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Simitch Andrea, Warke Val - The Language of Architecture. 26 Principles Every Architect Should Know - 2014 PDF
Simitch Andrea, Warke Val - The Language of Architecture. 26 Principles Every Architect Should Know - 2014 PDF
language
of
architecture
Dedication
To all of our students, from whom we have learned so much. And to Eva and Dax, who have not only
tolerated but infinitely enriched our endless excursions in the interest of architecture.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the
copyright owners. All images in this book have been reproduced with the knowledge and prior consent of
the artists concerned, and no responsibility is accepted by producer, publisher, or printer for any
infringement of copyright or otherwise, arising from the contents of this publication. Every effort has
been made to ensure that credits accurately comply with information supplied.
We apologize for any inaccuracies that may have occurred and will resolve inaccurate or missing
information in a subsequent reprinting of the book.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN: 978-1-59253-858-4
Printed in China
Andrea Simitch and Val Warke
With essays contributed by
Iñaqui Carnicero
Steven Fong
K. Michael Hays
David J. Lewis
the
Richard Rosa II
Jenny Sabin
Jim Williamson
language
of
architecture
26 Principles Every
Architect Should Know
contents
Introduction 6
1 Analysis 8 7 Mass 64
2 Concept 18 8 Structure 72
3 Representation 26 9 Surface 82
GIVENS 10 Materials 88
4 Program 36
EPHEMERAL SUBSTANCES
13 Light 116
14 Movement 124
CONCEPTUAL DEVICES CONSTRUCTIVE POSSIBILITIES
26 Presentation 208
18 Transformation 150
Glossary 216
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVICES
21 Order 172
Index 220
Acknowledgments 224
23 Geometry 188
introduction
It is our hope to stimulate old and new interests in architecture, to share an enthusiasm for some venerable sheds
and evocative cathedrals, and to introduce the limitless poetics that can be composed in architecture’s language.
Tireless debate has always focused on the the stop near my home.” But it is clear that our elementary concept of the meaning of
qualities that could cause a building to be those constructions we describe as “works of “dog” becomes complicated by the various
described as “architecture.” Nikolaus Pevsner, architecture” tend to convey countless levels affects of context, by our knowledge of
who famously declared that “A bicycle shed of meaning to numerous unique observers dramatic genres, of precedent, of poetic
is a building; Lincoln Cathedral is a piece of over an indefinite number of years. Perhaps, language, and, if heard during a perfor-
architecture,” assumes that human habitation then, architecture might be understood to mance, by the actor’s verbal and physical
is a characteristic of all buildings, while be comparable to a “thick,” poetic language. inflections. Clearly, Shakespeare’s “dog” is
architecture transcends building because of One of the traits of any language is much more than that furry four-legged beast
its aesthetic aspirations. Other arguments that it provides a system that can convey once in the room.
have been based on issues as indeterminate meaning. When being introduced to a new Meaning in architecture is similarly
as emotional resonance (in other words, language—when one first learns to speak as complex, both profound and open ended.
architecture, unlike building, stirs our an infant or when one attempts to learn a Such meaning is inevitably compounded by
emotions), as reductive as professionalism second language—meaning is generally architecture’s lengthy processes of production,
(architecture is by architects), as evaluative direct and singular. To the infant, a “dog” is by the vast array of individuals responsible for
as historical appraisal (architecture is what a the furry four-legged beast in the room. To every stage of that production, by the final
culture has deemed as significant, or what the first-time speaker of Italian, “cane” is construction’s relationships with its various
has proven to be significant through time), directly associated with one among that contexts, by its interrelationships with other
and as limitless as inclusivism (all construc- general group of animals we know as “dogs.” known elements of architectural expression,
tions are architecture, perhaps even those by However, after becoming familiar with more and by the unique pasts and presents of each
other species, such as the hives of bees or complex levels of language—with poetry, individual who observes the final construc-
the dams of beavers). slang, mythology, and allegory, for example— tion. Architecture is further complicated by
Parallel to these discussions, analogies a more sophisticated notion of meaning is the fact that each design is a testing ground
to language have been frequent, varied, and required. For example, when Shakespeare for a number of associated concepts drawn
inevitable throughout the history of archi- has Hamlet say: from history, theory, technology, and even
tecture. The fact is that every building, from representation. For this reason, many attempts
a bicycle shed to a bus stop, is capable of “Let Hercules himself do what he may, at defining a language of architecture have
meaning something to someone: “Here, I can The cat will mew and dog will have his day.” necessarily been reductive. Like textbook
protect my bike from the rain,” or “This is Shakespeare, Hamlet, Act V, Scene 1 translations of elementary Italian, they
become simple exercises in decoding, with but more ephemeral substances—space, scale, We address this book to several
no regard for syntax, idioms, voice, genre, light, and movement—that serve to make different audiences. For those just com-
and so on. the physical substances legible. Four chapters mencing studies in architecture, we hope to
For these reasons, this book is not on the conceptual devices that frequently introduce the potential breadth and depth of
intended to be an exhaustive or definitive contribute to what might be understood as the field while showing some of the works—
lexicon of architectural ideas. Such an effort the poetics of architecture—dialogue, tropes, by both students and well-known practitio-
would be futile. It is instead an introduction defamiliarization, and transformation—are ners—that might inspire or even provoke.
to what we believe—after over sixty years followed by five chapters that discuss the Those who have already embarked on one of
of combined experience in architectural operations of architecture’s diverse organiza- the various aspects of architectural practice
education—to be some of the more vital tional devices: infrastructure, datum, order, might find in the text a series of subtle
fundamentals of architectural design. Just as grid, and geometry. Finally, two chapters reminders, a mine of possibilities. Each
the English alphabet is arbitrarily limited to concerning some of the considerations chapter includes a short essay that brings
twenty-six letters, we have limited ourselves an architect might have for the implicit greater depth to the chapter’s theme and
to just twenty-six elements, each described possibility of construction—fabrication may suggest further inquiry for those
in its own chapter. and prefabrication—are followed by a final interested in architectural history, theory,
We have organized the text so that we chapter on what is usually the culmination or criticism. And finally, for those of our
begin with three chapters that introduce the of the design process for most architects colleagues interested in developing a
essential elements one needs to develop a and students of architecture: presentation. curriculum in beginning design, we intend
visual language and the skills for critical And we illustrate these chapters each chapter to germinate an idea that
thinking: analysis, concept, and representa- throughout with some of the more might foster its own design exercise or that
tion. We follow with three of the elements distinctive and expressive examples of could suggest more elaborate problems
6
that are generally considered to be among architecture’s language. From the gran- when combined with other themes.
the givens of any design process: program, diloquent to the slang, from the epic to In short, it is our hope to stimulate old
context, and environment. Then, we turn to the everyday, projects are culled from and new interests in architecture, to share
7
what might be considered the substances of the great masters of architecture, from an enthusiasm for some venerable sheds and
architecture. After introducing the physical notable contemporary practitioners and evocative cathedrals, and to introduce the
substances—mass, structure, surface, and from students around the world who have limitless poetics that can be composed in
material—we consider the equally palpable, confronted these issues in their studies. architecture’s language.
Analysis is the process of exploration and
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
and appropriation of something that givens of a project, which include program tions, and conditions that are given, but
already exists. It is not that something that (the functions that the project needs to subsequently establishes the critical
is the subject of this chapter, but it is, accommodate; these may include specific framework of the problem, the conceptual
instead, the processes by which one material requirements, such as the use of lens through which all design decisions are
understands, abstracts, and interprets aluminum), site and context (where the subsequently made.
the known or the given so that it can project is to be located), and conventions
meaningfully inform the design process. (the cultural contexts of the project). The Precedent
In architecture, these processes of other circumstance is what the architect Fundamental to the education—and
abstraction are usually called analysis. brings to the givens: how the architect continued development—of an architect is an
interprets or defines these givens. Analysis awareness of what has come before. It is the
Project Givens is the process of exploration and discovery raw material that provides the basis for an
The design process is initiated by the inter- with which an architect not only develops infinite inventory of architectural ideas: it is
section of two circumstances. One is the a familiarity with the assumptions, expecta- the architect’s library, allowing the architect
in a complex, multicultural world. In the shadows consume the “inconsequential” aspects, both empirical and psychological:
third issue, Moretti treats the work of Ber- elements of nonloadbearing surfaces. as a measurable sequence of volumes rep-
nini and Borromini compositionally in resented through plaster models with
“Abstract Forms in Baroque Sculpture,” in In “The Values of Profiles,” Moretti argues spaces constructed as solids; as “density”
which exuberant draperies and angels’ that cornices and profiles (three-dimen- defined by the penetration of light as mod-
wings supply the plasticity that defines sional moldings) are ancient architecture’s eled with light boxes; as the foci of one’s
Roman baroque architecture. Rather than truly “abstract” components: nonrepresen- senses on the masses that shape a struc-
encourage a stationary viewer, he argues, tative and formally derived. Profiles, ture; and as the expansive and compressive
these fluid forms draw the eyes from one according to Moretti, have been architec- interrelationships within the fluidity of a
center to another—from one perspectival ture’s means of orchestrating light and spatial sequence. Always eclectic, Moretti
system to another—in works composed of dark, thereby bringing focus to a building’s cites nineteenth-century paintings, the
multiple focal points, simulating an archi- components and reinforcing its primary spatial reactions of characters in a film, the
tectural promenade. formal organization. Moretti demonstrates cathartic escapes in Melville’s Typee, and
how moldings enable a building to alter its fluid dynamics.
Moretti reveals a fascination with move- appearance throughout the day with con-
ment, sequence, and time as modifiers of tinuously changing shadows, and in In his Spazio essays, Luigi Moretti offers
space and form. In “Discontinuity of Space relation to a viewer’s position in the street evocative analyses framed by juxtaposi-
in Caravaggio,” Moretti speculates that this below: a genuinely dynamic architecture. tions and generous speculation, arguing
painter from the early seventeenth-century that every type of artistic work can be
was depicting the effects of Rome’s noonday In perhaps his most famous essay, “Struc- absorbed into an architectural production.
light upon elements in baroque façades, tures and Sequences of Spaces,” Moretti
when columns appear as figures and analyzes spatiality in architecture in four
Left: Machado and Silvetti: which an excavated courtyard
House in Djerba, Tunisia, is surrounded by its primary
1976, plan living spaces, to provide
Right: Castle Hedingham, inspiration for a project
Essex, England, c. 1133, plan designed by Machado and
Silvetti in Djerba, Tunisia.
It is possible to derive basic Here, the exterior wall of
organizational strategies rooms that enclose the
from one’s understanding of house’s central volumes is
precedents. The occupiable transformed into an exterior
wall that wrapped the staircase, and as it begins to
primary rooms of the peel away, the central
medieval English castle is volumes of the house are
combined with the typical revealed.
Tunisian troglodyte house in
ABSTRACTION Components, or breaking down into parts Richard Meier: House in organizational strategies.
Pound Ridge, NY, 1969 While describable as a series
Just as an artist sees a painting through the Most works of architecture are composed of
In these iconic diagrams by of autonomous systems, each
eyes of someone intending to produce a series of overlapping and bypassing systems following an “internal”
the architect Richard Meier,
another painting, and a musician might hear that, together, form the complete work. It is site, program, structure, logic, together they form a
constellation of systems that
music with the ears of someone intending to the “unpacking” of these systems into a series entrance, circulation, and
enclosure are independently intersect, engage, and often
produce more music, an architect sees a of discrete diagrams that can offer insights deform one another in
represented in order to
building—ultimately, analyzes it—with the into a precedent’s unique characteristics, and present the project’s basic producing the final work.
goal of designing another work of architec- it is the distillation of these systems into
ture. For the architect, the role of analysis is idealized components that can provide an
not to uncover the fundamental intentions inventory of systems that can subsequently
that may have been behind a design’s origin, be redeployed in other projects.
but to uncover the values a design may have
in inspiring more designs. The most common systems separated during
an analysis are structure, circulation, exterior
Analysis is a process whereby one draws from envelope or membrane, major versus minor
a precedent or from a programmatic given spaces, public versus private spaces, solids
its distinguishable characteristics, what makes versus voids, repetitive versus unique,
one work different from any other work. supportive spaces, and the geometric and
“Analysis,” as Cornell University Professor proportional orders that often hold these
Jerry Wells would say, “is designing systems together.
backwards.” It is breaking down a work into
parts in order to examine a subject from While each system on its own is important in
multiple perspectives, to investigate a project understanding a work, the ways in which they
in order to uncover what may have been the are transformed, merged, or overlaid is what
strategies for its design. While these parts ultimately leads to an understanding of the
are often formless, they are the precursors of unique qualities of the greater whole.
the concepts and forms that have produced
the final work.
Diagramming
Diagramming is the process of abstracting
and simplifying an idea so that it can be
easily understood. It is the recording of the
physical and spatial characteristics that
identify the unique and recognizable
characteristics of a building, site, or program.
It is the process by which familiarity with a
specific set of programmatic and contextual
circumstances can be achieved. Much like a
child’s sketch, a diagram is not concerned
with developing nuance but, instead, with
1
clarity: it is a reduction—a boiling down—of
an idea. The diagram cannot only analyze
the physical, it can also reveal the ephemeral,
Analysis
the historical, the infrastructural. Diagrams
allow one to gain an understanding of a
particular project by revisiting it again and
again through a series of distinct lenses.
They also facilitate an understanding of how
several seemingly unrelated works might in
fact be brought together as an inventory of
thematically related conditions. And, finally,
diagramming can also facilitate the quick
exploration of alternate solutions to a
problem in its initial stages of development.
The diagram not only maps the identity of a
given project, but points the way to the
conception of a new project. And it is in
these reductive, abstract states that diagrams
often resemble more universal conditions.
INTERPRETATION
It is the simplicity of the analytical diagram
that allows for its subsequent interpretation
and transformation when introduced to a
new set of parameters.
Intermediary Device
The synthesis of an analysis often leads to
the production of an intermediary device, an
artifact that is subsequently open to multiple
interpretations. This device is, in effect, a
‘prearchitectural’ moment. It can take the
14
analyzed, an analytical diagram might record intermediate condition, on the threshold of a creative memory where objects and ideas
a more generic condition of an armature that interpretation and innovation. become the raw materials for the authorship
collects a series of things (such as views, of new designs.
programs, experiences, or scales). It is this Coauthorship
diagram that has the ability to sponsor the An analysis always represents the encounter
production of an intermediary device—per- of at least two spheres of awareness:
haps a miniature construction or a composite the minds and cultures of a work’s original
Versus Ideas
While a concept might originate with an idea
or set of ideas, an observation, or a prejudice
that is personal to the designer, these ideas
alone rarely motivate a production. In order
to have a productive value, an architectural
concept should eventually result in an
observation that can be shared with a larger might simultaneously provide tubular Steven Holl’s original water- numerous attributes: a regular
audience. And, while intrinsically an structural and mechanical supports for the colors for Simmons Hall, exterior form is penetrated
a dormitory for MIT in by organically shaped tubes
abstraction, a concept also differs from an building (as with Toyo Ito’s Sendai Medi- Cambridge, Massachusetts providing light and ventilation
idea in that it has an obligation to suggest an atheque), represent ideas elevated to the (completed in 2002), propose while linking the more public
image or a thing, since it must inevitably lead level of architectural concepts. that the concept of “sponge” spaces through various levels
would give this building its with contrasting formal
to a constructive proposition. identity. The concept conveys vocabularies.
And Flexibility
For example, using light wells to bring However, while it might be the nucleus of a
additional light into a building might be an design, the concept may become gradually
idea. However, on its own, the notion of refined and subtly reconsidered as a process
including light wells does little to limit a proceeds. Far from being a fixed idea, a
design’s range of unique possibilities. That concept must remain flexible, roomy enough
the building might be like a sponge, with to permit the inevitable adjustments as a
light wells penetrating in an organic, irregular design evolves.
manner throughout (as with Steven Holl’s
Simmons Hall at MIT), or that light wells (continued on page 23)
Sverre Fehn—
Projecting the Line
2
Concept
The Sketch
In architecture, the first articulation of a
concept is usually in the form of a drawing or
a sketch model. Conceptual sketches and
models indicate that a position has been
taken, while providing a measure against
which design decisions can be evaluated and
alternatives weighed. As generative tools,
sketches provide the visual language with
which architects test conceptual notions in
their relationships to a set of goals or
parameters. Embedded within the conceptual
sketch is the seed for the development of the
project: it is, in a sense, the pregnant drawing.
The Overlay
Perhaps one of the most valuable techniques
in developing a concept is through the use of
the overlay. From the time that Michelangelo The Sketch Model such as density, transparency, reflection,
used the subtle translucency of his paper to Supplementing the basic conceptual sketch, erosion, stretching, bending, and cracking.
generate alternative designs on the backs of and often equally important in the elabora- These models do not attempt to represent a
previous drawings, the notion of the overlay tion of a concept, are three-dimensional realistic representation of a design, but
has played an important role in the develop- “sketches,” in particular relief and concept instead to suggest ways in which a design’s
ment of architectural sketching. With the models. components might act and interact.
development of inexpensive, mass-market
tracing paper in the early 1800s, architects Relief Models And Otherwise
could easily transform designs through a A low-relief model is often cut from paper An extension of the architectural concept is
process of revision, reaccentuation, and that is then folded, twisted, or warped, often the parti, or parti pris, which had its origin in
reorganization. As older drawings fade while retaining much of the surface of the nineteenth-century France and in the phrase
beneath cloudy layers of tracing paper, original paper. Relief models suggest aspects prendre parti, which means “to take a
newer layers are kept in sharp clarity on top. of potential three-dimensional forms as they position.” Just as a position might be taken
Not only did tracing paper decrease the might relate to the plane of the ground or to only after all of the options are weighed, the
necessity for tedious redrawing, but the a specific viewpoint as in a perspective image. parti is typically derived only after the
layering of information facilitated a Especially when illuminated from an oblique concept has been determined; it relates to
designer’s ability to view constantly renewed angle, these models suggest a possible the disposition of elements within the totality
images of the project while providing a composition of masses, a strategy of of the project. The “parti diagram” is
frequent shift of focus. landscape engagement, a potential perspec- generally a succinct diagram—in plan,
tive view, or patterns of light and shadow. section, or three dimensions—of the strategy
While some contemporary computer graphic the designer will use in the development of
programs attempt to duplicate the flexibility Material Models the concept. While a concept is largely
of tracing paper, this is accomplished without A concept model might use cardboard, metal, rooted in abstraction, the parti is rooted in
the tangible, recorded “debris” of numerous clay, plastics, or other materials to suggest the practical application, a knowledge of
intermediate stages. It is often in these physical relationships that various volumes precedents, a strategy of programmatic
intermediate stages that an intuition can be might have to each other or to model possible distribution, and the sense of an eventual
rediscovered and reemployed. forms based on material textures or behaviors, necessity to explain a project to others.
Zaha Hadid used numerous
media in developing her
design for the MAXXI
Museum of XXI Century Arts
in Rome, Italy (completed
2009). Sketches indicate the
fluidity of paths, basic formal
organizations, light control
systems, and relationships to
the site. Relief models
maintain a flexible
interpretation of dimension
while facilitating studies of
light and shadow. Hadid’s
famous paintings study the
effects that luminosity,
2
kinetic motion, the
integration of contextual
networks and forces, and
Concept
parallax vision can all have on
the design’s development.
24
Here, too, then is the argument that for The plan of Enric Miralles
the architect, the representational tools (a and Carme Pinós’s 1989–90
Olympic archery training
drawing, a model—be they analog or digital), range in Barcelona is
and the typologies (be they, say, a plan or a saturated with lines that
section, a drawing or a model) that are used mark both visible and
invisible geometries. These
in the development of a concept are to be geometries are motivated by
understood as accomplices to that concept— programmatic, structural,
and that the final work will inevitably bear experiential and contextual
relationships, establishing
traces of their influence. architectural form as the
tangible trace of an
Tools archeology of the seen and
the unseen, the static and
Let us begin with a discussion of the tools of the animate, the above and
the trade—the media with which architects the below.
work. Paper was the ‘ground’ of the
Renaissance architect where pen and ink
drawing for, perhaps, the first time served to
represent ideas for buildings. Drawings at
multiple scales and views were often
superimposed one upon the other to serve as Analog architectural space. If one were to imagine a
traces of a creative stream of consciousness. Just as a building is composed of a series of conversation, one might argue a correspon-
These permanent ink marks operated much independent systems that together construct dence exists between the volume of speech
like handwriting and often served as a the structure, the analog drawing can be and the significance of its content. Now, a
binding contract between architect and understood as an archaeology of lines—a scream is not always more effective than a
client. And while the tools have evolved and registration of multiple layers and ideas within whisper, and so too with the line. In an
expanded considerably since the Renais- a surface—that together register and imply architectural drawing, the weight of the line
sance, drawings and models remain the the third dimension. Unique to the pencil establishes a link to its role in constructing
primary media of the architect in both drawing is the use of line weight that allows architectural space. A very light line might
developing, representing, and executing the line to take on hierarchical significance in reference an underlying geometry or set of
architectural concepts. relation to the various systems that construct dimensional relationships. A darker, heavier
3
material with which it is constructed facili-
tates the immediate testing of alternative
material concepts.
Representation
line might establish the importance of a constructions. Freed from material specificity,
primary wall in defining the limits of the space they can suggest fluid conceptual associa-
or the surface of the ground from which tions between unlike materials but whose
a volume is emerging. It is the range and properties encompass similar characteristics—
relationships of these lines within a drawing as a building’s walls are an extension of the
that can establish the complex contextual, ground on which it sits.
spatial, proportional, and dimensional
relationships that are embedded within the Models constructed of more permanent
development of an architectural concept. materials such as plaster, wood, metal, or
glass can explore both the perceptual and
Physical models made from paper or card- physical behaviors unique to a particular
board have the ability to explore volumetric material’s composition and fabrication This conceptual model for ocean beyond is interrupted
and spatial relationships and depending practices. Plaster castings privilege the study Diller Scofidio’s 1991 Slow by a series of flattened glass
House is an apparatus for layers. Two distinct forms of
on their scale focus on one or two salient of architectural space as the models
vision. Building sections are vision are simultaneously
concepts with which the work is being necessitate the literal construction of the drawn onto glass slides that demonstrated: one a series of
developed. Due to the ease with which space as formwork for the actual production are incrementally inscribed reiterative and flattened
into the body of the house. spatial layers, the other a
they are constructed, they can be rapidly of the model. A steel model, on the other
30
Here, the reverse perspective perspectival (albeit reverse)
transformed, and even intentionally misread. hand, might be more concerned with form of the wooden mass that cone of vision.
They can infer materiality through the exploring the qualities of a concept that is connects the carport to the
2011 design studio at Rhino, facilitate both the tives and facilitate the study
Cornell)—the 3-D printer uses addition and subtraction of of form as a function of its
digital information to compound forms, and then environmental, perceptual,
produce highly complex instruct the 3-D printer to and physical contexts.
combinations of forms that generate models of these
Typologies of Representation Sections
Architectural representation facilitates the Sections are vertical cuts taken through
examination and expression of architectural space. They primarily concern themselves
thought as filtered through the unique with establishing a space’s relationship to
conventions that are embedded within a both ground plane and to other spaces, and
particular type of representation. infer movement between those spaces.
Plans Elevations
Plans are drawings that reveal the relationship Elevations allow one to describe the vertical
of surfaces and volumes in space. They are surface. They are useful for studying the
horizontal cuts through space, typically taken interface between two unlike conditions (as
at eye level looking down into the space. In a between an inside and an outside, or a public
series of essays originally published in L’Esprit and a private, or a large space and series of
Nouveau in 1921 and subsequently collected in smaller spaces).
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
Gio Ponti’s view diagrams for February 1961 article in penetrating it and moving The underlying frame of the programs on either side of it. transparency of entry and
his 1953–57 Villa Planchart in Domus, #375: “… it is a through it. It is made to be front entry elevation of The frame is suppressed as it the primary interior gathering
Caracas, Venezuela, generate ‘machine’ or, if you will, an observed by a continuously Giuseppe Terragni’s 1932 is transformed into billboard space beyond. And it becomes
the three-dimensional concept abstract sculpture on a moving eye. But this building Casa del Fascio (now Casa for projected texts and a more intimately scaled
for the house as a series massive scale, not to be is not made only for the eye; del Popolo) in Como, Italy, images viewed from the balcony as it slides in front of
of intersecting perspectives. viewed from outside but it is made for the life of its undergoes a series of adjacent cathedral square. the slightly recessed offices
As Ponti wrote in the his [experienced] from within, inhabitants …” transformations that mediate It is transformed into deep and meeting rooms within.
the divergent scales and portico as it expresses the
Aldo Rossi’s 1971 competition
drawing (with G. Braghieri)
for the cemetery of San
Cataldo in Modena, Italy,
is a frontal axonometric/
perspective. Here, the
combining and flattening of
both walls and roof surfaces
within the drawing produces
a series of spatial layers that
reinforce the processional
nature of the complex,
emphasizing the status of the
iconic objects that populate
the interstitial layers. The
density of the drawing
3
presents the cemetery as an
extension of the city
Vision is the generator of the wall in New York City. A series
beyond—a city of the dead.
design concept as is of view cones becomes
Representation
demonstrated in this the operational device that
axonometric study of LTL’s is registered onto and
Memorial Sloane-Kettering subsequently excavated
Cancer Center Lobby 2005 within the mass of the wall.
Perspectives
Perspective drawings tend to privilege the
eye of the observer and what her or his
experience might actually be from a
particular point of view. While they create
the illusion of three-dimensional depth, they
can also be used to exaggerate the signifi-
cance of a certain object or space through
the convergence of lines toward one or more
common vanishing points.
Steven Holl’s drawings for unwrap the experience of the vertical sequence as a
the 1988 Cleveland House in ascending the stair that lines series of interconnected Animations
Cleveland, Ohio, literally the entry vestibule, inscribing perspective views. Animations explore the temporal aspects of
an architectural concept and the potential of
a space or material to undergo transforma-
tion. They tend to be iterative drawings that
can isolate a spatial sequence through which
one is moving or a more ephemeral
condition of light as it moves across a room.
Hybrids
Hybrid drawings and models sample multiple
34
necessarily the user. Even in the case of a The Empirical Program of dimensions concerning height, grasp, eye
house, it is unlikely that a client would The empirical aspect of a program can be level, and the variable dimensions related to
forever be the only occupant. derived from charts, tables, and direct the body while sitting, leaning, or reclining.
measurements: in general, observations of These dimensions differ considerably in the
In schools of architecture, the program may the way things are. The data that contributes case of children from infancy toward
resemble a client-generated program, but it to the empirical program are basically adulthood. Additional dimensions should be
inevitably encompasses specific pedagogic dimensional, functional, relational, and taken into account for the accommodation
objectives. The studio instructor usually measurements determined by building of those in wheelchairs, those with special
generates such programs, with stated and safety codes. physical requirements, and the innumerable
requirements serving as vehicles for nonaverage adults.
achieving these objectives. Dimensional
There are certain dimensions that can Foremost in all of these cases are those
But despite the apparent clarity a program be taken for granted and that must be dimensions that permit someone to move
suggests, accommodating a program is more recognized when compiling a program. comfortably through space: hall and aisle
than solving a puzzle: It requires three- The most fundamental of these dimensional widths, ceiling heights, the angles and
dimensional strategizing, an understanding imperatives is the accommodation of lengths of stairs and ramps, as well as the
of space, the addition of missing elements, the human body. suitable arcs and angles that permit the
and a concept. Further, many programs tend unimpeded operation of doors, windows,
to include contradictory requirements that The architect should be aware of the kinds and other moving elements.
need to be resolved through some form of of bodies that will occupy a building. The
negotiation or innovation. average adult tends to conform to a range (continued on page 41)
Program as Tactical Device: Rem Koolhaas
and the Office for Metropolitan Architecture
It can be argued that the fundamental moti- The Bordeaux House addresses a unique user—with specific practical and custom-
vations guiding the work of OMA include a domestic program assignment by produc- ary needs: His program centers on a
relentless reconceptualization of the mod- ing a courtyard house on a sloping site, piston-driven elevator that serves a verti-
ernist project, an opportunistic attentive- organized into three horizontal slabs of cal house comprising an office, library,
ness to the intricacies and forces of formal associated functions. The result is a layered living, dining, sleeping, and wine cellar.
and cultural-political contexts, and persis- sandwich of program elements manifesting This elevator is a moving room, providing
tent exploration of the grammar-syntax- as a heavy floating house for sleeping in the access while fusing with the functional con-
language intersection. However, the most sky, a light house carved in the ground for ditions it engages on each floor, producing
essential act of invention and intellectual cooking and access, and an invisible glass a temporal alteration of activity that con-
rigor is asserted through OMA’s description, house for living and leisure compressed flates functions with users. The three
organization, distribution, and theorization between the two—each element self-suffi- daughters occupy a private sanctum within
of what we call program. With program, Rem cient and composed according to its own the compound’s levitated red box, achieved
Koolhaas—and earlier, Elia Zenghelis—con- programmatic logic. Within this structured by slicing the entire composition along the
struct a conceptual framework for making subdivision of program are rituals and longitudinal axis, bifurcating the house
function and use architectural, and against sequences that penetrate and actuate the into two halves: parents and daughters. The
which all context-based and culture-specific horizontal separations. The first is the father’s elevator is countered by a spiraling
experimentation is understood. domestic realm of the father—a wheelchair stair in a mirrored cylinder that serves only
the girls’ bedrooms, linking them from the
entry “cave” in the ground to pinwheeling
bedrooms in the sky.
by the human body and by furnishings, one athletic team might become exceptionally
must also consider the accommodation of victorious, needing more room for practices
other specialized dimensions, such as those and trophies; or the number of desks in each
41
Relational
The program for Alexander precipitous stairs and pass
A program should also note those elements Brodsky’s Pavilion for Vodka through the narrow doors.
that usually require direct proximity, such as Ceremonies (2004) at the Within the unheated pavilion
Klyazma Reservoir near (vodka should be near
pantries and kitchens or kitchens and dining
Moscow required the design frozen), the participants
spaces. Lobbies tend to be near entries, for of both a pavilion and a stand on opposite sides of a
example, which should in turn be near ceremony. Just as the simple wooden table and dip
reservoir is a retreat for tin cups—attached to the
Muscovites, the pavilion is table with very short
constructed of windows chains—into a basin of vodka.
salvaged from a factory in They toast each other with
the city. The whitewashed modest, slightly stooped
mélange of windows suggests postures. The ceremony’s
a typical rural shed. In single conclusion is indeterminate.
file, two people mount the
4
Program
vehicular access. While loading docks maximum availability of sunlight. Prevailing In 1792, John Soane began laboratory for his architec-
inevitably require proximity to a road or winds might be considered for the sake of purchasing and then heavily tural investigations as well an
renovating a row of educational environment for
driveway, they are rarely positioned in the passive ventilation. townhouses and stables on his sons, for whom he hoped
most publicly viewed faces of a building. Lincoln’s Inn Fields in architectural careers.
The notion of arranging elements by proximity Codes London. While the program Unfortunately, his surviving
for his manipulations was sons developed apathy for
is based on the optimization of usage or, Building codes, including safety, zoning, ostensibly that of a large architecture and a distaste
occasionally, of expense. For example, spaces construction, and even esthetic codes, urban residence, Soane, for their father’s architecture,
requiring plumbing are famously arranged can have a major influence on a program. architect of the Bank of in particular. He willed his
England and other great house to the nation, and it
close to each other, often back to back and These codes are generally determined by structures, saw his house as is now known as Sir John
vertically stacked, so that the expenses of municipal, state, and national bodies. Codes serving a didactic function: it Soane’s Museum.
construction and repair are minimized. can determine everything from the required was a continuously evolving
best complemented with light from the east. used between spaces to the percentage of a
One may decide that public spaces, such as wall that is permitted to have windows, from
living and dining spaces, or waiting rooms and the types of steel that can be used to the
43
4
potential users and of the conceivable future importance of the family dinner within certain
of a project. Ledoux often had the French cultural groups. All of these understandings
monarchy as his client, but in the case of his can lead to modifications of a program. No
Program
Royal Saltworks, for example, the users were two individuals can have the same experi-
an entire city of managers, workers, and their ences, but the architect is obliged to try to
families. Today, when designing a school, a understand the best means of empathizing
school district may be the client, but the with a user, in order to initiate a productive
users are the teachers and students, the and gratifying dialogue.
44
A municipal orphanage on humanist aspects of the of concrete modules neighborhoods centered on benches, door stoops, orphanage introduced open,
the outskirts of Amsterdam city—markets, streets, and containing interior public domed volumes accommo- archways, and ledges— unassigned, semiurban
provided the ideal program squares—as they might spaces while encircling a dating residential, living, and respond to the scale of its spaces as well as transitional
for Aldo van Eyck, whose correspond to the design of a sequence of exterior classroom spaces for each age young residents, with mirrors niches and nooks to a
45
interests involved the building. The building, courtyards. From above, the and gender group. Despite its and windows placed in building program that usually
relationship of architecture completed in 1961, is building reveals its village- overall diagrammatic unexpected places and nearly values efficiency over vitality.
to community and of the composed of an aggregation like organization, with precision, its components— invisible to adults. Van Eyck’s
The Spanish Steps were
designed by the architect
Francesco de Sanctis,
possibly in collaboration with
the papal architect
Alessandro Specchi after
more than 125 years of
debate over how to connect
the Piazza di Spagna to the
church of the Trinità dei
Monti, located at the top of
a steep slope. While
programmed as just a stair,
the Spanish Steps function as
a vertical urban garden, a
market, a place to rest, a
viewing platform, and seating
for spectators.
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
4
resources, such as some of the “informal Programs may begin with measurements and
cities” that have grown surreptitiously (and, expectations but will mature only with
often, illegally) in the almost inaccessible thoughtfulness and understanding, anticipa-
Program
centers and edges of many of the world’s tion and empathy.
most dense urban environments. The design
A composite building that forming streets and squares terminate them. It fuses Through its single columned viewed from the city below. within a residential
evolved and expanded over as it sidles up to existing itself with its context, it is an portico the Einar Jonsson However, its opposite side neighborhood. The design of
600 years, the Vienna linear edges and as it architectural chameleon that House (Reykjavík, Iceland, addresses what was planned the house thus inspired the
Hofburg had an extended completes fragmented urban appropriates, blurs, and 1916) establishes a to be an intimately scaled scales and proportions of the
conversation with its spaces, but creates a produces its urban monumental presence when public space embedded city as it developed around it.
surrounding context. It not previously illegible axis as it boundaries.
only alternates between constructs backdrops that
Site
5
The natural site will have specific physical
attributes as in impenetrable or porous,
sloped or flat, irregular or even, permanent or
Context
temporary. It can also be a constructed site
Peter Eisenman’s City of
that operates as a surrogate ground (a block Culture of Galicia (2001–11)
of buildings, a retaining wall). It can be a visual references the city plan of
nearby Santiago de
one—as in the views that are seen from the
Compostela, Spain, in
site. The dialogue established with these site producing a surrogate
conditions can initiate spatial complexities. landscape that connects the
rural topography with the
urban center. The landscape
Infrastructural Context is metaphorically inscribed
There are aspects of contexts that already by pedestrian “rivulets” that
define the volumes of the
have elaborate networks and systems
complex’s eight buildings.
embedded within them, some of which may
be tapped into whereas others simply may
have to be contended with. These can take
the form of physical traces, as in archaeologi-
cal or geological layers, or more formalized
transportation and service infrastructures. It
is the dialogue with these infrastructures that
can locate a work within a specific context.
Layers
Occasionally, a site has been previously
occupied—an archeological palimpsest,
layered with traces of what was once there
over an extended period of time. One has to
decide how, if at all, these sometimes physical
and other times implied, traces of previous
occupations are going to inform a subsequent
layer. A museum built over a great roman ruin
might be considered differently than a house
52
Networks
A building’s relation to existing circulation
and service networks has to do with suturing
the various systems that would make a
building a vital component of a larger
network. Existing paths at multiple scales
(pedestrian, automotive, bicycle, public
transportation) may be pulled into the
building to not only provide access but to be
In manufacturing a new site narratives. Its moss walls
part of a larger whole. Access to various on the lake, Studio Granda’s recall the flora and fauna of
service elements such as water, air, sewage, 1992 Town Hall in Reykjavík, the sagas, its volumetric
Iceland, both collects existing porosity an extension of its
and electricity can also provide parameters
paths and manufactures new urban context, its circulation
that inform a project’s engagement with this ones that were previously a walking route between two
expanded context. unseen. Its resulting form distinct neighborhoods and
becomes a civic collector, one in winter it operates as
that is reinvented seasonally staircase to the frozen lake.
Ephemeral Context and at multiple scales and
The idea of a Grand Prix being held in
the city of Monaco or the Spirit Path at the
Jongmyo Shrine in Seoul Korea where only
The stepped water structures
spirits are allowed to walk are but two as documented by Klaus
examples of the many invisible contexts that Herdeg in his portfolio of
drawings that accompanied
require a different form of investigation.
his 1967 exhibition Formal
Cultural traditions, narratives, and local Structure in Indian
histories are often embodied in the physical Architecture are examples of
how the rituals and customs
constructs that a culture produces.
embedded within a particular
culture find expression in
their architectural constructs.
The fourteen chapels of the pavilion establishes the
Sacro Monte located near spatial context for one of the
Varese, Italy, and completed important events of the life
in 1623 contain scenes of the of Christ, and like the
life of Christ, the Virgin Mary, chapters in a narrative, each
and the saints. The chapel pavilion is situated in relation
pavilions construct a to its adjacent pavilions to
pilgrimage path up the now produce a seamless spatial
sacred mountain that journey through the landscape.
terminates in the church of
Madonna del Monte. Each
ritual occurs, or they can produce spaces translation that the work is able to address a
within which cultural practices can be user, and then it tells a story.
performed.
The red, pyramid-topped
cones of Souto Moura’s 2008
Casa das Historias Paula
Rego in Cascais, Portugal,
reference both religious and
secular contexts. By evoking
both the kitchen chimney of
the monastery at Alcobaca
and the pointed turrets that
dot the cityscape of nearby
Sintra’s National Palace, it
situates and interprets the
museum within multiple
histories and contexts.
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
5
trees, opening itself up to the
southern light.
Context
The Global Seed Vault in the avalanches and major storms.
Svalbard Mountains of The roof and front of this
Norway (2008), designed by concrete and steel entry is a
Peter W. Søderman of beacon signaling the
Barlindhaug Consult, is a presence of the structure
highly secure facility while suggesting its function
containing up to 4.5 million as a potential source of life
seeds from around the world, rediscovered. This sculpture,
partially carved into a entitled Perpetual
mountain for protection from Repercussion by its artist,
variable temperatures, Dyveke Sanne, consists of
earthquakes, climate change, prisms, mirrors, and steel
and other potentially shards that combine with
devastating environmental turquoise fiber optics to
impacts. Its entrance is alternately reflect the subtle
designed in both shape and arctic light and to glow with
material to avoid the risks of its own luminosity.
56
57
Architecture can be considered an
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
60
Controlled by a three-button
panel, Angelo Ivernizzi’s
1929–34 Casa Girasole (or
61
6
Environment
Caroline O’Donnell of CODA’s
“Party Wall” uses detritus
from a skateboard
manufacturer as its primary
cladding for MOMA’s PS1
2013 summer pavilion. The
scalelike wooden shards
create a porous skin that not
only offers summer shade but
can also be detached to
provide event seating.
62
of mass.
Processes
A sense of mass is achieved by the relentless
repetition or aggregation of material or
volume that subsequently transcend their
individual incrementalism in favor of a
monolithic surface or volume. Yet, conceptually,
mass is conceived as a solid form, from which
spaces have been subsequently “carved.”
Additive
A sense of mass is exaggerated by the
repetition and accumulation of elements that Alberto Burri’s Cretto—a land concrete poured atop the
are known to possess considerable mass—as in art installation in Gibellina, rubble. The abstracted urban
Sicily—is conceived as a monolith references the
a pile of stones or bricks or a stacking of logs. memorial to the victims of town’s physical past and
the 1968 earthquake that embedded within the masses
(continued on page 69) destroyed the town. Here, the that construct the ghosted
wreckage was amassed back streets is the physical
into the blocks by which the detritus of imagined
town had originally been narratives.
organized and a blanket of
Mendes da Rocha
and the Levitation of Mass
below, carved into the gently sloped site The main gallery block of the Cais das
on a corner of a residential neighborhood. Artes (Arts Quay) in Vitória, designed with
The block provides the museum with its METRO Arquitetos, seems to leap and frolic
symbolic portico, yet preserves the scale above the pavement of the quay, permitting
of the neighborhood by reducing the bulk views of the bay beyond and contrasting
of the museum itself. with the resolute groundedness of the audi-
torium cube. Supported only on three pairs
Similarly, the huge steel blade that soars of columns, the massive hollowed concrete
above the entrance to the underground pas- side walls (gigantic trussed beams, actu-
sage in Patriarch Plaza in São Paulo protects ally) support the interior floors, their
the escalators and stairs from the elements varying heights indicated by the steps of
while sketching an elegant arched entryway the walls. Light reflected from the plaza
over what might otherwise have been just below lights the galleries through the gaps
a hole in the ground. The huge square arch between the staggered floor slabs. One
that marks entry into this important space moves about within the museum with the
seems almost to twist and crack as it sends same grace the museum moves about the
two brackets downward to support the quay. Once more, Mendes da Rocha derives
asymmetrical, curved arch over the stairs. lyricism from massiveness.
This arch then frames views from within
and through the space, ironically providing Concrete becomes cloudlike.
a human scale from beneath while present-
ing a monumental scale when viewed from
the city, a monumentality that suggests the
importance of the gallery buried below,
giving access to one of the city’s primary
urban parks.
In Ethiopia, Bete Giyorgis and space results from a
(or the Church of St. George, subtractive process, a literal
7
twelfth century) has been excavation that simultane-
carved from the solid volcanic ously produces the mass
rock in which it is located. (solid) of the church and its
Mass
Here, the construction of mass occupiable spaces (voids).
Subtractive
By cutting into a solid, its thickness is
revealed; massiveness is disclosed by the
removal of substance that allows one to
perceive its dimensions.
Mass
Massimiliano Fuksas’s San context from its interior
Paolo Apostolo in Foligno, sacred space. The idealized
Italy (2001–09), are interior is suspended within
simultaneously heavy and this exterior shell by strands
light. The exterior concrete of concrete shafts that, in
shell is a seemingly turn, draw exterior light to
impenetrable box that its interior.
cemetery and monument enormous concrete space captured between the Paolo and the distant
outside Rome, marks the sarcophagus that hovers lower ground plane (in which mountains beyond.
mass execution of Italian above the graves and beneath
civilians by the German which the visitors pass.
occupation on March 24,
Structure can be understood to be that
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
consider structure to be that aspect of every branches, leaves, and bark were most likely
construction that assists in countering gravity used to simulate the protection of trees. It is
and transferring loads into the ground. While commonly believed that with these branches
gravity is a constant for most earth-bound and the trunks against which lean-tos were
architecture, loads can vary widely—even supported, columns may have had their origin.
during the life of a building—depending on Perhaps memories of the spatial characteristics
the materials used, the occupation of the of caves encouraged the development of
building, and even the effects of wind and vaults and domed spaces.
precipitation.
Regardless, most early structures were
The beautiful efficiency of the earliest human composed primarily of elements that were
shelters probably developed from the in compression; that is, the tree trunks,
occupation of natural structures: caves and bricks, and stones—then columns, walls,
trees. Once humans found themselves and arches—were typically being squeezed
searching for food in situations where there by gravity.
might have been no available shelter, The billowing and apparently of steel tensile structures
weightless roof structure of covered with PVC-coated
(continued on page 77) the 1972 Munich Olympic polyester and supported by
Stadium by Frei Otto and steel masts and concrete
Gunther Behnisch is only one anchors. As with traditional
part of a comprehensive tent structures, the Olympic
architecture that connected a buildings were fully
number of the Olympic sites constructed off site, and then
beneath a continuous mesh erected in just a few days.
Shigeru Ban and the
Softness of Structure
In Onagawa, Japan, following the earth- challenges our material and structural pre- Club House in Yeoju, South Korea. The bun-
quake of 2011, Shigeru Ban deploys a conceptions. In the shadow of the massively dling of individual timber elements gives
checkerboard of 20-foot (6 m) shipping constructed stone bridge of Pont du Gard, way to a hexagonal latticework—fusing col-
containers to construct a temporary hous- a proliferation of lightweight cardboard umns with surface into an uninterrupted
ing shelter. Here, the prosaic shipping tubes construct two arched trusses that structural expression. The aggregation of
container is reused as the basic building support a suspended walkway of recycled an otherwise inconsequential material
block of a three-story structure. The struc- paper and plastic, a ghosted reference to amplifies its structural and spatial poten-
tural expression of the construction the Roman engineering that preceded it. tial—the material itself seems to have been
emerges as a result of the multiplication Not unlike the stone that produced the enlarged under a microscope as we experi-
and stacking of the standard container, a Roman bridge, the spanning structure is a ence the beauty of its magnified world.
found object—the alternating arrangement demonstration of the discovered proper-
producing the simultaneous spatial ties of the cardboard tubes that function as
requirements for both storage and open its primary building block.
living spaces.
“Structure itself is decoration,” Shigeru
Imagine a bridge that would span a river, Ban explains in a 2007 Design Boom inter-
and that bridge would be made of paper. In view—and nowhere else is this more evident
the south of France, Shigeru Ban again than in the 2009 Haesley Nine Bridges Golf
Perhaps it was the bending of saplings
against stronger trees, and the stretching of
ropes, and later chains, upon which bark or
slivers of stone were added, that led to the
usage of structures in tension. When a
material is in tension, it becomes stretched
by gravity, even if such stretching is not
noticeable to the naked eye.
8
architectural forms.
Elements
Structure
The basic elements of a structural system are
also the primary elements in the production
of architectural space: columns, walls, beams,
slabs, and their various combinations.
For the Burgo Paper Factory and its linear processing 98 feet (30 m) wide, supported
in Mantua, Italy (completed of wood pulp into rolls of by two pylons that clearly
Walls in 1963), a column-free area newsprint. The architect- communicate the transfer
of almost 90,000 square feet engineer Pier Luigi Nervi of loads from cables into
It is not surprising that most of the earliest
(8,100 sq m) was needed to designed a graceful suspen- the ground.
architecture to survive until our time was accommodate the paper sion bridge–like structure,
a mural architecture, that is, buildings manufacturing equipment 815 feet (248 m) long and
composed of walls. Walls could be easily
constructed by stacking earth, wood, or
masonry. Thick walls, whether straight sided
or battered (with sloping sides), are among
the most efficient methods for transferring
loads from a roof into the ground. They are
also very effective in the separation of
spaces, especially in dividing the public from
the private elements of a building or city
(not to mention fortified walls, separating a
city from an attacking enemy).
Columns
In addition to collecting roof loads from
77
often of glued wood, in order to more Not only do slabs span between columns, they
effectively resist bending. can also provide stability to the perimeter
walls, support intermediate non-load-bearing
79
Trusses are composed of triangulated partitions, and carry the massive “live” loads—
elements, usually of metal or wood, that can essentially people, vehicles, furnishings, and
span great distances with less mass and occasionally wind, rain, and snow—that a
greater efficiency than most beams. Because building needs to accommodate.
trusses are largely open, they offer greater
possibilities for containing service elements
and, if large enough, even entire floors.
Slabs do not necessarily need to be flat or even
straight. While the tops of slabs usually provide
the basic surface of floors, the undersides of
slabs can be ridged, providing directionality, or
with deep wafflelike indentations, thereby
performing in a multidirectional mode. When
exposed, the undersides of such slabs can
provide a visual complexity that can bring
scale and texture to a space.
Hybrids
A vault might be considered to be like either
a bent slab or an extruded arch. Vaults can
span large distances, transferring their loads
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
8
Structural Space
In the earliest times, a construction was its
Structure
structure. The exterior forms and interior
spaces of prehistoric and ancient architec-
tures were inevitably a direct manifestation
of their structure. As time passed, the desire
to embellish this structure with additional
elements, to infill gaps with windows or
decorative features, to attach finials and
gargoyles and false façades, led to a certain
cloaking of structure. Issues such as acoustics
and temperature control eventually led to
the separation of a building’s interior
elements and its structure (one thinks of
wood paneled libraries and the vast
reverberation chambers above theaters).
Exteriors even displayed layers of implied
structure—aedicules, niches, pilasters, half
columns, and latticelike grids—that masked
the actual structure within.
Interfaces express the public face of the building while penetrate outward. These surfaces might
A building’s exterior surfaces are, in effect, confronting its numerous environmental also breathe in that they may be required to
interfaces between outside and inside, public conditions. Inner layers may include control natural ventilation and heat gain from
and private, between the population of a city structure, mechanical systems, and insulation. direct solar penetration.
and the occupants of a building. The surfaces The most interior layer may express the
and the various membranes of which they are specific requirements of various interior In order to more effectively control solar
composed help to keep the occupants warm spaces, providing utilitarian amenities and penetration of a building, both for environ-
or cool, prevent the penetration of precipita- comfort to the occupants. If the outermost mental purposes as well as for privacy and the
tion, control sound levels, modulate the surfaces are required to provide the greatest control of views, the exterior surfaces of a
penetration of light, provide for the privacy visual effects of a building’s designed building may often be composed of screenlike
of those inside, frame views, provide access, intentions, the innermost layers of a components. These screens may take many
and facilitate egress. Depending on a design’s building’s surfaces are often those that are forms, such as concrete brise soleil, perforated
functions—theater, bank, farmers’ market, engaged most tactilely by the users. metal panels, or even computer-controlled
prison, courthouse, department store, and so arrays of louvers. Screens can provide a
on—the surfaces of a building may be Performance building with something like an exterior armor,
required to perform additional duties, such as All exterior surfaces of a building—roofs, rigid and impenetrable, or a floating veil,
86
to display the interior to a large audience out- walls, foundations—are obliged to prevent translucent and elastic.
side its volume, communicate the building’s weather from rendering a structure unusable,
function, propose its potential occupation, whether through rot, insects, the penetration The enclosure of a building is its primary
87
suggest security or permanence, or to invite of moisture, inhospitable temperatures, and contact with an exterior. Like clothing, its
or dissuade entrance. so on. At the same time, these surfaces must role is protection—of the building’s occupants,
often also be able to breathe: to allow gases interior finishes, and often its structure—
As interfaces, the surfaces of a building may and moisture (often in the form of condensa- while offering an insight into the personality
contain numerous layers. The outer layers tion) from within the building and its walls to it projects.
Materials carry meanings through
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
Characteristics
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
Phenomenal
Intrinsic to each material are its physical
attributes, which can perhaps best be
described by a series of pairings—thick or
thin, opaque or transparent, matte or
reflective, dark or light. It is the qualities of
these attributes that suggest meaningful
associations with not only the program of a
work, but also its perceptual experience. A
wall made of glass might appear to dissolve
the boundary between public and private, or
inside and out, but it can also convey a crisp
brittleness and a reflective hardness that
suggests an atmospheric serenity. Of course,
the manipulation of this very same material—
tinting, screening, sandblasting, for exam-
ple—can easily reverse these characteristics,
and it is in exploiting these reversals that a
Overlooking Lake Lucerne in material, but one that brings
material’s capability to expand its programs Meggen, Switzerland, stands unexpected programmatic
and perceptions is often discovered. Pius Church designed and (stained glass windows) and
built by Franz Füeg between perceptual (illumination)
1964 and 1966. Here, marble, associations. The work
(continued on page 94) a typically opaque material, exploits marble’s potential as
has been thinly cut to just a material that can simultane-
over 1-inch (2.5 cm) thick to ously demonstrate multiple
produce a surprising characteristics: from the
translucency, demonstrating exterior, it is a cubic rock by
a characteristic that is not day and a lantern by night.
normally associated with the
Material and “De-Material” in the
Architecture of Herzog & de Meuron
10
Materials
Responsiveness quite pronounced, as in the case of copper as
Very few materials are entirely static. Most it changes from reddish brown to green, with
respond in a direct way to the stresses of weathering steel as it oxidizes to an earthen
gravity, heat, cold, moisture, and so on, albeit rust, or with cedar as it weathers from a
in varying degrees. Some of these responses reddish brown to gray. Less predictable is the
can be permanent, as with cracking or staining and eventual erosion of more
erosion, while others can be cyclical, as with resistive surfaces that allow initially untainted
expansion and contraction or flexing and materials to slowly fade into their surrounding
straightening. Recognizing these behaviors, context, to return to the earth. Mohsen
not only at a material’s various scales and Mostafavi and David Leatherbarrow
dimensions but the interaction of these speculate on the intentional deterioration of a
behaviors among different materials, is funeral chapel, “… used deliberately as a
critical in accommodating these inevitable device for marking and infecting the purity of
transformative behaviors. the new building surface, … as the possibility
for showing the life of the building in time.”
Weather, or the inevitability of transformation (Mostafavi and Leatherbarrow, page 103.)
All materials have a lifespan, but how a Anticipating such material transformations is
material transforms over time is unique to a significant aspect of the design process.
its composition and to its interaction with a
Simon Ungers’s T-House, the extreme cantilevers of
specific weather and environment. It is Wilton, New York, built in the raised library block. The
important to understand that the end of the 1992, is a project that blurs house’s dimensions are
94
Through the use of thin-film Translucent, movable curtains customize the energy density
photovoltaic textiles, KVA’s convert sunlight into energy of the textiles according to
2007 Soft House transforms throughout the day while need and guides the
the prosaic curtain into an facilitating changing spatial relationship of building form
energy-harvesting textile configurations. Parametric to site: Technological
that can generate and design software developed invention produces the
distribute up to 16,000 watts for the Soft House project spatial experience.
of renewable electrical power. allows the homeowner to
Constructive Processes
Constructive processes are often a function
of a material’s properties and of their intrinsic
dimensional standards and limits, which can,
in turn, greatly influence its usage and how
it might be detailed. These processes are
equally a function of the location of the
project (ease of accessibility, the expertise
of those building it) and affordability.
Manufacturing Methods
The dimensional limits of a material are either
determined by its natural state or imposed on
it by the manufacturing processes used to
transform a material from its natural state into
a useful building material. This link between
origin and application can be exploited
Bamboo is highly regarded for Yet a temporary church in
both its material behavior and Yogyakarta, Indonesia, (right) in projects where a material’s dimensional
sustainable properties. Its demonstrates a decidedly increment, either in its natural state or as
usage is directly related to alternative application. Here,
manufactured, is consistently registered while
the method by which it is the architect Eugenius
processed. Its stems can be Pradipto transforms bamboo accommodating a variety of programmatic
bundled, cut, split, flattened, into a series of flattened and environmental concerns. For example,
twisted, woven, and lamin- shingles that wraps the
the densification or expansion of a particular
ated, each process lending church’s structural frame-
itself to a unique construc- work. In both of these dimensional increment can alter a surface
tional process. Simon Velez’s examples, bamboo is membrane’s porosity or provide the logic for
“Church without Religion” in alternatively exploited as
the operation of its apertures.
Cartagena, Colombia, exploits both structural framework
bamboo as structural and porous skin.
armature, a framelike lattice Manufacturing processes not only inform a
96
10
Indices
Materials
Materials carry meanings through embodying
traditional materials, methodologies, and
rituals of construction as well as through the
less tangible aspects of the uniqueness of
place, program, and culture.
Site
A material often operates as an index to a
particular site. The use of wood from a local
forest not only inextricably links the work to
its immediate physical context but to those
projects that share a similar material source.
The ways in which materials are connected to
each other can further reiterate a context by
referring to traditional building techniques.
Program
Often, the performance requirements of a
particular function will motivate material
selection. A wood railing carries with it
material warmth that is smooth to the touch,
or a stone staircase will withstand centuries
of wear.
Cultural
Materials often carry symbolic expectations,
as in a granite tomb or a marble city hall or
a wood cabin. Granite implies eternity,
marble alludes to grandeur, and wood to a
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In the twentieth century—the century the spatial implications of modern art and
roughened by unimaginable wars, yet of Cubism, in particular. Based on Gyorgy
emboldened by velocity, stream of con- Kepes’s notion—presented in his Language
sciousness writing, nuclear fusion, motion of Vision (1948)—of the Cubist-based phe-
pictures, jazz, Futurism, and Cubism— nomenon whereby two or more overlapping
there was an impulse to construct a concept figures claim the overlapped zones with
of space that was as unique to architecture equal priority (as opposed to the fore-
as the century was to its predecessors. ground figure occluding the background),
“transparency” connotes “a simultaneous
Sigfried Giedion’s Space, Time, and Archi- perception of different spatial locations,”
tecture, based on a series of lectures given imparting a continuous oscillation of spa-
at Harvard from 1938–39, proposed a for- tial definitions. Rowe and Slutzky introduce
mulation of Einsteinian space–time as an the distinction between literal transpar-
intrinsic aspect of the new architecture. ency—which simply involves a clear layer,
Although ultimately more of a metaphor as vision through a film—and phenomenal
than a scientific validation, Giedion’s transparency, in which multiple and simul-
theory introduced Cubism as a form of spa- taneous spatial interpretations are evoked,
tial research, with important architectural and “the transparent ceases to be that
implications. which is perfectly clear and becomes
instead that which is clearly ambiguous.”
Bruno Zevi’s Saper Vedere L’Architettura (page 23) And Rowe and Slutzky find that
(1948, translated as Architecture as Space: such “clearly ambiguous” transparencies
How to Look at Architecture) came later, are especially evident in the work of Le
arguing that the history of architecture Corbusier.
was largely a history of architectural space,
by which he meant especially enclosed The view from the terrace of his Villa
space. Like Giedion, Zevi also argued that Savoye in Poissy (1928-31), for example,
time was an important component of the affords numerous such spatial transparen-
newer concepts of spatial definition, incor- cies (fig. A). Beneath the roof of the outdoor Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret: Villa Savoye,
porating the experiments of the Italian pavilion, one already participates in several Poissy, France, 1928–31
futurists, for whom speed was a Muse. He spaces: that of the pavilion itself, of the
promoted a version of “organic architec- exterior spaces, and of the shaft of space
ture,” a compilation of theories founded on that moves directly into the house (see the through the horizontal slot and then above
gothic architecture and the work of Frank blue zones, fig. B). A band at the horizon the roof, to emerge both upon the terrace
Lloyd Wright, stressing spatial ambiguity, line (yellow/orange) extends from the ter- and on the roof above; both outside and
with an indefinite flow of spaces often race through the interior, circumscribing within the volume of the house, the green-
crossing functional boundaries. the peripheral “frame” of the house; and a ery’s ambiguous presence is emphasized by
large exterior space (reddish) open to the the setlike walls (orange) that alternately
Then, combining their expertise in archi- sky moves from the center off toward the act as frame and backdrop.
tecture and the fine arts, Colin Rowe and right. Figural, in a more painterly way, is
Robert Slutzky’s Transparency (1955), pro- the band of greenery (green, fig. C), which Here, one finds the spatial depiction of the
posed a more articulate argument regarding begins beyond the house on the left, visible twentieth century fully realized.
Just as a street can exhibit where there was once over
spatial qualities, both formal 130 arcades, the very
and experiential, an arcade is successful Passage des
perhaps the most spatial Panoramas (bottom of plan,
form of street. Developed 1799) was followed by the
primarily in the early first metal and glass arcade in
nineteenth century, arcades the city, the Passage Jouffroy
utilized the previously (center and photograph,
inaccessible inner blocks of designed by François-
large cities, increasing the Hippolyte Destailleur and
quantity of commercial Romain de Bourges, 1845),
properties while providing and the Passage Verdeau
safe routes independent of (top, 1847).
the crowded streets. In Paris,
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
Spatial Zones
One of the most important aspects in the
formation of architectural space is the concept
of definition. Just as the space within a
deflated balloon is difficult to grasp, and that
within an inflated balloon is clearly intuited,
in order to grasp a spatial figure—or spatial
zone—a sense of boundary is necessary.
11
della Pace (1656–67) presents (4.5 to 9 m). In this low relief
corners of spaces, so that our first glance constructed in front of the frame: the viewer a façade that suggests a model by Jonathan Negron
round, temple-like object (faculty, Jerry Wells), one
would be diagonal. In order to emphasize becomes an implicit subject of the work.
nestled within a semicircular can easily understand the
this concept of spatial depth, architects such
Space
concavity. Located in a very spatial depths implied by
as Le Corbusier frequently utilize the “long Linear perspective also permitted the actual confined alley in Rome, the the warping, overlapping,
architect, a master of illusion- alternatively convex and
dimension,” essentially the diagonal view that construction of illusory space in architectural
istic perspective, uses forms concave sequence of mildly
penetrates a space or across multiple spaces. design. While height and breadth are clearly composed of elliptical objects curved surfaces.
in various degrees of
104
105
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
11
and dedicated to velocity, the combination
of distance and time. New concepts of
spatial definition emerged, enveloped in
Space
structures of heroic massiveness and rhythms
The Lower Roadway of New design. This sunken roadway of Historic Places, it is a
Jersey Route 139 (William is naturally ventilated and lit, unique spatial invention— of increased rapidity. New types of architec-
Sloan, Fred Lavis, Sigvald open to the sky along its a cathedral of sorts—a deeply ture appeared, not only highway construc-
Johannesson, and the New northeast edge, with its beamed concrete nave
tions themselves, but also the buildings and
Jersey State Highway southeast flank a series of alternating stroboscopic
Commission, completed in arcades exhibiting, sequen- shafts of daylight with the spaces that began to materialize along these
1929)—born of the postwar tially when leaving the city: a ghosted diagonal traces of new roadways, such as toll plazas, rest stops,
necessity for the efficient, chasm of concrete light wells, cross streets above and a
fueling stations, and so on. Perceived at high
exclusive accommodation of rough rock formations, and series of rugged “side
vehicular traffic—was impromptu thickets of trees. chapels” casting variegated speeds and sited on or along roadways, these
unprecedented in scope and Listed in the National Register light onto the roadway. buildings address the highway and its
expanded vistas with spaces configured by
rates of acceleration and deceleration,
vehicular turning radii, driving lanes, and
viewing pyramids constrained by automotive
design and increasingly favoring the oblique
over the frontal. The result is an elongation
of spaces and the development of an
anamorphic architecture, one in which
landscapes, spaces, and volumes are
distorted in compensation for the visual
foreshortening and condensed observations
prompted by the highway.
Karl Friedrich Schinkel was mobility of the viewer around below, then strolling through
106
highly skilled in the construc- and through an urban space the upper vestibule, which
tions of panoramas and with frequent opportunities provides a vantage point as in
illusionistic stage set designs, for retrospection is an a panorama: elevated above
and, as historian Kurt Forster important aspect of spatial the plaza, with columns
107
has demonstrated, applied organization. His famous 1831 framing fragmented views of
this knowledge to his rendering of the main an urban panorama of an ideal
architectural designs for staircase of his Altes Museum Berlin that vies for attention
Berlin. For Schinkel, the shows figures ascending from with the works on exhibit.
When it comes to scale, buildings are
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
BODY
The body is a powerful determinant of scale.
It has the ability to generate measure through
either its necessity to physically engage an
environment at multiple scales and at multiple
speeds (be it a handle, a car, a parade) or
through locating its eye in relationship to that
environment (a window, a vista) so that it can
be perceptually experienced. Aldo Rossi’s Teatro del
Mondo, constructed for the
Venice Biennale in 1979,
Physical endlessly manipulates our
The height of a stair riser, the height and perception of the existing
context. As this temporary
profile of a handrail, the proportions of a structure literally floats into
chair are all scaled to interact with the proximity with the city’s
dimensions of the human body. The body’s great churches, their scale is
suddenly transformed from
monumental and massive to
(continued on page 112) pavilionesque and fleeting.
Gerrit Rietveld
and the Scales of Art
Perceptual
The eye of the observer locates the origin of
the gaze that establishes both the horizon
line and the cone of vision. As this gaze is
superimposed onto an infinite picture plane,
the near and the far can be brought into
immediate relation to each other, giving
scale to an otherwise scaleless environment.
If site lines used in determining the locations
and dimensions of apertures, frames, and
Conceived and perceived as
two enormous rocks
buttressing the banks of San
Sebastián’s Urumea River,
Rafael Moneo’s 1991–99
Kursaal Auditorium and
Congress Center exists at the
scale of the surrounding
landscape. Yet, as one enters
the lobbies of each volume, a
picture window frames that
distant landscape,
transforming the San
Sebastian bay and the
mountains of Mount Urgull
12
and Mount Ulía into
projected still lifes that
appear to be drawn onto its
interior surfaces.
Scale
grids through which views and light pass are Adolf Loos’s 1922 compe-
tition entry for the offices
carefully calibrated to the origins of both
of the Chicago Tribune is,
static and animate gazes, then these devices on one hand, a 120-meter
have the ability to register the scale of the (131 yd) high office building
scaled for human occupancy
human body. These foregrounds introduce
and, on the other, a singular
scale to distant backgrounds and horizons by and monumental column
juxtaposing them alongside the scale of the made of black granite.
Scale
an independent programmatic, stone walls, to the bridges
material, and circulatory that extend the circulation The Gateway Arch in St. Louis, structure that marks the site
overlay onto the ancient between buildings. Here the designed by the architect of the 1764 origin of the city
medieval twelfth-century architecture operates as Eero Saarinen and structural and shifts to an imagined
fortification. This concept of intermediary device that engineer Hannskarl Bandel, scale as gateway to an
separate but connected bridges the intimate scale of transcends its status as a expansive western landscape.
systems informs the design the body and the enormity
of the building at multiple of the ancient fort structure.
scales—from the floating
surfaces are articulated as they come in and Spatial Transformation The church at Le Corbusier’s moving light, where one’s
out of focus and it is the dialogue of this Light is temporal and as it moves through a Sainte-Marie de La Tourette gaze is continuously
monastery complex in Eveux, refocused to sequentially
light with the surfaces that it illuminates or space it has the capacity to transform it. As France (1956–59), is a large illuminated focal points, but
passes through that produces an expanded surfaces come under the spotlight, they can concrete volume whose the sanctuary itself
spatial experience—a continuous transforma- alternately advance and recede from view, apertures obscure the direct transforms spatially as the
source of natural light. Not surfaces alternately flatten
tion of form. and the space through which light moves can only are the church’s rough and advance as the shadows
expand and contract along its path. Materials concrete surfaces animated come and go.
Yet, it is not the light, per se, that creates can appear altered as their textures transform by kaleidoscopic patterns of
the space—it is the shadows that are cast and volumes can seem distorted as their
that construct the space, for as Louis Kahn proportions appear to change.
said, “All material in nature, the mountains
and the streams and the air and we, are Textures
made of Light which has been spent, and The surface onto which light is directed not
this crumpled mass called material casts a only becomes hierarchically more significant
shadow, and the shadow belongs to Light.” than one that remains in relative darkness, but
(Lobell, p. xx) Thus, it is the manipulation it amplifies its presence through the shadow
of form through an understanding of the that it casts. Textures can be revealed and
shadows that are cast that registers the exaggerated through exposure to light, just
generative presence of light. as they can be smoothed and made flat.
Chiaroscuro within a fairly shallow space. Volumes can of an object from each other.” (Goethe,
Establishing contrast between light and dark appear flatter or more three-dimensional page xxxviii) And as all color perception is
serves to delineate spatial and programmatic and dimensions can appear increased or both relative to the eye of the observer and
boundaries. The crisp profile lines that decreased. Spatial sequences are introduced to the (often colored) context in which it is
render legible contrasting patterns of light as one is drawn from dark to light. Alternately, perceived, it follows that an understanding
and dark, control the effect of this duality. boundaries between spaces can be blurred as of color in architecture introduces a potent
Extreme contrast can be achieved by the light becomes more uniformly distributed. symbolic and dynamic dimension to
introduction of light through a controlled This play of light cannot only produce architectural form and space.
aperture where the profile of the cut is simultaneous and shifting spatial readings—
important in demarcating the amount of light but it also challenges static programmatic Symbolic
that enters a space, allowing the imagination relationships, where unique behavioral Colors have traditional meanings associated
120
to complete that which is left in darkness. patterns emerge as occupants’ gazes and with them—meanings that shift, depending
movements seek shade and/or light. on the culture in which they are located. Red
Distortion is a symbol of luck in Asian cultures and often
121
Spatial experience can be intentionally Color the color worn by brides, yet in South Africa
transformed through choreographing the In his Theory of Colors, Johann Wolfgang it can symbolize mourning. Colors are also
relationship between a light source and the von Goethe writes “The eye sees no form, thought to produce certain environments that
surface onto which it falls. As darker spaces inasmuch as light, shade, and color together can alter perception and behaviors.
tend to recede and brighter spaces advance, constitute that which to our vision distin-
three-dimensional depth can be exaggerated guishes object from object, and the parts
The color of Luis Barragán’s The dining-pool room at the
Casa Gilardi (1976) in rear of the house introduces
Tacubaya, Mexico, not only an almost mystical source of
recalls Mexican textiles and light where color, through its
pottery, markets and sun- palette, reflectivity, and
drenched street walls, but intensity, creates the illusion
illuminates the interior of infinite spatial depth.
spaces of an elongated site.
Perceptual
Certain materials and colors reflect light,
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
Instrument
Entire buildings can operate as instruments
for light, and nowhere is this more evident
than in the Pantheon in Rome. Its 27-foot (8 m)
diameter oculus dramatically illuminates—
spiritually, literally, and temporally—the vast
space over which it presides, and as the Sun
moves across the sky, its sculpted light is cast
onto the dome’s spherical surface. The
building is an instrument that produces a
visible measure of the passing of time.
13
shadows and changing
landscapes.
Light
Höweler + Yoon Architecture’s
2004 installation in Athens,
Greece, constructs a space of
illumination and sound. As
individuals move through a
field of optic rods and floor
speakers, emitted light and
sound register their
The painted corrugated-metal containers of passing
movements, producing a
siding of the houses in freighters, these colored
constantly transforming—
Valparaiso serve to delay panels introduce a vibrant
and fleeting—spatial field.
their inevitable rust in this palette to this hillside
Chilean seaport. Reputed to community.
have come from the shipping
Narrative
Architecture can tell a story—real or
imagined—about an individual, a place, an
event. The circulation can operate as an
armature that collects and frames the visual
icons that render the narrative legible.
Theatrical
Architecture has the ability to frame the
relationship between its various occupants
and, in so doing, either establish or
126
Random
128
Dialogue
Movement through space is often a distinct
system that establishes a dialogue with a
particular context. It can either amplify and,
in so doing, render legible an existing
infrastructural network or it can overlay a
distinct spatial, material, and temporal
dimension. The dimension, geometry, and
material of movement systems often
demonstrate their occupants’ requirements,
from turning radii (automobiles), to angles
of incline (accessibility), to minimum widths
(egress safety).
Amplification
Movement systems can originate within the
context in which the work is situated. They
can attach themselves to existing circulation
networks, amplifying their presence into
three-dimensional form, thereby blurring the
boundaries between exterior and interior,
landscape and architecture.
Interface
Studio Labics and Nemesi Italy. The distinct material
Systems of movement can operate as Architetti Associati and dimensional layer
material and spatial mediators between (1999–2004) overlaid a introduces an independent
system of steel bridges, circulation system that allows
distinct conditions: between past and
ramps, and thresholds onto the visitor to navigate the
present, between two scales, between two the archeological ruins of traces and remains of the vast
programs, between two materials, between Trajan’s Market in Rome, 113 CE brick structures.
two speeds. Often, they introduce the
human being into a liminal space between
two conditions, establishing a critical
dialogue that allows one to be understood
from the lens of the other.
Multiple movement systems Multiple/Parallel
define the architecture of Simultaneous or parallel sequences reveal
Centre Georges Pompidou,
designed by Richard Rogers alternate architectural experiences: The short
and Renzo Piano and and sweet is distinct from the long and
completed in 1977 in Paris, leisurely, the honorific from the prosaic, the
France. Be it the movement
of air, water, electricity, art, once a year from the every day. The
or people, each system is enormous central brass doors to the Vatican’s
given a clear expression that St. Peter’s open on special occasions, allowing
defines the form of the
building. The city of Paris is for an axial procession up the stairs and into
displayed as a picturesque the central nave, versus the everyday
canvas as one moves up the perimeter doors that provide access to the
exuberant, and now iconic,
14
escalators that traverse the local and the touristic. Courthouses also have
exterior of the building. multiple sequences—one for the accused, one
for the public, and a third for the judiciary—
each demonstrating various scales of access
Movement
and security that reflect the special circum-
stances of each group.
130
The form of the 2008 formed and deformed as a each layer, introducing yet
Automobile Museum in function of the automobile’s another dimension and
Nanjing, China, by 3Gatti external upward spiral, operation to the folded plates
131
Architecture Studio is a transforming the car from as the inner surfaces adjust
function of the building’s prosaic machine to exhibited to the human scale. An
independent, yet intertwined, object as it navigates the elevator adds a third means
circulation trajectories. ramped surfaces. The of navigating the structure—
The building’s paper-thin pedestrian’s inner descent a direct route back to the top
concrete floor wafers are ramps back down through layer of parking.
It is through dialogue that everyone
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
becomes an architect.
15
dialogue
A work is constantly renewed by its encounters with new perceptions, new works.
Rafael Moneo’s El Greco irregular system of Ragnar Östberg’s Stockholm affinities. Additionally, (like the crescent moon to the
Congress Center (2012) “buttresses” that resonates Town Hall (1923) is a festival details such as the right of the large window),
establishes a clever dialogue with other externally- of dialogues, from the occasionally aberrant and intentional misalign-
with the fortified walls of supported ramparts that were historic to the internal. Its column—only one in the ments, Stockholm’s Town
historic Toledo, Spain, but reinforced by necessity over Riddarfjärden façade is loggia being octagonal for Hall keeps the viewer’s eyes
incorporates the traditional time, are in reality, hollow composed of bands of instance—signal their varying dancing and mind speculating
rubble construction within ventilation shafts serving the windows that seem to follow roles within the circulatory on its countless layers of
bands of concrete, and the subterranean parking garage. their own rhythms, remini- paths of the building. meaning and elusive systems
scent of the Doge’s Palace With its blind “windows,” of order.
in Venice, an allusion to apparently erratic apertures,
Stockholm’s maritime subtle brick hieroglyphs
behaviors that can persist long after the work worlds. This work insists on the unambiguous Architecture also approaches the status of
is complete, even after the author and the singularity of its meaning and resists—occa- a monologue when it is designed with a
original audience are no longer present. Such sionally fears—multiple interpretations. It is singularity of intention (perhaps a work
works initiate an open-ended, dialogical the unequivocal voice of authority. Monu- intended as a manifesto) or one in which the
engagement with their world. Indeed, much ments will often adopt a monological tone, designer is determined to make an autobio-
of a work’s meaning and identity is developed lest the subject of their commemoration be graphical or otherwise private statement,
by an audience’s past and present experiences subject to unanticipated interpretations. with the identity of the author being the
as elicited by the work, and of their percep- Also, buildings considered to be primarily predominant message. Works of limited
tions of the work’s relationship to other works. utilitarian might operate monologically capacity for dialogue include those that
A work is constantly renewed by its encoun- (factories, water towers, electrical substa- simply mimic another work—like someone
ters with new perceptions, new works. tions, and grain silos), but this does not who annoyingly repeats another’s words—
preclude them from being overlaid with or those that merely negate without rebuttal,
A monological work, on the other hand, has imposed interpretations, or for these a “no” without any positive assertion.
no intention of engaging its audience in a functions to be accommodated in a design
new or transformed understanding of their that has more expansive aspirations.
Left: In converting the ruined
Santa Maria do Bouro
Convent in Amares, Portugal,
into a hotel (1987–97),
Eduardo Souto de Moura uses
contemporary materials to
articulate the modern
occupation of the structure
while scrutinizing its former
status both as a once grand
convent and—perhaps more
compellingly—as a ruin.
Highly reflective, frameless
windows simulate the empty
apertures of a ruin, the thinness of the steel. Above: The minimally Fernando Távora’s Pousada
15
pretending to reveal sky Fragments of now irrelevant punctured wall of a wing of Santa Marinha in Guimarães,
within. A weathering steel masonry protrude along the the former convent’s cells Portugal (1984). Viewed from
panel traces the window’s clean, scarred wall, joined by serves as both a background above, this new wing appears
proportions while displacing rust stains leaching from the and a primary rhythm for the to be a simple terrace; it is
Dialogue
it in space, underscoring the newly inserted balcony. syncopated rhythms of the both literally and figuratively
massiveness of the wall with new, highly fenestrated wing a new ground for the convent.
of hotel rooms in this part of
The architectural designer has numerous experiences, and by seeing architecture’s are dialogically open ended; they have no
resources for the production of a work that capacity for shading the memories of past determinate past and can have no fixed future.
engenders dialogue: program, site, various experiences and establishing a framework The role of the architect is to facilitate the
forms of representation, other buildings for future observations. discursive aspect of forms, and by engaging
(adjacent as well as unseen or even unbuilt), various types of dialogue, to allow the
materials, forms (basic and compound), Inevitably, architectural forms invite a certain continuous redefinition of a work’s meanings
personal experiences, memories, and the amount of discourse. No architect can be fully by all of its observers and all of its contexts.
participation of a cadre of others. The role aware of the meanings that have accumulated
of these others—instructors, critics, collabora- in even the simplest of forms, forms saturated In the more dialogical works of architecture,
tors, clients, users, historians, and casual by centuries of history and the countless everyone has an opportunity to “construct”
observers—is essential to the continuation recollections, world views, and experiences of the work, to assign it values and meanings,
of a work’s capacity for dialogue, not just individual observers. For this reason, most both internally and in relation to its
through active critique, but also by placing forms—from spheres and cubes to petal- environment. It is through dialogue that
a work in the context of other works and shaped roofs and insectlike substructures— everyone becomes an architect.
15
Conservatori at the the viewer to interpret the Architectural dialogues can occur at multiple
Campidoglio in Rome wraps surface and its components—
scales: at the level of the city, of the building,
the corner of the building, its pilasters, railings, frames,
elements incrementally brackets, apertures—in or of the detail. It is even possible for a dialogi-
merge with the medieval contrasting sets of cal relation to cross over scales: for a building
Dialogue
As much because of his suggests a portal composed fabric of the earlier building. implications, depending on
unique style as because of of a thin roof draped over two to engage a city, or for a detail to consider
Whether this resolution was whether one reads from the
his brilliant application of logs supported by four bulls, originally intended or not, left or from the right. the entirety of a building in microcosm.
complex forms, Jože Plečnik’s but it is, in effect, a covered
interventions in the Castle of stairway descending to the
Prague suggest an indefinite garden from a courtyard, The City
chronology while suggesting revealing a large gap to a Urbanistically, a design can engage an
possible systems of green space opened beneath
aspect associated with its city—a canal or
symbolism. His “Gate to the the heavy walls of one wing
Garden of Paradise” (1925) of the castle. a boulevard—presenting it in a unique way.
A building can reiterate the massing or
silhouettes of other structures in its vicinity
while introducing a new pattern of usage. Or
Indexing a building can open unseen vistas into some
Some facets of dialogue are derived from the of the unobserved crevices of its urban
concept of indexing, whereby there is an fabric, suggesting through a dialogical
indirect, relational aspect between a form engagement those conditions and traits that
and the perception of its meanings, often introduce new perceptions of a city that had
one that has been learned from experience. once been known in a very different way.
looked like this “house.” Nevertheless, works precedents: a roof shape, a traditional system
that incorporate such a form may resonate of joinery, an entry condition. Dialogical
In transforming the remodel. A sunken door
with some viewers as having a cozy, familiar, engagement of details can focus attention on
137
Tropes build connections between many Aristotle argued that metaphors were the
aspects of our world, proposing a relativity greatest tools of the poet, and that they
between the knowable and yet-to-be-known instigate learning in their audiences. Kenneth
phenomena we observe. Burke saw the analogical extensions we develop
through interpreting metaphors as essential
in shaping our perspectives of the world.
16
The use of tropes was “speak” directly to its
especially pervasive in the audience (architecture
architecture of eighteenth- parlante). Étienne-Louis
century France, when a Boullée’s metonymic design
Tropes
reaction to the exuberance for a Cenotaph for a Warrior
of the late baroque led to a (c. 1780) proposes the
reductive classicism and an monument as a colossal
attempt to make architecture sarcophagus. The summer house that The entire house is built
Françoise Racine de Monville as a fragment of a colossal
designed for his estate at the column, implying the
Désert de Retz near Marly, imaginary presence of a
France (1774), is an example gigantic temple that has
of a synecdochic architecture. since collapsed in ruin.
round, although to some of today’s audience, official’s nose surpasses its owner’s social
it could mean that she is “hot.”) prominence. Architecturally, metonymy can
be employed as a type of shorthand,
providing immediate recognition of a
structure’s function or character.
Irony Oswald Matthias Ungers used As in Shakespeare’s version,
While there are many forms of irony, they Shakespeare’s retelling of the wall is also a character in
Ovid’s “Pyramus and Thisbe” Ungers’ design, with the
all share the characteristic that what is myth as the central theme for house bisected into a work
presented has some opposition to what is a house in West Berlin (c. cube and a residential cube,
intended. Jonathan Swift’s famous essay, 1976), not far from the Berlin connected only through a
Wall, on a site once single aperture in the thick
“A Modest Proposal,” in which the author containing a medieval wall. wall. More than a house built
seems to advocate the eating of children as The story tells of two lovers on personification, Ungers’
a solution to rural poverty, is considered to from neighboring estates, Pyramus and Thisbe develops
forbidden to meet by their a metaphor and eventual
be a masterpiece of ironic writing. feuding families. Their only commemoration for the
communications occur divided Berlin.
Irony is one of the more difficult tropes. An through a crack in the wall.
Hyperbole
Hyperbole is an obvious exaggeration,
intended to emphasize a specific characteris- Frank Gehry’s Nationale-
tic or condition, as in “waited an eternity.” Nederlanden building in
Prague (1996) is known as
“the Dancing House.” Its
The architectural hyperbole is often forms originated in part as a
incorporated when the designer wishes to personification of the famous
dancing duo of Fred Astaire
introduce a new form-type (a cone in place (the portion with the more
of a dome), to emphasize the uniqueness of vertical deportment) and
a feature (bulbous protrusions on a rectangu- Ginger Rogers (the more
dynamic). The dancing meta-
lar block), or to underscore a characteristic phor is especially approp-
(as with exaggerated classical motifs on a riate, given the building’s
design grasping at monumentality). proximity to neighboring
baroque structures,
extending their regularity
One occasionally finds hyperbole’s opposite, with its fanciful distortions.
understatement, incorporated in architecture
that attempts to recede into an urban texture,
where conspicuousness may be considered a
liability—as with certain clandestine clubs or
utility buildings, for instance.
16
Tropes
Carlo Mollino’s Teatro Regia contours of a female torso, a reference to womb and
in Torino, Italy (completed in figure the architect held in royalty, with the stage’s
1973) incorporates a subtle the highest esthetic regard. proscenium intended to
form of personification with The auditorium volume itself suggest the shape of a
its plan assuming the is a deep reddish-violet, a television screen.
17
Defamiliarization
There are consequences to defamiliarization: Even the tools of design can be redefined:
when practiced by the producer of a work, an one can challenge the implications of
understanding of the unfamiliar is inevitably representational conventions (a photograph
and eventually practiced by its perceiver. might be interpreted as a plan, a silhouette
as a basis for a model), or unlikely objects
Operations can be incorporated in a representation
Defamiliarization can play many roles in the (children’s toys in a model, anatomical
design of a project and especially in the illustrations in a section).
education of an architect. An architect may
sketch a mountain silhouette that later It is the discovery of a fluid relationship
becomes a roof, dissect a fruit cart in a local between things—forms, contexts, functions,
market that later becomes a preschool, translate and scales—that consistently renews our
the translucent tessellations of a Paul Klee understandings of the world around us,
Le Corbusier’s de Beistegui its cornice, a croquet lawn as
Penthouse (completed “carpet,” and the “fireplace”— painting into an urban design, or apply a pig’s suggests new questions, answers previously
1930) was located atop a which appears to “smoke” penchant for wallowing to a design for desert unresolved problems, and initiates one of
nineteenth-century when steam is exhausted
structures. Mining the unfamiliar often results architecture’s most powerful discursive
apartment building on the from a flue behind the
Champs-Elysées in Paris. wall—as an Arc de Triomphe, in an expanded inventory of forms, contextual capabilities.
It is an essay on surrealist suggesting simultaneously and environmental responses, and analytic
defamiliarization in that the Arc de Triomphe is
and representational techniques. Subversion
architecture, whereby one a fireplace (that does not
term partially displaces function) and that every Another technique involves the “overthrow” of
another. In this view, a fireplace might aspire to Appropriation a form or formal complex’s traditional values
rooftop “room” has the sky as being an Arc de Triomphe.
Architectural concepts can be derived— or relationships, perhaps by upsetting its
146
its ceiling, the hills of Paris as
through analysis and conceptualization—from hierarchical status (a kitchen might supplant
virtually any artifact, even those that are not a living room’s predominance, an electrical
explicitly architectural (such as a tree, a beetle, substation might be a civic monument), by
147
Receptivity
Since all forms have promiscuous and
unknowable pasts—no one can know all of
their liaisons and manifestations—the
acceptance of cursory, preconceived
interpretations is the most efficient path for
the observer. The viewer of a defamiliarized
More than a simple inversion, the subversive Accident formal complex must be willing to reconsider
operation in design may permanently and Occasionally, during a design process, an forms within the entirety of a new context
even retroactively reorient an observer’s “accidental” understanding emerges from the and to disengage some of these forms from
interpretation of a form as well as of all misinterpretation—intentional or not—of a their prior, more superficial denotations. Since
similar forms. representation: solids might be interpreted many of these forms are fully present only in
as voids, paving as ceiling, a detail or an memory, the effect may be retroactive.
De- and Recontextualization urban plan “mistaken” for a building. This
Because much of interpreted meaning is could even be the result of misreading site Wonder
derived from the context in which a form is or program data: An incorrect scale, an Whenever one encounters something for the
situated, relocating a form or system into a exaggerated or inverted topography, a first time, especially when that thing is
new—and possibly resistant—context will demolished building may be absorbed into somehow extraordinary, there is inevitably a
inevitably defamiliarize the original. When a proposal. sense of wonder. Since the goal of defamil-
an opera house is placed beneath a highway, iarization is to prompt others to actually
one’s biases regarding the status of the Alternatively, an actual accident might foster perceive for the first time something that
institution may be altered, taking with them alternative understandings: a drawing may be has perhaps already been seen on countless
the material aesthetic sensibilities of the damaged, reversed, or misprinted; a model occasions—to grasp the extraordinary in
project. When a tenement becomes fractured, incomplete, or inverted; a “wrong” something that has been routine—the
isolated in a park, it begins to assume a word might be used in a verbal presentation. observer’s first reaction may be one of
monumental presence. By disengaging intention from execution, the wonder. The emotional tingle of wonder is
assimilation of such accidents can inspire a generally followed by an inquisitive urge
designer to consider an approach outside a and, eventually, a critical sensibility.
familiar method.
The CaixaForum gallery in drapery, window as opening
Madrid by Herzog & de or marking, and building as
Meuron (completed 2007) entity or material. A familiar
incorporates the brick body building is rendered unfamiliar,
of a former power station, promoting previously
estranging its fundamental unthinkable perceptions of
character: its stone foun- architecture. The adjacent
dation is removed; its brick Vertical Garden by Patrick
envelope suspended above a Blanc (2007) further
sunken entry court; and a defamiliarizes concepts of
ponderous, oxidized steel mass and material, with
volume erupts as an alien “wall” as “ground,” sugges-
mansard. The manipulation ting a dislocation of the
of the older structure nearby botanical gardens.
contests our understandings
17
of brick as structure or
Defamiliarization
Poetics almost perverse, collision of vehicular and
The defamiliarized form, shaken loose from domestic cultures. For those observers, the
its rote denotation, is free to develop new defamiliarization of the cladding of an
levels of connotation. With this “thickening” everyday, mass-marketed wagon—an object
of architecture’s language, observers become that would normally be visually consumed in
aware of architecture’s capacity for poetic a moment—initiated a thoughtful contempla-
implication: Even the most prosaic forms tion that would forever alter their percep-
begin to resonate with unforetold significa- tions of such wagons and, possibly, of
tions and possibilities. These poetic artificial veneers and even industrialized
consequences may influence our societal, domesticity.
environmental, ethical, emotional, and
esthetic prejudices and understandings. Exposure to the unfamiliar aspects of the
familiar, the habitual, and the commonplace
Extension of Awareness not only discloses the lost and hidden
Walter De Maria’s The New columns seem to “grow” from
York Earth Room (1977), the dirt, lighting fixtures When the vinyl wood-grained body paneling meanings behind the forms in our world, but
curated by the Dia Foundation, seem as sunlight penetrating fell from a colleague’s 1970s station wagon, frequent encounters with the unfamiliar
consists of a second-floor a canopy of foliage, walls as
she felt it was necessary to somehow cover extend our abilities to “read” the world
Manhattan loft filled with fragments of a ruin. The
140 tons (127 metric tons) of persistent whiteness, almost the exposed splotches of black glue and through forms.
dirt. Discovering the loamy- a platitude in modern rusted screw heads. Combining inexpensive-
scented space in Soho not apartment lofts, exaggerates
ness, efficiency, and an architect’s sensibility,
only underscores the rarity of the unnatural contrast,
earth in this part of the suggesting a reciprocal she replaced the plastic wood with thinly
city—of country relocated artificiality between the molded sheets of plastic bricks. The
into city—but it suggests a vacancy of the loft and the
unremarkable wagon became a very
reevaluation of the elements soil permanently tilled for
remarkable object. While few people were
148
comprising the space: growth that never happens.
willing to park next to it, many were willing to
comment on what the wagon revealed of the
suburban esthetic it engaged: “wood” siding
149
These transformations can be literal, implied, movement of the Sun), programmatic (a Temporal (Animation)
or often both. In other words, a panel can train compartment transforms from living Architecture registers the passage of time.
slide from one position to another, or as light room by day to bedroom by night with the Embedded within its transformations are the
moves across its surface, it can transform lowering of the bunks), or spatial (a volume traces of human rituals and environmental
from reflective solid to transparent. But in all enlarges as its occupancy increases). stimuli. The sliding, rotating, opening, and
cases, this transformative capacity can Transformations occur at multiple scales, closing of surfaces have the ability to
sponsor alternative programs, inhabitations, from the smallest particle to an entire transform spatial scales and relationships,
appearances, and performances—in other building, and at any interval, from a one- determine conditions of public and private,
words, architecture really is never very static time event to a cyclical transformation. and transform functions and operations.
at all.
For example, it is very common in modern Topological
Literal theaters for the audience/performance Architectural space, form, and surface can
A kinetic architecture not only registers and relationship to be physically altered by also transform through the deformation of
adapts to the effects of external stimuli but it rotating stages, lifts, and movable loge underlying structural patterns, based on
also provokes behaviors as a function of its seating; while projection technologies can mathematical models that subsequently
transformation. External stimuli can be perceptually alter the sense of enclosure, inform the qualitative aspects of such
environmental (shutters adapting to the weather, and time. patterns. As an alternative to literal
18
Transformation
Eileen Gray’s expanding furnishings transform to
wardrobes in Tempe à serve multiple spatial and
Pailla—the house she functional programs. The
designed for herself in entry hall’s extendable
Castelar, France, from wardrobe expands to
1932–34, are but one example accommodate its changing
of an interior conceived as contents, but in doing so,
an enormous piece of transforms the entry hall’s
furniture—where both spatial sequence.
surfaces and freestanding
water, and electricity—transform the surfaces were once designed for another specific
In 2013, Skylar Tibbits of the absorbing material equips
and forms into which they are embedded purpose. For example, light projected Self Assembly Lab at MIT, the resulting composite
through processes such as contracting, through the stained glass windows of a along with Stratasys and material with a built-in
153
154
155
Infrastructure introduces a systemic
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
19
2009–15)
Infrastructure
Introducing a formal circu- a spine of commercial activity
lation network into the to areas that would otherwise
informal hillside neighbor- be too dangerous to venture
hoods of Medellín, Colombia’s within, much less service.
Metrocable links the crowded Here, infrastructure operates
and marginalized, often both as cultural lens and as
dangerous, communities to connective and programmatic
the city’s primary subway armature, transforming
routes. Floating gondolas the context through which
that scan the densely it passes.
populated landscape not Proyecto Urbano Integral
only bring an audience to (Integral Urban Project),
communities that are The Metrocable San Javier,
typically very insular, but the completed in 2008
cable car stations introduce
158
159
Exquisitely thin armatures introduce a series of At Álvaro Siza Vieira’s 1977 the separate residential
inscribe pedestrian structural ribbons that Quinta da Malagueira clusters is attached. The
movement over and through tip-toes three dimensionally housing community in Évora, structures that support the
the Icelandic landscape—lift- across a newly constructed Portugal, a system of raised raised channels overhead
ing skyward what appear to highway and from which concrete aqueducts not only mediate between individual
be mysterious traces of pedestrians can experience provides the infrastructure houses and shops and the
Viking passages. Studio an expanded and directed necessary for water and adjoining public spaces while
Granda’s 2003 Footbridges visual field. electric distribution but also creating shaded loggias along
over Hringbraut & Njardagata an armature to which each of which the residents circulate.
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
In his meticulous urban with the historic city, same diameter, which then
renovations for Guimarães, underscoring the bay serve a series of functions:
Portugal (begun 1987), rhythms and motifs of the as fountain ornament, as
One of the ten themed it not only creates an isolated Here storm drainage pipes Fernando Távora uses paving, city’s more public buildings. boundaries for the pedestrian
gardens at Parc de la Villette and unique ecosystem of become elevated thresholds an occasional fountain, and Here, in Largo de João realm, and even as parking
in Paris, France, Alexandre bamboo forests and falling beneath which one moves, various infrastructural Franco, the round windows of bollards.
Chemetoff’s Bamboo Garden waters, but also exposes the assembled into a network of elements to initiate what is, the building at the end are
(1987) is sunken below the layers of infrastructure that bridges and walkways in effect, an analytic dialogue translated into spheres of the
rest of the park. In so doing, normally remained concealed. hovering above.
Scales of Engagement
Bus stops, street furniture, fountains, street
lighting, and the like, are infrastructural
elements whose details, textures, and
dimensions introduce a scale of engagement
that mediates the human body with its larger
environment.
Evanescent
Making visible what is typically invisible or
appropriating existing infrastructural
elements in surprising ways are devices that
can raise ecological consciousness, often
introducing an unexpected dimension to an
otherwise necessary, yet prosaic, function. In the Netherlands, Thor ter
In other words, while infrastructural projects Kulve converts the prosaic
urban infrastructures of
might be motivated by functional necessities, streetlights and fire hydrants,
they can also provide shelter, recreational, parking poles, and garbage
environmental, and cultural amenities. receptacles into whimsical
and unexpected programs.
Temporary installations
Cultural attach themselves directly
Processional routes can be important to existing structures,
interpreting their intrinsic
infrastructural systems that reside in the and passive functions into
memories or behaviors of the cultures in playful urban interventions.
which they occur. Sometimes unmarked, it is A fire hydrant is transformed
into sprinkler, a metal
through their occupation that they momen- signpost into swing, a
tarily isolate a particular route within an garbage can into barbeque,
otherwise unremarkable context. Pasadena, and a streetlight into
glowing place marker.
California’s annual Rose Parade celebrates
Constructed from the
material in which they are
located, rocky cairns, like
these in Iceland, are an
example of way-finding
devices that mark routes
through often inhospitable
landscapes. From each one,
the next is perceived,
bringing measure to an
otherwise infinite horizon.
19
Infrastructure
the first day of the new year with flower-
covered floats, horses, and bands as it
follows a 5.5-mile (9 km) route defined
primarily by the hundreds of thousands of
spectators that line its sidewalks.
Circulatory
Circulation networks that are embedded
within or overlaid upon existing urban
landscapes are rendered “visible” by the
bridges, shelters, or pathways that mark their
trajectories. A bus route, for example, is
populated at specific intervals throughout the
day and night, marked by a series of shelters
that line its path and that serve to trace a
route that would otherwise be invisible.
The five main arteries that the riders pass, purchase post offices, and small retail.
constitute the backbone of tickets, and access the buses. Dimensionally and formally
the Bus Rapid Transit system They provide not only shelter suggestive of the buses to
in Curitiba, Brazil, are and functional requirements which they allow access, the
identified through their of accessibility and ticketing, kiosks mark a route that
raised cylindrical steel and but have the added would otherwise be invisible.
glass bus stops through which functionality of news kiosks,
19
define this urban infrastructure.
Infrastructure
162
163
Adler and Sullivan’s 1886–89 zones (a base, middle, and recognizable figure that has the ability to relationship between two or more elements
Auditorium Building in top). This façade interface subsequently organize its surrounding “field.” establishes a visual datum along which other
Chicago, Illinois, is a thus operates as a datum that
multifunctional building of simultaneously registers This datum figure can take on many forms: unrelated elements might be gathered. A
theaters, offices, and hotel two scales: one of its interior a surface, space, grid, axis, horizon line, mass, horizon line or plane provides a singular
rooms. Instead of expressing organization that then and so on. visual reference that locates elements that
each floor as a separate gives way to the scale of its
entity, its façade collects urban context. are either below or above it. A mass is a
multiple floors into discrete A continuous street wall, for example, can be recognizable volume from which spaces are
the organizing surface that connects a series excavated or objects are extruded.
of individual buildings. A courtyard can be
the organizing space that relates the irregular Surface
rooms that surround it. An identifiable grid A surface can be a principal organizing
of streets produces an organizational device as it provides visual continuity. Like a
structure that collects an infinite variety of canvas, a vertical surface can provide the
individual buildings and programs. An axial backdrop for a series of independent objects
Datum
structures, collecting them associated with an art and produces a discovered space
beneath one continuous education center—exhibition of walkways and suspended
surface, producing a liminal spaces, a library, a cinema, a seating areas: an extension of
space between the roofs of restaurant, and apartments the urban landscape beyond.
the old and the underbelly of for faculty and students—the
Space
Spaces are recognizable references that
exist in both buildings and cities. Spaces
with recognizable shapes—such as squares,
rectangles, or ovals—act as orienting devices
to which one often returns. These become
especially recognizable references if they
exist in contrast to a series of smaller spaces,
as with a significantly larger space or
exterior courtyard surrounded by smaller
rooms or, within the density of an urban
fabric, as in a public square or a larger
168
José María Sánchez García’s again objectified, while also
2011 project in Mérida, Spain, producing a continuous avenue flanked by a continuous surface of
mediates between the pattern of volumes on the similarly scaled buildings.
archeological ruin of the other side that allows it to
169
Horizon
The horizon is the line that literally separates
earth and sky and, as in a perspective drawing,
it is the line of human sight. In architectural
space, the horizon line is a constant visual
datum that locates and relates elements that
are both below and above it. It is also the datum
shared by both infinite space and foregrounded
elements. Spatial depth is shaped by the
continuous dialogue and fluctuation between
this background and foreground.
Mass
A dense volume can serve as a powerful
physical datum—it can be a constructed
object or a metaphoric ground. It is the
Aurelio Galfetti and Flora sports facilities along its way. various programs at multiple
mass from which occupiable space can Ruchat’s 1967–70 public pool Nestled beneath the walkway scales but also provides a
be extracted or objects can be extruded. in Bellinzona. Switzerland, is are the entry stalls, changing continuous line through
an elevated open-air rooms and facilities through which the sky, the horizon,
circulation path that begins in which the pedestrians access and the landscape can be
the city and extends to the the variety of pools below. measured.
river, a linear datum that The concrete path not only
collects a series of pools and physically connects the
In Frank Lloyd Wright’s 1908
Frederick C. Robie House in
Chicago, Illinois, the unbroken
rhythm of continuous
fenestration reestablishes the
horizon line of what was once
an open prairie—a space
captured between the planes
of the cantilevered roof and
continuous terraces and
parapets. The domestic rituals
of living and dining play out
against this horizontal datum
interrupted only by the
20
vertical chimney mass.
Datum
Georges-Henri Pingusson’s
1953–62 Memorial to the
Martyrs of the Deportation
in Paris, France, is located
on the southeastern tip of
Île de la Cité. The sequence
into the memorial is
initiated by symmetrical
staircases inscribed into the
horizontal ground plane of
the island, bringing the
visitor down into the space
of the river below. Its
interior spaces are
subsequently excavated into
the mass of the island,
Paolo David’s 2004 Arts terminating with an
Center—Casa Das Mudas in infinitely projected hall of
Vale dos Amores, Madiera, illuminated glass beads.
Portugal, is conceived not as
170
an object but as an extension
of its surrounding landscape.
This topographic datum
produces a surrogate ground
171
21
accomplished by composing variable overall
the Wolfsburg Cultural same form, increasing in scale
masses, arranging the units into several Center, designed by Alvar from the smallest which holds
typologies (such as courtyards, slabs, and Aalto in 1958–62 in Wolfsburg, 26 persons, to the largest
Germany, are organized which holds 238, all fanning
towers), or, often with less success, using
Order
around an exterior central out as the principal marquis
changes in materials or colors to artificially court. The five lecture halls for the building’s entry from
indicate uniqueness. Of course, when every that comprise the adult the town square below.
education component of the
unit is treated distinctly, the opposite of
particularity occurs; the complex is perceived
as a uniform, mottled texture.
whole—circulatory, services, units, and heights or volumes based on degrees of
In projects founded on texture, especially possibly even structural and mechanical. public or private usage.
those involving pattern fields, the manipula- It is often common to identify the various
tion of the pattern—three dimensionally, hierarchies that emerge within these systems, The organization of similar elements that
morphologically, through distortion or with, for example, entry circulation, vertical vary only slightly (by volume or height, for
transformation—is the primary tool in circulation, and horizontal circulation each example) can be accommodated through
developing a sense of variation and order. given a distinct form. This can even extend clustering or by serial sequencing, whereby
to the level of the city, with hierarchies of both their similarities and their differences
A typical strategy in organizing highly vehicular traffic or public transit being are identifiable.
repetitive elements is to emphasize the articulated in terms of highways, boulevards,
individual systems that comprise the streets, and alleys, or hierarchies of building
21
resembles the mise en abyme effect: the
process of penetrating buildings within
buildings reveals the relationships between
the pieces. This is, for example, frequently
Order
the case in buildings like theaters and
concert halls, where one moves through
numerous distinct buildinglike spaces—
entryway, lobby, stairways, loges, hall, and The forum of Pompeii is the around large open spaces.
then (vicariously) the space of the stage primary urban “courtyard” Beyond are the residential
around which the city’s public blocks, with interior court-
with all of its autonomous architectures—
buildings are gathered, yards that both organize
each proposing its own identity. and the first of a series of and bring light to rooms
courtyards begetting that surround them while
courtyards. This organizing choreographing the sequence
While rare, the absence of hierarchy may
device of a primary space that moves from the public
be intentional in designs where complete lined by subsidiary spaces is street to the atrium and
equality or anonymity is desirable. And while a frequent motif in ancient finally to the inner sanctum
Roman towns. From the of the peristyllium (garden
a sense of order may be one of the basic
forum one moves to the courtyard).
human compulsions, human involvement basilicas and markets with
can always be counted on to introduce an interior spaces also organized
The grid is the beginning and end of Mies’s perspective-negating fluctuations of vision
architecture—the site of architecture’s produced in Crown Hall, where the glass is
emplacement and its eventual effects. frosted to a line just above the horizon, thus
Mies’s grid operates on two different planes. forbidding access to the stabilizing vanish-
The first plane is the plane of Idea. The grid ing point; or the whirl of space in the plaza
on the plane of Idea is a template compris- in front of Seagram’s vibrating surface, as
ing instructions for organizing forms, well as surface qualities like reflectivity,
materials, and functions to which it stands refractivity, dullness, and blankness; or the
in a transcendental relation. This grid is 6-foot (1.83 m) deep roof of the New
deeply imbricated in the history and disci- National Gallery, floating on trabeated
pline of architecture, which provides whispers, disturbing the certainty of stabil-
specific precedents (Schinkel, Behrens, and ity of the earth itself. This second plane
Wright among them) and guarantees rigor brings together heterogeneous elements
and relationship. Consider, for example, the and makes them function together, creating
urban connections organized by Mies’s plan unprecedented and continually shifting
of IIT, where the grid—originary diagram relations without unifying or fixing them.
of the polis itself—represents the ideal The vocation of this plane is not to produce
urban condition of Chicago’s South Side. Or a whole but to constantly search for the new.
the metrically controlled surface of glass Its nature is virtual and abstract. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe: S. R. Crown Hall
interior (with the architect), IIT, Chicago, 1956
and metal panels at the Seagram Building,
which confronts metropolitan chaos with Thus the grid as site comprises both gen-
the sheer materiality of abstraction. erative concepts and relational, sensual
events. The grid announces and insists on
Mies’s grid operates simultaneously on a architectural autonomy and authority, and
second plane, which is a virtual site where yet is infinitely productive of difference
architectural experiences and events cir- and otherness. The grid is pure relation-
culate, combine, and recombine. It is the ship, perhaps the degree zero of architec-
plane of Event. This plane hovers just above tural thought.
or just below the actual elements of archi-
tecture, more like a field of potential —K. Michael Hays (Harvard University)
charged by invisible forces than a thing or
even a geometry. The grid on this plane is
not an inaugural ground or the source of an
idea. Indeed, the grid on this plane is but a
shimmering phantasm, the constant flux of
immanent material and spatial images.
Here percepts and affects are organized
into material architectural experiences.
Examples of such experiences include the
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe: Seagram Building, New York, 1958
The founding of the New presented by William Penn—
World required the founding the grid became the device
of a multitude of new settle- of choice. But such neutrality
ments that attempted to is never ensured, if even
represent the colonies’—and desirable: the occasional park
later, country’s— aspirations or nearness to water even-
for legislating and formalizing tually alters the value of one
an egalitarian society by property over another, so
means of property divisions. that the development of the
In Philadelphia, seen in this grid inevitably becomes
detail of Thomas Holme’s distorted by economic and
1705 map of Pennsylvania— environmental pressures.
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
Each grid type carries its own spatial and hierarchical implications when used to influence the organization of structure or partitions.
The four-square grid provides The nine-square grid, on Once the grid reaches a
equal status to each of its the other hand, brings an certain density, the relative
quadrants and suggests a inherent dominance to the equality of the bays is ensured
centrifugal movement pattern. space located in its center. and the grid begins to imply
Medieval chapter houses were Such grids were strongly infinite extension, although
often versions of this grid type, preferred in church design, peripheral bays might assume
with a large, supporting column most evident in those of the some prominence, as in the
located in the center, branching equal-armed Greek cross case of market buildings.
into an ornate ceiling. plans in which the central
element would be topped
with a dome.
Irregular grid patterns, Irregular grid patterns can Of course, not every building
however, can relocate these also create a mixture of major utilizes an obvious grid.
hierarchies, suggesting, and minor zones as in a The absence of a grid makes
for example, diagonal “tartan” grid, suggesting the columns or partitions
developments. directional movements as dominant elements of the
well as possible service and composition. This situation
stair precincts. This is an can emphasize the presence
organization common among of a casually defined space,
villa designs from Palladio like a clearing in a crowd.
onward through Wright
and Le Corbusier.
The surfaces of Charles But it is also a function of the grid, funda-
and Ray Eames’s own house mentally neutral and indefinite, that the
(Case Study House #8) in
Los Angeles, (completed intentional disruption of its regularity—
1949) consist of a regular through the introduction of a rotated grid,
steel grid approximately sudden shifts in bay sizes, or the insertion of
7.5 x 8 ft. (2.3 x 2.4 m)
tall, with additional sub- figures that resist conformity—can bring note
components between the to unique or special elements. In the later
floors. This grid not only grid paintings of Piet Mondrian, for example,
summarizes the architects’
aspirations for industrial the variable grid itself becomes the subject
prefabrication but also of the work. Without the neutral, ideal
generates both structural aspect of the grid, the distinctiveness of the
elements as well as interior
22
partitions, collects a variety incidental would go unnoticed.
of infilled elements, and
lends the overall structure Reference
a unified system while
Just as a Cartesian coordinate system
Grid
visually organizing the
trees on the site. provides an essential tool for understanding
the characteristics of various points, lines,
and figures, grids permit occupants of an
architecture to fully understand the locations
of elements within a space, from columns
and walls to constructed and inserted
furnishings.
portico of the monument. as a device for the transfer demonstrates the use of a
From the interior, the columnar of one image to another or gridded wire frame and an
grid of the Carré d’Art provides from an actual figure to a obelisk (in order to fix the
both a measure and a locator drawn representation. In location of the eye) in
for the temple outside. his Draftsman Drawing a transferring a figure to
Recumbent Woman from his a similarly gridded piece
Four Books on Measurement of paper.
Tartan plaids are composed establishing a complex multiple rhythms of For the final version of his structured the façade of the distinct component of the
of specified combinations arrangement of varying color superimposed grids. On the courthouse addition to the existing town hall. While this town government while
of colored threads woven fields. In architecture, the right is a tartan grid derived Gothenburg (Sweden) Town reductive approach was maintaining a staid symmetry
together in perpendicular “tartan grid” is a term used from the “MacGregor of Hall, completed in 1937, Erik considered scandalous at the for the original structure and,
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
warp and weft patterns of to describe a similarly Cardney” tartan shown on Gunnar Asplund constructed time, it has proven very at the same time, providing a
varying dimensions, variegated grid comprising the left. a version of the underlying successful in asserting its consistent surface for one
organizational grid that presence as a functionally edge of a major public square.
In one sense, a grid is the ultimate abstrac- Additionally, a grid can be generated from a
tion, most evident in its ability to legislate distortion of an orthogonal grid, warping a
an order without being fully present; in pattern so as to imply a directional inflection,
another sense, it is one of architecture’s most an adjustment to an irregular site boundary,
substantive mechanisms of comprehension. the accommodation of an irregular insertion
In the end, a grid is the stage on which (such as a theater volume), or even an
something might happen. Grids exist in attempt to develop an exaggerated depth or
anticipation of an “event” that is then shallowness by means of false perspective.
quantified and identified by its occupation
within the gridded system. Proportions
The selection of a grid’s increment is perhaps
Rhythm the clearest way in which to develop a
While structural grids are the most common, proportioning system that can permeate a
grids can be composed of circulation paths, building’s design, unifying its parts with its
service elements (like plumbing or lighting whole. A grid might be based on specific
systems), systems of furnishing (such as dimensions (such as those of a standard
library shelves or auditorium seating), or human body, of a regularized work space, or
even daylighting elements (including of the predominant grid in a neighboring
skylights or windows). structure), or on proportional relationships
that are independent of scale (as with
The proportions of the belief that the human body is
human body have been a shaped in the image of God, Often, a grid may consist of more than one proportions derived from string lengths in
frequent template for the which would suggest that increment, as in the case of tartan grids, with the production of musical chords).
disposition of grids, even proportions derived from the
their counterpoint of major and minor bays.
when not at human scale, as body would transfer upon a
in this sketch for a church building a divine and Such complex grids can also be understood Regulating lines have been an important
design by Francesco di therefore beautiful harmony as an overlap of grids, with a consequent aspect of architectural aesthetics since
Giorgio Martini (c. 1492). and coherence.
compounding of rhythms, hierarchies, and ancient times. Such lines are based on the
This often follows from the
programmatic attributes. characteristics of similar triangles—those
sharing identical angles, regardless of the
In his Vers une architecture of Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland
1928, Le Corbusier dedicates (1916). The repetition of
a chapter to the importance angle A (and its complemen-
of regulating lines, which he tary angle) across the
considers to be “an inevitable elevations provides the villa
element of architecture” and with an intrinsically harmonic
a “basis of construction and a proportioning system
satisfaction.” He illustrates whereby the proportion of
this chapter with numerous the elevation’s central block
buildings of historical is present throughout the
importance, among which he various subdivisions and
locates several of his own, fenestration elements.
such as the Villa Schwob in La
22
Grid
lengths of their sides. Such triangles will
always share proportional relationships
among their sides, so that the use of
regulating lines in architectural design lends
a consistent proportion to the entirety of the
structure. For this reason, regulating lines
are considered an effective technique for
guaranteeing harmonic proportions
throughout a building, from elevations to
sections to plans, with regulating lines
often providing the basis for variations and
subdivisions within the fundamental grids.
From the Renaissance onward, there was a
distinct relationship between the use of such
lines and the construction of linear perspec-
tives, where similar rectangles would be used
to imply the recession of a figure in depth.
Le Corbusier’s Modulor 2 use of these proportions with diverse utopian aspirations, including artists for over 2500 years. Golden ratios
proportioning system begins throughout a building would the idealization and optimization of various and their rectangles have a capacity for
with the height of a 6-foot assure a harmony of the parts
(1.83 m) person—the ideal and a sense of human scale spiritual, cultural, aesthetic, material, health, continuous regeneration and subdivision,
English detective hero, as well as to foster the and environmental goals, have found their and can be found throughout nature, from
according to Le Corbusier— development of potential paths most frequently plotted through nautilus shells to the length of our finger
with an uplifted arm at 7 feet, standards for building
5 inches (2.26 m), subjecting materials and fixtures. It is geometry. bones, and it forms the basis for many
the increments to subdivision here imprinted on his Unité investigations into five-fold symmetry
by means of a Fibonacci d’habitation in Marseille, For thousands of years, most architecture has (important in pattern theories). Perhaps
series. His belief was that the France, of 1947-52.
been composed of cubes, cylinders, spheres, because of its ubiquitousness, artists and
cones, and pyramids. Perhaps more than the architects have long considered the golden
development of new materials, new represen- rectangle to be one of the most visually
tational techniques eventually accompanied pleasing geometric figures.
by new skills in fabrication have caused
architectural form to develop more elaborate The golden ratio is closely approximated by
geometries. Guilds of medieval stonemasons the more finite Fibonacci series—1, 1, 2, 3, 5,
sharpened their skills as cathedrals reached 8, 13, and so on—which approaches the
higher. In the Renaissance, linear perspective golden ratio of 1:⌽ (1.6) as it progresses.
expanded techniques for the study of The Fibonacci series forms the basis for
descriptive geometry. Later, in the baroque, Le Corbusier’s Modulor proportion system
geometries merged and warped as stereo- as well as numerous theories of plant and
tomic techniques were perfected and animal growth.
craftsmen developed skills in turning wood
and ivory on lathes in fabricating exception- Religious and governmental architecture
In Jan Blažej Santini’s cally appear in every aspect
exuberant Church of St John of the building complex, ally complex objects. has frequently employed geometries for
of Nepomuk at Zelená hora in often combined with the their symbolic significance, with equilateral
Žd’ár nad Sázavou (Czech figure of a tongue, relating
Numbers triangles, squares, pentagons, hexagons,
Republic, 1721), the numbers to the legend of St. John’s
five and three—which figure martyrdom upon his reputed Perhaps the most pervasive and persistent and so on being used in plan, elevation,
prominently in the saint’s refusal to break the silence geometries are those based on the golden and volumetrically in order to emphasize
hagiography as well as of the confessional.
ratio. Known since the time of Pythagoras, the liturgical or historical importance of
Christian theology—symboli-
this ratio has fascinated mathematicians and certain numbers.
Descriptive Geometry
Every architect can benefit from an under-
standing of the fundamentals of descriptive
geometry (also called “applied” or “construc-
tive” geometry). Not only is the ability to
represent three-dimensional forms two
dimensionally a necessity for representing
and communicating basic ideas, but it is also
an essential aspect of understanding both the
genuine and illusionistic aspects of architec-
tural space, for calculating the actual surface
areas and volumes being described, and
for describing the potential fabrication of
forms to others.
require it to be understood as a polyhedron central to constructive solid geometry (CSG) etries can approximate highly irregular and
that approaches an infinite number of sides, a techniques of modeling solids. even organic figures. Nonhierarchical meshes
hosohedron composed of lunes, or a circle can be subjected to specific metrics—by
rotating about one of its diameters. The Also, the use of parametrics in design has means of Voronoi diagrams or Delaunay
version of the sphere to which one subscribes become a significant tool in the designer’s triangulations—in order to achieve more
directly affects the transformations to which repertoire, influencing every scale and aspect regulated surfaces and masses. These
192
the sphere can be subjected. of design, especially in academic settings. techniques are especially important in the
Parametrics, at its most fundamental, development of responsive surfaces.
Complexities involves the use of a set of parameters or
193
The combination of forms through Boolean limits—such as networks of circulation, In these instances, the geometric complexi-
operations—merging positive forms (solids), patterns of congregation, or measures of ties often prohibit nondigital methods of
positive and negative (subtractive) forms daylight—as a means for exploring a range three-dimensional modeling.
or more complex combinations resulting in of geometries through multiplication,
the systematic addition or subtraction of distortion, transformation, or all three. The challenge is for parametrics, useful for
overlapped forms—is one aspect of design developing tantalizing formal abstractions,
that has become vastly facilitated by digital Various meshes can also be introduced, to transcend predictable outputs based on
representation. Such Boolean operations are whereby an aggregation of surface geom- predetermined inputs. A continuous reevalua-
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
It is often assumed that there Line Array project (2010) from columns to beams and
is a singular relationship proposes the use of from tensile to compressive.
between the geometry of protocell-based materials in These materials are composed
a structure and the mater- the construction of an of cells capable of gathering
ials of its construction. asymmetrical, highly variable or dispersing at the nanoscale
San Francisco–based structure with irregular spans, in response to requirements
IwamotoScott Architecture’s loads, and that even change at the macroscale.
In this project by James tion of the initial and evolving parameters organization through constant adaptation.
Pelletier, a simple repertoire
is critical to its instrumentality. And for Many architects argue for an architectural
of forms—teardrops, wedges,
and tubes—is distorted, meshed surfaces, which tend to solidify their version of this biological epistasis in which
multiplied, rescaled, and “responses” to the designer’s input during variation occurs well beyond the onset of a
treated alternately as solids
the design process, to become actively building’s design, even throughout the life of
and voids, and then used as
the geometric primitives responsive during the life of a construction. the building. The configurations of spaces
for the simultaneous might change as the users age, with changes
development of both a
Variability in family dynamics, with altered economic
complex architecture and
the manipulation of its site. Genuinely responsive surfaces and objects— situations, or with seasonal and long-term
Such modeling would be those that morphologically alter throughout climatic changes.
impossible using exclusively
the life of a structure—are beginning to
analog tools. (Critics: Andrew
Batay-Csorba, Thom Mayne, appear as new materials and techniques are Similarly, concepts of self-organization—
and Val Warke; Cornell being developed, often through convergent whereby a system finds its own optimized
University)
technologies and disciplinary hybridization. structure, often with very little predictabil-
ity—seem to more fully duplicate natural
One of the issues facing architecture is the human settlement patterns. Self-organization
extent to which variation and variability enter may prove quite valuable at developing
the process, and for how long they persist large-scale organizations.
within the work. In biology, a homogeneous
system, determined by genetics, is often Networks
transformed into a heterogeneous system Today, there can be a direct, instantaneous
by its immediate contexts, deforming a connection between design, two-dimensional
predetermined and undifferentiated digital modeling, rendering, and three-
23
Geometry
The sinuous geometries of BIM management company dimensional modeling, so the designer has of being shared among architects, project
Trahan Architects’ Louisiana Case, making it possible to
immediate access to a vast array of consultants, fabricators, and contractors,
Sports Hall of Fame Museum carve a path directly from
in Natchitoches, LA, USA design to fabrication. The representations and viewpoints for exploring whereby changes made to one element
(2011), would have been interior is shaped by over the qualities of a design. instantly affect changes in related areas.
virtually impossible to con- 1,000 individually cast stone
struct a decade ago. The close panels supported by an equally
digital collaboration, begin- individualized steel framework It is becoming increasingly necessary for the Graphic programs have fostered an
ning with the architects’ with thirty connection types, designer to utilize and combine numerous ability to generate forms that are imaginable
three-dimensional documents, all digitally programmed
software systems during each phase of the only through digital processes. As these
included steel consultants through a combination of ten
David Kufferman and Method software packages. design process, especially as the information programs become more available for
Design, and fabrication and involved in producing the representation of adaptations and modifications through
a design can also be used to investigate scripting, designers begin to require a keen
multiple facets of that design. Digital models knowledge and skepticism of available data
can be used to evaluate a work’s environmen- sources, with input needing careful ranking
tal relationships (such as solar orientation, and traceable algorithms so that portions
194
heat loss or gain, and various comfort of the process can be edited or redirected
criteria), material usages (including types and upon evaluation of the output. Such
amounts), contextual aspects (shadows cast, evaluation will require the development of
195
view corridors, public accessibility), and even effective skills and tools. While the digital
legal compliance (zoning or other codes). realm will provide real-time data as a design
evolves, the designer will still need to
Additionally, building information modeling select and prioritize the data, humanize its
(BIM) has become a contemporary version of conclusions, and assess esthetic qualities.
stereotomy, with digital representations—even
during the earliest stages of a design—capable
Aspects of fabrication—the equipment,
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
DIGITAL FABRICATION
Digital fabrication generates form directly
from computer drawings, enabling increas-
ingly complex forms to be constructed.
Designs and details are developed using
specific computer software that is compat-
ible with various types of fabrication
machinery. These drawings are then
transmitted to machines that subsequently
fabricate the forms. This fabrication can
occur at multiple scales and with extremely
precise detail and dimensional tolerances.
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201
An architecture of prefabrication is often
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
Studio Ensamble’s 2007 The beams are brought to the John Entenza, the editor of duplication and in no sense specific site, was constructed
Music Tower for Berklee site and stacked into place, Arts and Architecture, wrote be an individual performer.” of standardized steel and
School of Music in Valencia, producing a dense structural in the 1945 announcement of Pierre Koenig’s 1959–60 glass components that could
Spain, proposes a system of skin that both supports its the magazine’s case study Case Study House #22 is an be recombined and deployed
prestressed concrete beams, interior floors and allows house program, “The house example of a project that, on a very different—and less
of the scale and profile more for cantilevers that create must be capable of while designed for a very extreme—site.
typically associated with enormous voids of suspended
infrastructural projects (such exterior piazzas.
as bridges and overpasses).
that can be repeatedly (mass-) produced or Standardization The scale of “standardized” components can
it can appropriate existing already-made In his foreword to the 2008 MoMA range from a brick, a plywood panel, a 2-inch
components that have not necessarily been exhibition catalog Home Delivery: Fabricating x 4-inch (5 x 10 cm) wood stud or a steel
fabricated explicitly for architecture. A the Modern Dwelling (page 7), museum beam, to a room or even an entire building.
prefabricated architecture is one that is often director Glenn Lowry writes that “mass All depend on repetition, expansion or
conceived as a mobile architecture, one that customization [will] trump mass standard- aggregation to construct something larger
can either be moved or reassembled, or one ization.” And while, certainly, there is a than itself. It is a unit of measure that is
that touches lightly on the land, minimally paradigm shift under way concerning the embedded in the material (or space, or
disturbing the context to which it has been definition of standardization in light of process) that not only facilitates duplication
brought. Technological experimentation and emerging digital technologies, where the but also brings a form of logic to the
ease of assembly are often motivated by a production of identical parts is no longer constructive process.
site’s remoteness or difficulty of access, a a prerequisite for the efficiencies typically
need to quickly expedite shelter in a time of associated with standardization, optimization
crisis, or the ability to incrementally expand (as defined by the speed of production,
over time through accretion of additional minimum waste, and reproducibility) remains
modules or assemblies. one of its most identifiable characteristics.
25
Prefabricated 1.00 m (l) x tects Jose Maria Saez and
0.20 m (h) x 0.28 m (w) David Barragan conceived a
(1.09 yd x 8 in x 11 in) universal system where each
Prefabrication
concrete troughs are stacked prefabricated module can
to construct the primary serve alternately as planter,
bearing and space-defining storage unit, or bookshelf,
walls of the 2006 Casa while wooden planks slipped
Pentimento in La Morita, between each course serve
Quito, Ecuador. The archi- as stair, table, or chair.
(B)
(E)
(A)
(C)
(D)
Large trucks transported the capsules 280 from two concrete cores. individually bolted to the
process (A).
miles from the assembly plant to the outskirts While these cores are built concrete core—they were
The service risers were, in fact, exterior fins of Tokyo where they were individually loaded on-site and contain the designed to be replaced every
building’s main infrastruc- twenty-five years.
on the lift shafts, eventually concealed by the onto smaller trucks (D).
attached capsules (B).
The capsules were lifted by crane and bolted
The capsules were prefabricated in a shipping to the lift core with four high-tension bolts,
container factory. They are welded, lightweight, and all were attached within thirty days (E).
steel truss boxes clad with galvanized ribbed
Sitelessness
Prefabrication often begins with a specific
set of performance criteria that leads to an
idealized solution. While usually developed
independent of a specific physical site, the
manner in which a prefabricated project is
transported to a site, the way in which the
work is eventually situated on a site, and how
it might engage a site’s environmental and
programmatic factors can have an enormous
impact on the initial design parameters. This
expanded context for a prefabricated work
suggest that there be a certain adaptability
built into the work, that it have embedded
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
25
ability and recycling.
Prefabrication
Yona Friedman’s (Untitled)
Bridge proposes a spatial
infrastructure that has the
ability to undergo infinite
incremental change through
the multiplication and
densification of the basic
component units that
populate its megastructure.
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207
Presentation drawings are intended to
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
the critical characteristics, of the work. And a particular reading of the work that is
while it often documents a work whose most important to be communicated to a
intention is to be materialized, it can also particular audience.
present a body of speculative ideas—in other
words, it can be an end in and of itself. Documentary
Presentation drawings and models can be
Audience documentary and serve to explain, to
A presentation takes into consideration its demonstrate, the project. They are intended
audience or the context within which the to stand in for the form and the experience
presentation will be read and understood. of an eventual, constructed work. For
An architectural competition jury is distinct example, a perspective might demonstrate
from a fund-raiser, which is distinct from a to a client the experience of what it’s like to
client presentation, which is distinct from occupy the building or what will be seen
a museum exhibition. Each forum has unique through the architectural lens of the
criteria through which the work will be building’s skin. Or a site model might show
Hugh Ferris’s delineations that emphasized the
considered, criteria through which the the building’s mass and scale in the context
advertised the buildings to building’s mass, light, and architectural concept must be framed. of its surrounding context—how tall or how
the consumers for whom they shadow with very little The presentation will inevitably amplify bulky it is in relation to its neighbors.
were intended. This 1929 attention to detail, the
moody nighttime image of drawing intentionally
the Chanin Building in New presents a building full of (continued on page 213)
York City designed by Sloan mystery, waiting to be
& Robertson was a real estate inhabited—the luminous star
marketing tool. A silhouette emerging from the city below.
The Projections of Zaha Hadid
technique deployed—perspectival drawing opened up an unsettling gap, exemplified entire parking surface is rendered as a
and oblique projection. The Peak and Hong early in her career by the controversy over large canvas, presenting the systems of the
Kong were cast in representational capitula- the Cardiff Bay Opera House: Her winning transportation hub to the user. In Zaha
tion with the logic of her design, as if the presentation was never built, doomed by Hadid’s recent work, the development of
city would be entirely remade through the misperceptions regarding the capacity of digital technologies has enabled the visu-
lens of the competition presentation. the drawings and images to be realized. alization and subsequent construction of
complex spatial conditions. Yet, as presen-
Zaha Hadid’s presentation drawings and These early paintings and drawings prefig- tation succumbs to the seduction of
models become complicit in the exploration ured her future built works. While the Vitra photorealism, it paradoxically erases the
of their architectural ideas. Her work is not Fire Station and IBA Housing demonstrate tension once held in her earlier presenta-
simply illustrated through perspective, but the constructive ambitions of her early tions: that of a didactic tool for imagining
it is spatially transformed by perspectival perspectival drawings, the Hoenheim-Nord what we are about to experience.
presentation, conflating the design with its Terminus and Car Park convincingly merge
presentation. By pursuing the explorative presentation with the final project. Oblique —David J. Lewis (LTL Architects; Parsons,
potential of presentation over the tectonics angles of the building solidify in concrete the New School for Design)
of building, Zaha Hadid’s work has often the explorations of drawings, while the
Evocative Media
A presentation can be more conceptual and The media of presentation serves to reinforce
suggest an intention of a potential work, an the architectural concept. While collaged
evocative image that envisions a future world material will often carry with it the meanings
or what architecture could possibly be. In the and textures embedded in the fragments that
hands of architects like Giovanni Battista are appropriated into the collage, it is the
Piranesi or Lebbeus Woods, these drawings process of overlaying multiple “voices” in the
and models can take the form of an architec- presentation (styles, materials, and scales)
tural manifesto—a speculative position that that can reinforce an architectural dialogue
encourages debate and often critiques the fundamental to the concept being presented.
contemporary views on architecture and the Video animations or “walk-throughs” place the
26
city, imagining a world free of the material, audience within the work but can also present
structural, and political conventions with a temporal experience that was critical to the
which architecture is bound. Their strength development of the architectural idea. While
often lies in their ambiguity and their ability computer-generated images can introduce an
Presentation
to suggest rather than explain. uncanny reality, they can demonstrate with
great precision and detail the responsive and
often environmentally interactive dimension
that informs the final forms and geometries.
Alexander Brodsky and Ilya brink of the abyss. Here,
Utkin’s 1987 competition- the drawing operates as
entry drawing, entitled simultaneous metaphor and
Bridge over a Precipice in the critique of a relentlessly
High Mountains, constructs a banal state of contemporary
magical glass chapel architectural production
impossibly teetering on the and thought in Russia.
Archigram argued for the contemporary society. The technologies that might
cultural aspect of building by collages that they produced invigorate a banal suburban
placing it within the context to envision this new world landscape. The convincingly
of what was occurring in the were populated with people invented “existing” suburb is
sixties and seventies. They imported from contemporary populated with background
212
were producing structures and popular magazines. Ron drawings of amusement park
that would often require Herron’s Tuned Suburb structures and foregrounded
collage, produced for the 1968 Superstudio’s 1969 photo- reinforces a visionary
technologies that did not yet with collaged figures of
Milan Biennale, proposed a montage “The Continuous scenario of a distinct
exist, arguing them within everyday life.
Monument: An Architectural world defined by its
213
Buildings and cities are alternative view, a city of urban form and instead motion diagrams, together,
intrinsically static, bound by relationships between spaces borrow freely from filmic construct urban storyboards
material and by gravity. Yet and their use, between form conventions such as the jump that fuse the physical with
the drawings of Bernard and program. The drawings cut, the montage, and the the ephemeral, the
Tschumi’s 1976–81 Manhattan leave behind more singular splice. Here, photographs, permanent with the fleeting.
Transcript project present an representations of space and architectural drawings, and
26
Presentation
C. J. Lim’s collage drawings underground transportation
construct visual narratives— system into a floating
dreamlike landscapes that infrastructural network—
intertwine the real and the a “sky-river” for both
fictional through hybridized commuters and recreational
drawings and models. In his enthusiasts alike. Ink
proposal for a Sky Transport drawings serve as context for
for London, he pays homage pop-up paper models that
to the cartoonist Heath reinforce the dialogue between
Robinson’s “crazy contrap- the real and the imagined,
tions.” Here, he lifts and the familiar and the strange.
transforms London’s Battersea, London, UK, 2007
214
215
most public visage; buildings can have more building) composed of large masonry blocks
axonometric a constructed drawing on the than one façade, especially if they front on with a rugged texture and rough joinery; or
oblique in which a plan view is kept multiple venues. alluding to such a surface
undistorted, and vertical surfaces are
projected upward or downward. familiarization a process whereby section an architectural drawing that reveals
something that is unknown is represented in what can be understood when an imaginary
brise soleil a “sun-breaker,” is a device— terms of one or more things that are known vertical slice is taken through a building,
usually appended to a structure—intended garden, or city, usually suggesting the
to control the penetration of sunlight. loggia an open, exterior gallery, usually at vertical relationship of spaces
ground level, through which people might
chiaroscuro the relationship between light circulate scale a relationship of size between one
and dark, generally established through entity and another; in architecture, human
contrast membrane a thin structure or layer that scale refers to the relationship between a
separates two conditions of differing spatial body's dimensions and range of motions and
context the situations—formal, temporal, characteristics, functions, temperatures, and the architecture designed to specifically
climatic, and so on—in which a building finds humidity accommodate these dimensions
itself, and that will inevitably affect its
perception mimetic exhibiting a characteristic that site the physical location in which a building
resembles in some manner the characteristic is to be located, possibly including those
cornice a horizontal projection, often of another entity nearby features that shape its views,
emphasizing the top of a building, the upper approach, and configuration
boundary of a segment of a façade, or the perspective a simulated three-dimensional
ceiling of a room view, generally constructed from a specific space a definable volume of emptiness that
vantage point along a horizon, with one or can be occupied, or that otherwise estab-
defamiliarization the process of construing more vanishing points toward which surfaces lishes the range across which an observer
something that is normally very familiar to be appear to converge perceives enclosure
something unfamiliar in order to promote
new observations or fresh understandings pilaster a rectilinear suggestion of a column, trope an aspect of language in which
usually emerging from the surface of a wall; something is used to stand in for something
dialogical participating in a discursive occasionally used to refer to a half column, else with which it has some association
exchange, whereby meaning is expanded, which is semicircular in plan as it engages a wall
exchanged, and renewed through the void an indefinite emptiness
engagement of one or more other voices or plan an architectural drawing that represents
artifacts; the opposite of monological, in the parts of a building, a complex of
which only a single voice can be perceived buildings, or a city, looking downward from a
horizontal slice generally taken at eye level
eclecticism the deliberate combination or (in building plans) or from an indefinite
merging of various styles, expressions, or position above a city or complex
doctrines
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Contributor Directory
3Gatti Code: Architecture Herzog & de Meuron Basel Ltd. MVRDV
3gatti.com code.no 129 (top & middle, left) herzogdemeuron.com mvrdv.nl
131 (bottom, left & right) 31 (top, right) 177 (middle, left & right & bottom)
Cornell University, Department of
David Adjaye Associates Architecture Steven Holl Architects Nacasa & Partners Inc.
adjaye.com aap.cornell.edu/academics/architec- stevenholl.com nacasa.co.jp
97 (top, left & right) ture, 15–17 20; 35 (middle) 23 (middle & bottom)
Alejandro Aravena Arcuitecto Decker Yeadon LLC Höweler + Yoon Architecture Netherlands Architecture Institute
alejandroaravena.com deckeryeadon.com hyarchitecture.com nai.nl, 167
70 (middle, right); 163 96 (top, right, middle & bottom) 123 (middle)
Ben Nicholson, 214 (top)
Allied Works Architecture Diller Scofidio + Renfro Iñaqui Carnicero Architecture
alliedworks.com dsrny.com, 31 (bottom); 159 Office Paulo David Arquitecto Lda
25 (bottom, left & right) inaquicarnicero.com 171 (bottom, left)
dosmasunoarquitectos 152 (bottom, left)
Amateur Architecture Studio dosmasunoarquitectos.com Pezo von Ellrichshausen/
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
chinese-architects.com/amateur 166 (bottom, right) IwamotoScott Architecture Mauricio Pezo & Sofia von
66 (top) iwamotoscott.com pezo.cl, 70 (middle, left)
Eisenman Architects 194 (right)
Anathenaeum of Philadelphia eisenmanarchitects.com Eugenius Pradipto
philaathenaeum.org, 184 (top) 53 (middle); 187 (bottom) Jakob & MacFarlane Architects designboom.com
jakobmacfarlane.com 97 (bottom)
Archigram Ensamble Studio 87 (top, right)
archigram.net, 213 (bottom, left) ensamble.info Preston Scott Cohen, Inc.
74 (top, left); 99 (middle & bottom); Jarmund/Vigsnæs AS Arkitekter pscohen.com, 35 (bottom)
Architekturbüro Ernst Giselbrecht 198 (middle, bottom, left & right); MNAL
giselbrecht.at 204 (top, left) jva.no Richard Nickel Archive, Ryerson and
152 (top & middle, left & right & 23 (top, right) Burnham Archives, The Art Institute
bottom, right) EPIPHYTE Lab of Chicago
epiphyte-lab.com, 62 (top) José María Sánchez Architects artic.edu, 171 (top)
Archivo Histórico José Vial jmsg.es
Armstrong The Estate of R. Buckminster Fuller 169 (bottom) Ronald Feldman Fine Arts, Inc.
Escuela de Arquitectura y Diseño, buckminsterfuller.net, 191 (left) feldmangallery.com
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Kennedy & Violich Architecture 213 (top)
Valparaíso Fondation Le Corbusier kvarch.net
ead.pucv.cl, 198 (top) fondationlecorbusier.fr 96 (top & bottom, left) Royal Institute of British Architects
126; 147 (bottom); 187 (top) Library Books & Periodicals Collection
Diego Arraigada Arquitectos Labics architecture.com
diegoarraigada.com Fondazione Aldo Rossi labics.it, 130 (bottom) 113 (bottom); 192 (bottom)
53 (bottom, right) fondazionealdorossi.org
10; 35 (top, left); 110 Louis I. Kahn Collection, The Jenny Sabin
ARX Portugal Arquitectos University of Pennsylvania and jennysabin.com, 61 (top, left); 201
arx.pt, 24 Fondazione Il Girasole the Pennsylvania Historical and
61 (bottom) Museum Commission Shigeru Ban Architects
Atelier Bow Wow design.upenn.edu, 175 (bottom); 176 shigerubanarchitects.com, 75; 76
bow-wow.jp, 57 (top) Foreign Office Architects
61 (top, right) LTL Architects SHoP Architects
Barkow Leibinger ltlarchitects.com shoparc.com
barkowleibinger.com, 85–86 The Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation 35 (top, right) 163 (top & middle); 200 (bottom)
Archives, Avery Architectural &
Beinecke Rare Book & Fine Arts Library, Machado and Silvetti Associates Simón Véles/DeBoer Architects
Manuscript Library, Yale University Columbia University machado-silvetti.com, 13 (top) deboerarchitects.com, 97 (middle)
beinecke.library.yale.edu franklloydwright.org/about/Archives
129 (bottom) 210 (middle) Massimiliano Fuksas Architetto Spaceshift Studio
fuksas.it, 71 (top, right) spaceshiftstudio.com, 199 (bottom)
Bibliothèque nationale de France Carlo Fumarola Architekt ETH
bnf.fr, 141 (bottom) crola.ch, 92 (top) Matsys Studio 8 Architects
matsysdesign.com, 215 (bottom) studio8architects.com, 215 (top)
Bjarke Ingels Group Fundación Anala y Armando
big.dk Planchart Richard Meier & Partners Studio Granda
154 (top, left & right); 210 (top) fundacionplanchart.com Architects LLP studiogranda.is, 54 (top, right); 159
34 (bottom, left) richardmeier.com, 14; 127 (top)
Mario Botta Architetto Trahan Architects
botta.ch Gigon/Guyer Architekten Metro Arquitetos Associados trahanarchitects.com, 195
128 (middle, top & middle, bottom) gigon-guyer.ch metroo.com.br, 68
129 (top, right, middle & middle, Bernard Tschumi Architects
Alexander Brodsky, 42; 213 (top) right) Morger Degelo Kerez Architekten tschumi.com
94 (top, right) 155 (top, left); 169 (top, left & right);
Canadian Centre for Architecture Grafton Architects 214 (bottom)
cca.qc.ca, 162 (bottom) graftonarchitects.ie Morphosis Architects
70 (top, right) morphosis.com, 29; 30 UNStudio
Centraal Museum, Utrecht unstudio.com
111 (bottom, left) Guerilla Office Architects Musées de Strasbourg 32 (top); 55 (top, right); 193
g-o-a.be, 166 (top) musees.strasbourg.eu, 122 (middle)
Chicago History Museum Zaha Hadid Architects
chicagohistory.org 183 (top) Michael Hansmeyer The Museum of Modern Art zaha-hadid.com
michael-hansmeyer.com moma.org 25 (top, left & right, middle);
CODA 200 (top) 31 (top, left); 63; 122 (bottom); 130 (top, left); 211; 212
co-da.eu 63 (bottom, left) 168; 213 (bottom, right)
Photographer Credits
Photographs courtesy of the authors with the excep- ©Courtesy of Ensamble Studio/ensamble.info, Taleen Josefsson, 185 (top), Deuk Soo Jung, 47,
tion of the following: 99 (middle & bottom); 198 (middle, bottom, left Tad Juscyzk, 115 (top, left), Drawing: Mia Kang,
& right); 204 (top, left), Courtesy of EPIPHYTE 153 (top, right), Aya Karpinsk, 103 (bottom, left),
Courtesy of 3Gatti, 131 (bottom, left & right), Lab, 62 (top), Jonathan Esslinger, 163 (bottom, Emil Kaufmann, “Three Revolutionary Architects”
Travis J. Aberle, 120 (middle, right), Courtesy left), The Estate of R. Buckminster Fuller, 191 in Transactions of the American Philosophical
of Allied Works Architecture, 25 (bottom, left (left), Marloes Faber, 10 (top, right), Courtesy of Society, Vol. 42, Part 3, p. 545, 1952, 141 (bottom),
& right), Luís Ferreira Alves, 170 (top), ©Pirak Per Olaf Fjeld, reproduced from Sverre Fehn: The Ros Kavanagh, 70 (top, right), Joseph Kennedy,
Anurakyawachon/Spaceshift Studio, 199 (bottom), Pattern of Thoughts, 22 (top, left & middle), Fon- 135 (bottom), ©Kennedy & Violich Architecture/
Archivo Histórico José Vial Armstrong Escuela de dation Le Corbusier, 126; 147 (bottom); 187 (top), kvarch.net, 96 (top & bottom, left), Yongkwan Kim,
Arquitectura y Diseño, PUCV, 198 (top), Gianluca Fondazione Il Girasole/Angelo e Lina Invernizzi, 199 (top, left), Florestan Korp, 160 (middle & bot-
Aresta, ITS LAB—I Think Sustainable Laboratory, 61 (bottom), Foreign Office Architects, 61 (top, tom, left & right), Andrew Kovacs, 39, ©Yoshinori
71 (middle, left), ©Pétur H. Ármannsson, 110 right), ©David Franck, 32 (bottom), The Frank Kuwahara, 148 (top), Natalie Kwee, 33 (bottom),
(middle); 161 (top), Anna Armstrong, 119 (middle, Lloyd Wright Foundation Archives (The Museum Labics, 130 (bottom), Ryan Lancaster, 115 (top,
left), ©Arnauld Duboys Fresney Photographe, 160 of Modern Art/Avery Architectural & Fine Arts right), ©Andreas Lechtape, 121 (right), James
(top, left), ARX Portugal Arquitectos, 24, Atelier Library, Columbia University, New York), 210 Leftwich, 111 (top), Paul Lewis, Marc Tsurumaki,
Bow Wow, 57 (top), Peter Bardell, 123 (top, left), (middle), Frederick C. Robie Residence, Chicago, David Lewis, Alex Terzick, 35 (top, right), Licensed
Barkow Leibinger, 85, David Barragan, 205 (top IL, 1906-1909, Frank Lloyd Wright, architect. by SCALA/Art Resource, NY, 28 (left), ©C. J.
left, middle & right), Joaquim Barros, 146 (top, Richard Nickel Archive, Ryerson and Burnham Lim/Studio 8 Architects, 215 (top), Tiffany Lin, 66
right), Bednorz-Images, 182 (top, right), Courtesy Archives, The Art Institute of Chicago. Digital (bottom, left & right), Arwen O'Reilly Griffith, 43,
of Benjamin Benschneider, 18 (right), Bernard File #201006_120118-014 © The Art Institute of ©Jeff Lodin, 41, Lotus International 22, 1978, 142
Tschumi Architects, 155 (top, left); 169 (top, left & Chicago, 171 (top), Yona Friedman, 207 (bottom), (top), Louis I. Kahn Collection, The University of
right); 214 (bottom), Jordan Berta, 174 (top, left), Andrew Fu, Cornell University, B.Arch, 2014, 94 Pennsylvania and the Pennsylvania Historical and
©Hélène Binet, 212 (top, right), Courtesy of Bjarke (middle & bottom); 128 (bottom), Carlo Fumarola/ Museum Commission, 175 (bottom); 176, Lan-
Ingels Group (B.I.G.)/big.dk, 154 (top, left & right); crola.ch, 92 (top), Fundación Anala y Armando franco Luciani, 71 (top, left), Mark Lyon, 114 (bot-
210 (top), Cameron Blaylock/cameronblaylock- Planchart, 34 (bottom, left), Aurelio Galfetti & tom), Machado and Silvetti Associates, 13 (top),
photo.com, 115 (bottom), Ignacio Borrego, Néstor Flora Ruchat/Drawing: Anh K Tran, 170 (bottom), Massimiliano and Doriana Fuksas, Architects/
Montenegro, Lina Toro/dosmasuno arquitectos/ Genesis by David Adjaye for Design Miami, 2011, Photo: Moreno Maggi, 71 (top, right), Árni Sv.
Photo: Miguel de Guzmán, 166 (bottom, right), 97 (top, left & right), ©Gigon-Guyer Gigon/Guy- Mathiesen, 206 (left & right), ©2012 Matsys, 215
Courtesy of Mario Botta, Architetto/Photo: er Architekten/Photo: ©Henrik Helfenstein, 129 (bottom), Mitsuo Matuoka, 121 (middle), Creative
Alo Zanetta, 128 (middle, top), Mario Botta, (top, right, middle & middle, right), ©Giselbrecht, Commons, 142 (middle), ©Stephen McCathie 75
Architetto, 128 (middle, bottom), From Robin 152 (top & middle, left & right & bottom, right), (bottom), Ken McCown, 120 (top), Stefano Ab-
Boyd, Kenzo Tange, New York: Braziller, 1962, Paola Giunti, 143 (top, right), Eileen Gray Archive/ badessa Mercanti, 71 (bottom), José María Lavena
182 (bottom), Alexander Brodsky, 42, Burçin Photo: Eileen Gray, 153 (left, top & bottom), Juan Merino, 74 (top, right), Metro Arquitetos Associa-
YILDIRIM, 22 (top, right), Burnham Pavilion in David Grisales, 162 (top), Guerilla Office Archi- dos, 68, Enric Miralles and Carme Pinós, 28 (right),
Chicago’s Millennium Park, 2009, ©UNStudio, tects, 166 (top), Wojtek Gurak/bywojtek.net, 99 Leonard Mirin, 161 (bottom), Mobius House,
193 (bottom), Burnham Pavilion in Chicago’s (top); 130 (top, right), ©R. Halbe, 85 (middle), © 1995, UNStudio/© Christian Richters, 55 (bottom,
Millennium Park, 2009, UNStudio/©Christian 2013 Duyi Han, 69 (middle, left), William Harbison, right), Rafael Moneo, 134 (bottom, left), Photo by
Richters,193 (top), Chalmers Butterfield, 140 (top, 204 (bottom, left), ©Ron Herron of Archigram/ Michael Moran, 113 (top), Morger Degelo Kerez
left), Barnabas Calder, 175 (top), Canadian Centre Ron Herron Archive, 213 (bottom, left), Herman Architekten, 94 (top, right), Courtesy of Morpho-
for Architecture, 162 (bottom), Iñaqui Carnicero/I. Hertzberger, 13 (bottom), ©Herzog & de Meuron, sis Architects, 29; 30, ©Musées de Strasbourg/M.
