its modulating properties.
 Multiplication
 when a carrier freq is up-converted, the modulation
properties of a carrier can be increased at the same time
 fm remains unchanged  separation of the adjacent
sidebands remains unchanged

Figure 3.10 Frequency up-conversion: (a) heterodyne method; (b)
multiplication methodDept of Communication Engineering, FKEE
Example 3.12
Given that ∆f = 3 kHz, β=0.3 and fc=500 kHz,
determine the carrier freq and modulation properties
at :-
1. the output of the balanced modulator with a BPF tuned
to the sum freq & an RF carrier input freq of 99.5 MHz
2. the output of a times 10 freq multiplier

FM DEMODULATION
 Demodulation should provide an output signal
whose amplitude is dependent on the
instantaneous carrier frequency deviation and
whose frequency is dependent on the rate of the
carrier frequency change
df c df
Vm  and f m  c
dt dt

Figure 3.11 Double-conversion FM receiver block diagram
 Slope detector
 simplest form of tuned-circuit frequency discriminator
 Single ended slope has the most nonlinear voltage-versus-
frequency characteristics  seldom used
 based on tuning the carrier frequency to the mid-point on a
response curved of the tuned circuit
 Circuit consist of a tuned circuit and an AM detector
 From Figure 3.12, La and Ca is the tuned circuit that produces
output voltage that is proportional to the input frequency
 Maximum voltage at the resonant frequency of the tank circuit
(f0), and its output decrease proportionally as the input
frequency deviates above or below f0.

Figure 3.12: Slope detector (a) schematic diagram (b) voltage-versus-
frequency curve
 the circuit is designed so that the IF center frequency
(fc) falls in the center of the most linear portion of the
voltage-versus-frequency curve, as in Figure 3.12(b)
 when IF deviates above fc, output voltage increase and
when IF deviated below fc, output voltage decrease.
 Therefore, the tuned circuit converts frequency
variations to amplitude variations (FM-to-AM
conversion)
 Di, Ci and Ri make up a simple peak detector that
converts the amplitude variations to an output voltage
that varies at a rate equal to that of the input
frequency changes and whose amplitude is proportional
to the magnitude of the frequency changes (operate as
AM diode detector demodulator))
 Disadvantages : gain is reduced, difficult to achieve a
linear slope response curve.
2. Balanced slope detector
fa >
fc
fa < fc
Tuned circuit Balanced peak

detector
Figure 3.19: Balanced slope detector (a) schematic diagram (b) voltage-
versus-frequency response curve

 made up of single-ended slope detector connected in
parallel and fed 180o out of phase
 the 2 tuned circuit perform the FM to AM conversions
 At resonant freq, the resultant output voltage is 0 V.
 As the IF deviates above the center freq, top tuned
circuit produces higher voltage than the lower tank
circuit (+Vout)and vice versa
 Figure 3.19(b) shows the output versus frequency
response curve
 diode detector recover the original signal
 advantage : simple
 disadvantages : poor linearity, difficult in tuning and
lack of provisions for limiting.
PHASE LOCKED LOOP (PLL)
 FM demodulation can be accomplished quite simply
with a phase-locked loop (PLL).
 PLL FM demodulator is probably the simplest and
easiest to understand.
 A PLL frequency demodulator requires no tuned
circuits and automatically compensates for
changes in the carrier frequency due to instability
in the transmit oscillator.
 Figure 3.23(a) shows the simplified block diagram
for a PLL FM demodulator.

Figure 3.23 (a) Block diagram for a PLL FM demodulator

 PLL has three operating states:
 Free running
 Capture
 Lock
 Free running state
 No external input frequency / feedback loop is open
 VCO oscillates at its natural frequency determined by external component
 Capture state
 There must be an external input signal and the feedback loop must be complete
 PLL is in a process of acquiring frequency lock
 Lock state
 The VCO output frequency is locked onto (equal to) the frequency of the external
input signal
 The VCO output frequency tracks (follows) changes in the frequency of the
external input signal

 If the IF amplitude is sufficiently limited prior to
reaching the PLL and the loop is properly compensated,
the PLL loop gain is constant and equal to KV.
 after frequency lock had occurred the VCO would track
frequency changes in the input signal by maintaining a
phase error at the input of the phase comparator.
 Therefore, if the PLL input is a deviated FM signal and
the VCO natural frequency is equal to the IF center
frequency, the correction voltage produced at the
output of the phase comparator and fed back to the
input of the VCO is proportional to the frequency
deviation and is, thus, the demodulated information
signal.
 Therefore, the demodulated signal can be taken
directly from the output of the internal buffer and is
mathematically given as
Vout = Δf Kd Ka
FM SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
 The FM Superheterodyne Receiver block diagram
(see Figure 3.28) has many similarities to that of
the AM Superheterodyne receiver studied earlier.
 The only apparent differences are the use of the
presence of limiter-discriminator circuit in place of
envelope detector and the addition of a de-
emphasis network
 The universally standard IF frequency for FM is
10.7 MHz, as compared to 455 kHz for AM.

Figure 3.28

 The limiter-discriminator extracts the intelligence from
the high-frequency carrier and can also be called the
detector, as in AM receivers.
 The de-emphasis network, following demodulation, is
required to bring back the emphasized higher frequency
components of the message signal back to the proper
amplitude relationship with the lower frequency
components.
 Older FM receivers also included an automatic
frequency control (AFC) function. This is a circuit that
provides an automatic control over the local oscillator
circuit. It compensates for drift in LO frequency that
would otherwise cause a station to become detuned. It
was necessary because it had not yet been figured out
how to make an economical LC oscillator at 100 MHz
with sufficient frequency stability. The AFC system is
not needed in new designs.
FM & PM COMPARISON
FM PM
The maximum frequency deviation The maximum phase deviation ()

(f) depends upon amplitude of depends only upon the modulating
modulating voltage (Vm) and voltage (Vm).
modulating frequency (fm).
Frequency of the carrier (fc) is Phase of the carrier is modulated by

modulated by modulating signal modulating signal (fm).
(fm).
Modulation index is increased as Modulation index remain same if
modulation frequency is reduced modulating frequency is changed
and vice versa.

FM & PM COMPARISON
m m
PM
FM and PM
FM
Vm fm
m vs Vm m vs fm
 f
PM FM
Vm Vm
 vs Vm f vs Vm

 Several advantages over AM
 Noise reduction
 Improve system fidelity
 More efficient use of power
 Disadvantages
 Wider bandwidth
 More complex circuitry


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CHAPTER 3: Analog

Part 2: Angle Modulation

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

where cos(A  B) cos(A  B)

carrier LSB USB

 modulated wave does not contain frequency

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

fc-fm fC fc+fm fc-fm fc fc+f

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Figure 2.4 (a) m < 1, under modulation.

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Figure 2.4(b) m = 1, ideal modulation.

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Figure 2.4(c) m > 1, over modulated AM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

 In practice, carrier signal will be modulated by several signals

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

VT  V12  V2 2  V32  .........

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

 DOUBLE SIDEBAND REDUCED CARRIER (DSB RC)

 SINGLE SIDEBAND (SSB)

 VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND (VSB)

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

where Pm indicates the power in the signal vm(t).

 Disadvantages of DSBSC compared to AM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

For m = 1, PT = PC(1 + m/2) = PC(3/2)

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

 complex RX can use envelope detection technique

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

 Low-level modulators generate AM with small

 High-level modulators produce AM at high power

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

1. Diode Modulator with Tuned Circuit Filter

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Balanced Modulator/Latice Modulator

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Balanced signal Sideband signal

4.0 AM BEE3123 BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM