4/1/2021 ASSIGNMENT

 Title: Secretory Functions of the

Alimentary Tract, Their Composition,
Mechanism of Secretion, Function, and
Regulation
SUBMITTED BY
 Name- Nusrat Jahan Mim
 ID- (1920495)
 Section- 01
 Course- Human Anatomy And
Physiology- II
 Course code- PHA- 203
SUBMITTED TO
 Dr. Zobaer Al Mahmud
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. STRUCTURAL FUNCTION THE ALIMENTARY CANAL/
TRACT
3. SECRETION IN THE ALIMENTARY
4. TYPES OF SECRETION IN THE ALIMENTARY TRACT
5. IONS OR ELECTROLYTES
6. DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
7. MUCUS
8. BILE
9. MECHANISM AND REGULATION OF SECRETION OF
ALIMENTARY TRACT
10. ORGANS INVOLVED IN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND
THEIR MECHANISM
11. REFERENCES
1.

P a g e 1 | 16
Secretory Functions of the Alimentary
Tract, Their Composition, Mechanism of
Secretion, Function, and Regulation
1. INTRODUCTION

The digestive system is composed of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, or the alimentary tract,
salivary glands, the liver, and the exocrine pancreas. The principal functions of the
gastrointestinal tract are to digest and absorb ingested nutrients and to excrete waste products of
digestion. Most nutrients are ingested in a form that is either too complex for absorption or
insoluble, and therefore, indigestible or incapable of being digested. Within the GI tract, much of
these substances are solubilized and further degraded enzymatically to simple molecules, which
permits absorption across the mucosal epithelium.

2. STRUCTURAL FUNCTION OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL/ TRACT

Throughout its length, the alimentary tract is composed of the same four tissue layers; the details
of their structural arrangements vary to fit their specific functions. Starting from the lumen and
moving outwards, these layers are the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa, which is
continuous with the mesentery (see Figure-1).

P a g e 2 | 16
Figure-1 Layers of the Alimentary Canal, the wall of the alimentary canal has four basic tissue
layers: the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa.

The mucosa is referred to as a mucous membrane because mucus production is a characteristic

feature of the gut epithelium. The membrane consists of epithelium, which is in direct contact
with ingested food, and the lamina propria, a layer of connective tissue analogous to the dermis.
Beside, the mucosa has a thin, smooth muscle layer, called the muscularis mucosa (not to be
confused with the muscularis layer, described below).

Epithelium—in the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and anal canal, the epithelium is primarily a
non-keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium. In the stomach and intestines, it is a simple
columnar epithelium. Notice that the epithelium is in direct contact with the lumen, the space
inside the alimentary canal. Interspersed among its epithelial cells are goblet cells, which secrete
mucus and fluid into the lumen, and entero-endocrine cells, which secrete hormones into the
interstitial spaces between cells. Epithelial cells have a very brief lifespan, averaging from only a
couple of days (in the mouth) to about a week (in the gut). This process of rapid renewal helps
preserve the health of the alimentary canal, despite the wear and tear resulting from continued
contact with foodstuffs.

P a g e 3 | 16
Lamina propria—In addition to loose connective tissue, the lamina propria contains numerous
blood and lymphatic vessels that transport nutrients absorbed through the alimentary canal to
other parts of the body. The lamina propria also serves an immune function by housing clusters
of lymphocytes, making up the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). These lymphocyte
clusters are particularly substantial in the distal ileum where they are known as Peyer’s patches.
When you consider that the alimentary canal is exposed to foodborne bacteria and other foreign
matter, it is not hard to appreciate why the immune system has evolved a means of defending
against the pathogens encountered within it.

Muscularis mucosa—this thin layer of smooth muscle is in a constant state of tension, pulling
the mucosa of the stomach and small intestine into undulating folds. These folds dramatically
increase the surface area available for digestion and absorption.

As its name implies, the submucosa lies immediately beneath the mucosa. A broad layer of
dense connective tissue, it connects the overlying mucosa to the underlying muscularis. It
includes blood and lymphatic vessels (which transport absorbed nutrients), and a scattering of
submucosal glands that release digestive secretions. Additionally, it serves as a conduit for a
dense branching network of nerves, the submucosal plexus, which functions as described below.

The third layer of the alimentary canal is the muscalaris (also called the muscularis externa).
The muscularis in the small intestine is made up of a double layer of smooth muscle: an inner
circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer. The contractions of these layers promote
mechanical digestion, expose more of the food to digestive chemicals, and move the food along
the canal. In the most proximal and distal regions of the alimentary canal, including the mouth,
pharynx, anterior part of the esophagus, and external anal sphincter, the muscularis is made up of
skeletal muscle, which gives you voluntary control over swallowing and defecation. The basic
two-layer structure found in the small intestine is modified in the organs proximal and distal to it.
The stomach is equipped for its churning function by the addition of a third layer, the
oblique muscle. While the colon has two layers like the small intestine, its longitudinal layer is
segregated into three narrow parallel bands, the tenia coli, which makes it look like a series of
pouches rather than a simple tube.

P a g e 4 | 16
The serosa is the portion of the alimentary canal superficial to the muscularis. Present only in the
region of the alimentary canal within the abdominal cavity, it consists of a layer of visceral
peritoneum overlying a layer of loose connective tissue. Instead of serosa, the mouth, pharynx,
and esophagus have a dense sheath of collagen fibers called the adventitia. These tissues serve to
hold the alimentary canal in place near the ventral surface of the vertebral column.

3. SECRETION IN THE ALIMENTARY TRACT

About 10 liters of fluid pass through the gastrointestinal system each day, and only about 2 liters
are ingested.

The secretions consist of digestive enzymes, mucous and substantial amounts of fluid and ions.

Types Daily Volume pH

Saliva 1000 6.0 - 7.0

Stomach 1500 1.0 - 3.0

Brunner’s Glands (duodenum) 200 8.0 - 9.0

Pancreas 1000-1500 8.0 - 8.3

Bile 1000 7.8

Small Intestine 1800 7.5 - 8.0

Large Intestine 200 7.5 - 8.0

Total 6700-7200

4. TYPES OF SECRETION IN THE ALIMENTARY TRACT

The fluid secreted in the alimentary tract is composed of four primary components: ions,
digestive enzymes, mucus, and bile. About half of these fluids are secreted by the salivary
glands, pancreas, and liver, which compose the accessory organs and glands of the digestive
system. The rest of the fluid is secreted by the GI epithelial cells.

5. IONS OR ELECTROLYTES
P a g e 5 | 16
The largest component of secreted fluids is ions and water, which are first secreted and then
reabsorbed along the tract. The ions secreted primarily consist of H+, K+, Cl−, HCO3− and Na+.
Water follows the movement of these ions. The GI tract accomplishes this ion pumping using a
system of proteins that are capable of active transport, facilitated diffusion, and open channel ion
movement. The arrangement of these proteins on the apical and basolateral sides of the
epithelium determines the net movement of ions and water in the tract.

H+ and Cl− are secreted by the parietal cells into the lumen of the stomach creating acidic
conditions with a low pH of 1. H+ is pumped into the stomach by exchanging it with K+. This
process also requires ATP as a source of energy; however, Cl− then follows the positive charge
in the H+ through an open apical channel protein.

HCO3− secretion occurs to neutralize the acid secretions that make their way into the duodenum
of the small intestine. Most of the HCO3− comes from pancreatic acinar cells in the form of
NaHCO3 in an aqueous solution. This is the result of the high concentration of both HCO3− and
Na+ present in the duct creating an osmotic gradient to which the water follows.

6. DIGESTIVE ENZYMES

The second vital secretion of the GI tract is that of digestive enzymes that are secreted in the
mouth, stomach and intestines. Some of these enzymes are secreted by accessory digestive
organs, while others are secreted by the epithelial cells of the stomach, and intestine. While some
of these enzymes remain embedded in the wall of the GI tract, others are secreted in an inactive
proenzyme form. When these proenzymes reach the lumen of the tract, a factor specific to a
particular proenzyme will activate it. A prime example of this is pepsin, which is secreted in the
stomach by chief cells. Pepsin in its secreted form is inactive (pepsinogen). However, once it
reaches the gastric lumen it becomes activated into pepsin by the high H+ concentration,
becoming an enzyme vital to digestion. The release of the enzymes is regulated by neural,
hormonal, or paracrine signals. However, in general, parasympathetic stimulation increases the
secretion of all digestive enzymes.

The following table shows a summary of the digestive enzymes of the GI tract:

Location Enzyme Name Action

P a g e 6 | 16
 Amylase Starch
Salivary Glands
Lingual Lipase Triglycerides (limited action)

Pepsin (pepsinogen) Proteins

Stomach
Gastric Lipase Triglycerides

Amylase Starch

Lipase & Colipase Triglycerides

Pancreas Phospholipase Phospholipids

Trypsin(trypsinogen) Peptides

Chymotrypsin Peptides

Enterokinase Activates Trypsin

Disaccharidase Disaccharides
   Sucrase    Sucrose
   Maltase    Maltose
Intestinal    Lactase    Lactose
Epithelium Peptidases Peptides
   Endopeptidases    Interior peptide bonds
   Exopeptidases    Terminal peptide bonds
   Aminopeptidase     Amide end of peptide
   Carboxypeptidase     Carboxyl end of peptide

Note- in both the stomach and the Pancreas the protein-digesting enzymes are secreted in non-
active forms - pepsinogen in the stomach and trypsinogen and Chymo trypsinogen in the
pancreas. This is to prevent auto-digestion. They are then activated in the lumen, in the case of
trypsinogen and Chymo-trypsinogen, these are activated by the small intestine enzyme enter-o-
kinase.

Digestive Hormones of the alimentary tract

P a g e 7 | 16
Numerous hormones are secreted by the gastrointestinal system. Here is a summary of the most
important hormones secreted by the gut.

Hormone Secreted by: Target(s) Releasing stimuli Actions

Histamine Increases acid

G cells of secreting and secretion in the
Gastrin Peptides in lumen
Stomach parietal cells stomach and gastric
of the stomach motility

gallbladder
Endocrine partially digested contraction; inhibits
gall bladder;
Cholecystokinin cells of the proteins and fatty gastric emptying;
pancreas;
(CCK) small acids in stimulates the
gastric muscle
intestine duodenum secretion of
Pancreatic Enzymes

Stimulates
Acid and partially bicarbonate
Endocrine
digested proteins secretion and pepsin
cells of the Pancreas; the
Secretin and fatty acids in release; inhibits
small stomach
duodenum and the gastric acid
intestine
small intestine secretion, bile
ejection

Endocrine Smooth
Stimulates gastric
cells of the muscle of
Motilin Fasting contractions (hunger
upper small Antrum and
pangs)
intestine the duodenum

7. MUCUS

P a g e 8 | 16
Mucus is released in the stomach and intestine and serves to lubricate and protect the inner
mucosa of the tract. It is composed of a specific family of glycoproteins termed mucins and is
generally very viscous. Mucus is made by two types of specialized cells termed mucus cells in
the stomach, and goblet cells in the intestines. Signals for increased mucus release include
parasympathetic innervations, immune system response and enteric nervous system messengers

Up to 25% of the intestinal epithelial cells are goblet cells. In the mouth about 70% of the
mucous is secreted by the minor salivary glands.

Mucous has the following properties:

 Adherent properties, it sticks well to surfaces

 Enough body to prevent contact of most food particles with tissue

 Lubricates well - has a low resistance to slippage

 Strongly resistant to digestive enzymes

 Neutralizing properties. As well as a buffer like effect, mucous can also contain large
quantities of bicarbonate.

8. BILE

Bile is secreted into the duodenum of the small intestine via the common bile duct. It is produced
in liver cells and stored in the gall bladder until release during a meal. Bile is formed of three
elements: bile salts, bilirubin and cholesterol. Bilirubin is a waste product of the breakdown of
hemoglobin. The cholesterol present is secreted with the feces. The bile salt component is an
active non-enzymatic substance that facilitates fat absorption by helping it to form an emulsion
with water due to its amphoteric nature. These salts are formed in the hepatocytes from bile acids
combined with an amino acid. Other compounds such as the waste products of drug degradation
are also present in the bile.

A. Composition of Bile

P a g e 9 | 16
The bile is secreted continuously by the hepatocytes of the liver, and if not immediately required
for digestion is stored in the gall bladder.

In the presence of fats in the duodenum, cholecystokinin is secreted which causes strong
contractions of the gall bladder and relaxation of the Sphincter of Oddi, propelling the bile into
the small intestine.

Composition of Human Hepatic Duct Bile

1. Water- 97%
2. Bile Salts- 0.7%
3. Bile Pigments- 0.2%
4. Cholesterol- 0.07%
5. Inorganic Salts- 0.7%
6. Fatty Acids- 0.15%
7. Fat- 0.1%
8. Lecithin- 0.1%

B. Function of Bile Salts in Fat Digestion and Absorption

The bile salts have two important actions in the intestinal tract:

First, they have detergent action on the fat particles in the food. This decreases the surface
tension of the particles and allows agitation in the intestinal tract to break the fat globules into
minute sizes. This is called the emulsifying or detergent function of bile salts.

Second, and even more important than the emulsifying function, bile salts help in the absorption
of (1) fatty acids, (2) mono-glycerides, (3) cholesterol, and (4) other lipids from the intestinal
tract.

9. MECHANISM AND REGULATION OF SECRETION OF ALIMENTARY

TRACT

Contact of Food with the Epithelium Stimulates Secretion—Function of Enteric Nervous

Stimuli

P a g e 10 | 16
The mechanical presence of food in a particular segment of the gastrointestinal tract usually
causes the glands of that region and adjacent regions to secrete moderate to large quantities of
juices. Part of this local effect, especially the secretion of mucus by mucous cells, results from
direct contact stimulation of the surface glandular cells by the food.

Also, local epithelial stimulation also activates the enteric nervous system of the gut wall. The
types of stimuli that do this are (1) tactile stimulation, (2) chemical irritation, and (3) distension
of the gut wall. The resulting nervous reflexes stimulate both the mucous cells on the gut
epithelial surface and the deep glands in the gut wall to increase their secretion.

Autonomic Stimulation of Secretion

Parasympathetic Stimulation Increases Alimentary Tract Glandular Secretion Rate

Stimulation of the parasympathetic nerves to the alimentary tract almost invariably increases the
rates of alimentary glandular secretion. This is especially true of the glands in the upper portion
of the tract (innervated by the glossopharyngeal and vagus parasympathetic nerves) such as the
salivary glands, esophageal glands, gastric glands, pancreas, and Brunner’s glands in the
duodenum. It is also true of some glands in the distal portion of the large intestine, innervated by
pelvic parasympathetic nerves. Secretion in the remainder of the small intestine and in the first
two-thirds of the large intestine occurs mainly in response to local neural and hormonal stimuli
in each segment of the gut.

P a g e 11 | 16
Sympathetic Stimulation Has a Dual Effect on Alimentary Tract Glandular Secretion Rate

Stimulation of the sympathetic nerves going to the gastrointestinal tract causes a slight to
moderate increase in secretion by some of the local glands. But sympathetic stimulation also
results in constriction of the blood vessels that supply the glands. Therefore, sympathetic
stimulation can have a dual effect: (1) sympathetic stimulation alone usually slightly increases
secretion and (2) if parasympathetic or hormonal stimulation is already causing copious secretion
by the glands, superimposed sympathetic stimulation usually reduces the secretion, sometimes
significantly so, mainly because of reduction of the blood supply due to vasoconstriction.

Regulation of Glandular Secretion by Hormones

In the stomach and intestine, several different gastrointestinal hormones help regulate the

volume and character of the secretions. These hormones are liberated from the gastrointestinal
mucosa in response to the presence of food in the lumen of the gut. The hormones are then
absorbed into the blood and carried to the glands, where they stimulate secretion. This type of
stimulation is particularly valuable to increase the output of gastric juice and pancreatic juice
when food enters the stomach or duodenum. Chemically, the gastrointestinal hormones are
polypeptides or polypeptide derivatives.

P a g e 12 | 16
10. ORGANS INVOLVED IN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND THEIR
MECHANISM

P a g e 13 | 16
11. REFERENCES

1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7173558/
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrointestinal_physiology\
3. https://doctorlib.info/physiology/textbook-medical-physiology/64.html
4. https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Medical_Physiology/Gastrointestinal_Physiology/Secretion
s
5. https://tophat.com/marketplace/science-&-math/biology/textbooks/oer-openstax-
anatomy-and-physiology-openstax-content/78/4173/
6. https://knowit20.blogspot.com/2020/06/control-mechanisms-in-gastrointestinal.html

P a g e 14 | 16