Vila A. Viseda, 152 (bottom, left), ©Lluís Casals, 31 (top, right), Detail of drawing by Thomas Bertola, 122 (middle), ©The Museum of Modern
54 (top, left), Celtus, Creative Commons, 186 (top, Holme, Library of Congress, 184 (top), Courtesy Art/ Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY,
right), Centraal Museum, Utrecht, 11 (bottom, of Höweler + Yoon Architecture, 123 (middle), 31 (top, left); 122 (bottom); 168; 213 (bottom,
left), Evan Chakroff, 66 (top), Shu Chang, 136 Arthur Huang, Jarvis Liu/Miniwiz, Ltd., 63 (top), right), Courtesy of MVRDV, 177 (middle, right &
(left), Hong Ji Chen, 199 (top, right), Kimberley Li Kwan Ho Felita, 174 (bottom), Hugh Ferriss Ar- bottom), Courtesy of MVRDV/Photo: © Rob›t
Chew, 17, Chicago History Museum, 183 (top), chitectural Drawings and Papers Collection, Avery Hart, 177 (middle, left), Nacasa & Partners Inc., 23
Justin Chu, 15 (middle), Justin Clements, 69 (top, Drawings and Archives, Columbia University, 212 (middle & bottom), Leo T. Naegele, 148 (bottom),
left), Courtesy of CODA, 63 (bottom, left), Code: (bottom), FG+SG Architectural Photography, 53 Jonathan Dietrich Negron, 105 (top), Netherlands
Arkitektur AS, 128 (middle, left), Wayne Copper, (top), Figure from Architectural Space in Ancient Architecture Institute, 167, Ben Nicholson, 214
Cornell University, 50 (top, left), Cornell Univer- Greece by Constantinos A. Doxiadis, published (top), Courtesy of Nike, 201 (bottom), ©Allen
sity, Department of Architecture, 15 (bottom); by MIT Press, 102 (top), Leonard Finotti, 92 (bot- Nolan, 46, ©Nicole Nuñez, 86 (bottom), Victor
16, ©Conor Cotter, 75 (top), Nils Petter Dale, 23 tom), Thomas Flagg, 107 (top), flickr.com/photos/ Oddó, 70 (middle, right), Ken Ohyama, 158 (left),
(top, left), ©DeBoer Architects/Simón Vélez, 97 marinanina/2068310964, 111 (bottom, right), Ziver Olmez, 154 (middle), Courtesy of Orfeus
(middle), Courtesy of Dia Art Foundation/Photo: Courtesy of Kenneth Frampton, 69 (bottom), Publishing, reproduced from Sverre Fehn: Samlede
John Cliett, 149 (bottom), ©Didier Boy de la Tour, Flagellation of Christ, by Piero della Francesca, Arbeider, 21 (right); 23 (bottom), John Ostlund,
76 (top, right), ©Diego Arraigada Architects and collection Galleria Nazionale delle Marche, Urbino, 183 (bottom), Larisa Ovalles, 118 (top, left), Mia
Johnston Marklee, 53 (bottom, right), Digital scan Italy, (public domain), 105 (bottom), ©Gustavo Ovicina, 15 (top), Cristobal Palma, 70 (top, left),
from printed map (no copyright information, recto Frittegotto, 53 (middle, bottom), Photo: Masako ©Paulo David Arquitecto Lda, 171 (bottom, left),
or verso); printed in Denmark by Permild & Rosen- Fujinami, 154 (bottom), Carol M. Highsmith, This James Pelletier, 194 (left), Pier Luigi Nervi Project
gren c. 1957, in collection of Beinecke Rare Book is America! Library of Congress Collection, 77 Association, Brussels, 77 (top), From Giovanni
& Manuscript Library, Yale University, New Haven, (bottom), ©Eduard Hueber/archphoto.com, 95 Battista Piranesi, Le Carceri d’Invenzione, Rome,
218
CT., 129 (bottom), Courtesy of Diller Scofidio + (middle & bottom), In the public domain, 84 (top, 1761, (public domain), 120 (middle, left), Karel Polt,
Renfro, 31 (bottom), Drawings: Mikhail Grinwald, right); 102 (bottom); 185 (bottom, right); 186 (bot- 142 (bottom), Eduardo Ponce, 66 (middle, right),
34 (top); 94 (top, left), Drawing from Arabian tom); 190 (bottom), Donald Ingber, 191 (right), Neil Poole, 190 (top, left), ©Eugenius Pradipto,
Antiquities of Spain, by James Cavanagh Murphy, IwamotoScott Architecture, 194 (right), Joëlle Lisa 97 (bottom), ©Matthias Preisser/matthiaspreisser.
1816; reproduction by Kroch Library, Cornell Uni- Jahn, 131 (top), Jakob & MacFarlane Architects/R. ch, 94 (top, middle), Preston Scott Cohen, Inc.,
219
versity, 182 (top, left), Drawings: Anh K. Tran, 69 Borel Photography, 87 (top, right), Tadeuz Jalocha, 35 (bottom), Printing kept at the public library
(middle, right); 81 (bottom); 104 (right); 177 (top); 163 (bottom, left), Aris Jansons, 143 (bottom), of Varese. This reproduction was realized by the
178 (right); 179 (top & middle); 184 (bottom); Jarmund/Vigsnæs AS Arkitekter MNAL, 23 (top, Municipal Administration on the occasion of the
186 (top, middle), Ludovic Dusuzeau/Elementa, right), Xavier de Jauréguiberry, 123 (bottom), ceremony for the Unesco’s certificate registration
Tadeuz Jalocha, 163 (bottom, right), Courtesy of Mitchell Joachim, Maria Aiolova, Melanie Fessel, of the site., 55 (top, left), Private Collection, 10
Eisenman Architects, City of Culture of Galicia, Emily Johnson, Ian Slover, Phil, Weller, Zachary (top left), psmodcom.org, 206 (top, right), Wajeha
study model, 1999, 53 (middle), Courtesy of Eisen- Aders, Webb Allen, Niloufar Karimzadegan, 63 Qureshi, 115 (top, middle), Mahuqur Rahman/
man Architects, 187 (bottom), Courtesy of Pezo (bottom, right), José María Sánchez Architects, Arlington, Virginia, 134 (top)
von Ellrichshausen, 70 (middle, left) 169 (bottom)
Reproduced from Bernard Rudofsky’s Architecture fabbriche e i disegni di Andrea Palladio, Vicenza, Andrew Heumann, 33 (top, right), Team Leader:
without Architects, Wulf-Diether Graf zu Castell 1796; Kroch Library, Cornell University, (public Dana Cupkova/Design Team: Monica Alexandra
Munich/Reim, 56 (bottom), Reproduced from domain), 106 (right), From Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Freundt, Andrew Heumann, Daniel Quesada
Klaus Herdeg’s Formal Structure in Indian Architec- Sammlung architektonischer Entwürfe: enthaltend Lombo, Damon Wake, Consultant: William Jewell,
ture, (1967), 54 (bottom), Reproduced from Philib- 148 Kupfer-Tafeln mit erlauternden Text, Potsdam, Ph.D., 33 (top, left), ©Teatro Regio Torino/Photo
ert de l’Orme, Architecture de Philibert de l’Orme 1841–1843; Kroch Library, Cornell University, Ramella & Giannese, 143 (top, left), Mari Tefre/
...: Oeuvre entiere contenant onze liures, augmentée (public domain), 107 (bottom), Chris Schroeer- Global Crop Diversity Trust, 57 (bottom), Skylar
de deux …, Kroch Library, Cornell University, Heiermann, 199 (top, middle), Michael Schroeter, Tibbits, 153 (bottom), Janice Tostevin/jhtostevin@
(public domain), 192 (top, left & right), Reproduced 190 (top, middle), Scott Schultz, 66 (middle, ntlworld.com, 140 (bottom), Trahan Architects,
from Thomas L. Schumacher’s Surface and Symbol: left), ©Kyle Schumann, 50 (bottom), Michael 195, Anh K. Tran, 140 (top, right), Turismo FVG
Giuseppe Terragni and the Architecture of Italian Schwarting, 206 (top, left), Davide Secci, 149 ph Fabrice Gallina, 190 (top, right), Courtesy of
Rationalism, drawing #31, 34 (bottom, right), (top), Seier + Seier, 178 (left), Courtesy of Shigeru UNStudio, 32 (top); 55 (top, right), Omar Uran,
Reproduced from Spazio, Vol. 3, No. 6, December Ban Architects, 76 (left), Courtesy of Shigeru Ban, 159 (middle), Mauricio Vieto, 74 (bottom); 78;
1951–April 1952, 12, Reproduced from Spazio, Vol. Architects/Photo: ©Hiroyuki Hirai, (76 (bottom, 81 (top); 106 (left); 122 (top), From Visionary
7, December 1952–April 1953, 11; 104 (right), Cour- right), SHoP Architects, PC, 163 (top & middle); architects: Boullée, Ledoux, Lequeu, Catalogue of
tesy of Richard Meier & Partners Architects LLP, 200 (bottom), Sigurgeir Sigurjónsson, 159 (bot- an exhibition held at the University of St. Thomas,
14; 127 (top), ©Siobhan Rockcastle, 62 (bottom); tom, left), ©Petr Šmídek, 56 (top), ©Margherita 1968, (public domain), 141 (top, left), ©Rajesh
79, Courtesy of Ronald Feldman Fine Arts, New Spiluttini, 91; 95 (top), Courtesy of Steven Holl Vora, 60 (top), Jarle Wæhler, 129 (top, left),
York/feldmangallery.com, 213 (top), Richard Rosa, Architects, 20; 35 (middle), Still Life, c.1952 (oil on ©Michael Webb, 112 (top), Kathy Wesselman, 119
T H E L A N G UA G E O F A R C H I T E C T U R E
40, ©Corinne Rose, 86 (top, left & right), Aoife canvas), Morandi, Giorgio (1890–1964)/Private (top, left & right), Julian Weyer, 71 (middle, right),
Rosenmeyer, 112 (bottom), ©Eredi Aldo Rossi, 35 Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library, 119 (bot- Wikipedia, 38 (left); 69 (top, right); 192 (middle),
(top, left), Aurélien Le Rou, 141 (top, right), Royal tom), Francis Strauven, 45, Studio Granda, 54 (top, Allison Wills, 146 (left), Duncan Wilson, 128 (top),
Institute of British Architects Library Books & right), Subdivided Columns, Michael Hansmeyer, ©Decker Yeadon LLC/deckeryeadon.com, 96
Periodicals Collection, 113 (bottom); 192 (bottom), 2010, 200 (top), Mathew Sweets, 204 (bottom, (top, right, middle & bottom), ©2010 Sophie Ying
Andy Ryan, 120 (bottom), Jenny Sabin, 61 (top, right), Ida Tam, 159 (top); 182 (middle), Roland Su/sophienesss.com, 119 (middle, right); 204 (top,
left); 201 (top), Mikaela Samuelsson, 155 (top, Tännler, 207 (top), Photo: Taxiarchos228, 174 (top, right), Zaha Hadid Architects, 25 (top, left & right,
right), Saramago, Pedro/Mãe D’Água, Lisboa, Por- right), Team Leader: Dana Cupkova, Design Team: middle); 130 (top, left); 211; 212, Lisa Zhu, 147
tugal, 2012, 146 (bottom, right), Nathaniel Saslaf- Monica Alexandra Freundt, Andrew Heumann, (top), Giorgio Zucchiatti, 110 (bottom)
sky, 121 (left), From Ottavio Bertotti Scamozzi, Le Daniel Quesada Lombo, Damon Wake/Photo:
Index
Aalto, Alvar, 110, 177 de Beistegui Penthouse, 147 Carthage section, 34
Abierta, Ciudad, 198 Belvedere, 71 Casa da Musica (Portugal), 99
Acropolis, 78 Berkel, Ben van, 32, 55 Casa das Historias Paula Rego, 56
Adaptive Component Seminar (2009), 33 Berklee School of Music, 204 Casa Das Mudas, 171
Adler and Sullivan, 166 Berlin Chair, 111 Casa del Fascio, 34, 87
Adler House, 176 Bernini, Gian Lorenzo, 12 Casa del Popolo, 87
Agrarian Graduate School of Ponte de Lima, 137 Bete Giyorgis, 69 Casa Gilardi, 122
Allied and Arts Industries, 206 Bijvoet, Bernard, 114 Casa Girasole (Sunflower House), 61
Altes Museum, 107 Bissegger, Peter, 115 Casa Malaparte, 128
Aluminaire, 206 Blanc, Patrick, 149 Casa Pentimento, 205
analysis Boa Nova Tea House, 51 Casa Polli, 70
abstraction, 14–15 Bo Bardi, Lina, 71, 127 Case Study House #22, 204
coauthorship, 16 Bocconi University, 70 CAST, 199
components, 14 Bordeaux House, 39–40 Castelvecchio, 115
diagramming, 15 Bordeaux Law Courts, 140 Castle Hedingham, 13
intermediary devices, 15–17 Borromini, Francesco, 10, 12, 135 Castle of Prague, 137
interpretation, 15–17 Bos, Caroline, 32 Cenotaph for a Warrior, 141
precedent, 10, 13 Botta, Mario, 128 Center for the Advancement of Public Action, 50
project givens, 10 Boullée, Étienne-Louis, 141 Center for the Arab World, 123
Ando, Tadao, 121 Bourges, Romain de, 104 Centre Georges Pompidou, 131
Appliance House, 214 Braghieri, G., 35 Cha, Jae, 47
Arc de Triomphe, 38, 147 Brandhorst Museum, 121 Chanin Building, 210
Arch, B., 17 Brazilian Museum of Sculpture, 67 Chapel at MIT, 118
Arch of Augustus, 38 Bremerhaven 2000 competition, 85 Chapel of St. Ignatius, 119
Arp, Hans, 122 Brown Derby restaurants, 140 Chareau, Pierre, 69, 114
Arts Center (Portugal), 171 Brown, Frank, 175 Chemetoff, Alexandre, 160
Asplund, Erik Gunnar, 186 Bruder Klaus Field Chapel, 199 Chew, Kimberly, 17
Astaire, Fred, 142 Burgo Paper Factory, 77 Chicago Tribune office, 113
Astana National Library, 154 Burnham, Daniel, 193 Chiesa Nuova, 135
Atheneum, 127 Burnham Pavilion, 193 Chinati Foundation, 154
Auditorium Building (Chicago), 166 Burri, Alberto, 66 Chirico, Giorgio de, 10
Autodesk Inc., 153 Bus Rapid Transit system (Brazil), 162 Chrysalis III, 215
Automobile Museum (China), 131 Church of Santa Maria, 104
Café Aubette, 122 Church of St. George (Ethiopia), 69
Bacardi Rum bottling plant, 80 Caffé Pedrocchi, 136 Church of the Light (Japan), 121
Bagsværd Church, 178 Cais das Artes (Arts Quay), 68 Church of the Sacred Heart (Prague), 143
Bamboo Garden, 160 CaixaForum gallery, 149 City of Culture of Galicia, 53
Bandel, Hannskarl, 115 Calatrava, Santiago, 81 City of Refuge, 166
Barlindhaug Consult, 57 Camera Obscura, 200 concept
Barragan, David, 205 Campidoglio, 137 flexibility and, 20, 23
Barragán, Luis, 122 Candela, Felix, 80 ideas compared to, 20
Barrière du Trône, 142 Carabanchel housing project, 61 material models, 24
Batay-Csorba, Andrew, 194 Cardiff Bay Opera House, 212 overlays, 24
BCHO Architects, 199 Carnicero, Iñaqui, 152, 175–176 parti diagram, 24
Behnisch, Gunther, 74 Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts, 44 relief models, 24
Behrens, Peter, 183 Carré d’Art, 185 sketches, 23–25
thumbnail sketches, 23–24 environment grids
Congress Hall, 10 energy, 62 proportions, 186–187
context holistic view, 62 reference, 185–186
environmental context, 56–57 instrumentation, 60–62 rhythm, 186
ephemeral context, 54–56 materials, 62 tartan grid, 186
extreme variability, 56 passive instrumentation, 60 Guarini, Guarino, 104
historical, 56 recycled materials, 62 Guggenheim Museum, 128
infrastructural context, 53–54 remediation, 62 Gwangju Design Biennale, 200
layers, 53 responsive instrumentation, 60, 62
material, 50 static instrumentation, 60 Habitat ’67, 174
narrative, 55 sustainable environments, 62–63 Haesley Nine Bridges Golf Club House, 76
networks, 54 Epi-phyte Lab, 62 Hakozaki Interchange, 158
physical context, 50, 53 Erechtheion, 78 Hamar Bispegaard Museum, 98
scale, 50 e-Skin project, 61 Hangar 16 (Spain), 152
site, 53 Europa City, 210 Hanil Visitors Center & Guest House, 199
space, 53 Eyck, Aldo van, 45 Hannover Merzbau, 115
tradition, 55 Harris, Kerenza, 30
weather, 56 fabrication Hays, K. Michael, 183
Cortona, Pietro da, 105 craft, 199 Heatherwick Studio, 94
Cretto, 66 digital fabrication, 200 Hedmark Cathedral Museum, 22
Crown Hall, 183 Falling Water, 210 Hejduk, John, 167–168
Cruvellier, Mark, 79 Fehn, Sverre, 21–22, 98 Hemeroscopium, 74
Cupkova, Dana, 33 Fencing Academy (Rome), 11 Henan province, 56
Cushicle, 112 Ferris, Hugh, 210 Hendrix, Jimi, 140
Fiat automobile factory, 112 Herdeg, Klaus, 54
Dalbet, Louis, 114 Fibonacci series, 190 Herron, Ron, 213
Danish Design Center, 15 Fiorentino, Mario, 71 Hertzberger, Hermann, 13
datum Fleisher House, 176 Herzog, Jacques, 31, 41, 91–93, 95, 149, 174
axis, 170 Fong, Steven, 111 Heumann, A., 33
grid, 170 Formal Structure in Indian Architecture exhibi- Hoenheim-Nord Terminus and Car Park, 212
horizon, 170 tion, 54 Holl, Steven, 20, 35, 119–120
mass, 170 Forster, Kurt, 107 Holme, Thomas, 184
space, 169 forum of Pompeii, 179 Homeostatic Façade System, 96
surface, 166, 169 Fosse Ardeatine, 71 House II, 187
David, Paolo, 171 Foster, Norman, 154 House in Djerba, Tunisia, 13
Debord, Guy, 129 Francesca, Piero della, 105 House in Pound Ridge, 14
defamiliarization Frederick C. Robie House, 171 Hringbraut & Njardagata, 159
accident, 148 Freedom Trail, 158 HSBC building (Hong Kong), 154
appropriation, 147 Freitag, 207 Hutton, Sauerbruch, 121
decontextualization, 148 Freundt, M., 33
extension of awareness, 149 Frey, Albert, 206 IBA Housing, 212
operations, 147–148 Friedman, Yona, 207 Icelandic turf house, 60
poetics, 149 Füeg, Franz, 90 Ihida-Stansbury, Kaori, 61
reception, 148–149 Fuksas, Massimiliano, 71, 98 IIT, 183
receptivity, 148 Fun Palace, 162 infrastructure
recontextualization, 148 anticipatory networks, 161
subversion, 147–148 Galfetti, Aurelio, 170 circulatory networks, 161
wonder, 148 Galician Center of Contemporary Art, 51–52 context, 53–54
De Maria, Walter, 149 Gallaratese II Housing, 10 cultural networks, 160–161
Désert de Retz, 141 García-Abril, Antón, 74 evanescent, 160
Design Miami 2011 fair, 97 Gateway Arch, 115 physical, 158, 160
Destailleur, François-Hippolyte, 104 Gehry, Frank, 142 scales of engagement, 160
Dia Foundation, 149 Genesis pavilion, 97 system armatures, 158, 160
dialogue geometry Ingber, Donald, 191
addition, 136 Boolean operations, 193 Integral Urban Project, 159
contrast, 136 building information modeling (BIM), 195 International Exhibition (Barcelona), 148
enrichment, 136 complexities, 193–194 Ito, Toyo, 20, 23
indexing, 137 constructive solid geometry (CSG), 193 Ivernizzi, Angelo, 61
redirection, 136 descriptive geometry, 192–193
scales of, 137 golden ratio, 190 James Corner Field Operations, 159
Doesburg, Theo van, 122 networks, 194–195 Jappelli, Giuseppe, 136
Doge’s Palace, 134 numbers, 190 Jewell, W., 33
Dominus Winery, 92 parametrics, 193–194 J. Mayer H., 32
Double Chimney House, 57 variability, 194 Johannesson, Sigvald, 107
Doxiadis, Constantinos, 102 German Pavilion (International Exhibition, Barce- John F. Kennedy Airport, 140
220
Duganne, Jack, 30 lona), 148 John Nichols Printmakers, 29
Dürer, Albrecht, 185 Giedion, Sigfried, 103 Johnson Museum (New York), 69
Dymaxion House, 191 Giorgio Martini, Francesco di, 186 Johnson, Philip, 118, 155
Dynamic Façade, 152 Glama Kim Architects, 206 Johnson Wax Headquarters, 77
Glass House, 155 Judd, Donald, 154
221
at Cornell in 1983 and was the first female and she has contributed several essays to the issues of fashion, formalism, populism,
architect to be granted tenure in the Cornell Journal of Architecture, most recently reception, and various associations to literary
Department of Architecture there. She "Re-Collage" in number 8. theory and criticism, especially as related to
teaches courses in architectural design as the work of Mikhail Bakhtin. As a partner in
well as architectural representation and Val Warke is an associate professor at Cornell Simitch + Warke, he has collaborated on
furniture design, with works by her students University’s Department of Architecture, where the design of numerous projects and
having been exhibited at the International he has been a department chair, a director of competitions from the scale of the house
Contemporary Furniture Fair in New York. graduate studies, and the coordinator of the to that of the city. He received his B.Arch.
She has taught extensively for Cornell in first year B.Arch. program. In addition to from Cornell University and his M.Arch.
numerous international venues that include architecture, he is also a member of the from Harvard University.
Europe, Central America, and South graduate field of Fabric Science and Apparel
Acknowledgments
Few books are solitary events, and this one, technologically and logistically—we couldn’t contributions. The Department of Architec-
especially, was a group effort. Everything possibly have done. Anh Tran, Caio Barboza, ture and the College of Architecture,
began when Sheila Kennedy sent this project Mia Kang, and Mauricio Vieto provided Art, and Planning at Cornell generously
in our direction. Ashley Mendelsohn helped significant assistance along the way. Special supported this project with additional
us get started, plotting the original maps thanks are owed to Iñaqui Carnicero, Steven funding. And finally, we wish to recognize
so that we could trace a route. Mikhail Fong, Michael Hays, David Lewis, Richard our colleagues, whose banter and observa-
Grinwald and Natalie Kwee were with us for Rosa, Jenny Sabin, and Jim Williamson, tions can undoubtedly be seen percolating
the duration, and have done everything— who spiced the broth with their insightful throughout these pages.