Arch 225, Part 9, Romanesque Architecture & Art | Netice Yıldız

Arch 225
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE EUROPE.IN GENERAL INTRODUCTION.
(Edited and Compiled from Sir Banister Fletcher, A History of Architecture on the
Comparative Method 5th ed. London: B. T. Batsford, 1905. 224-25. and other sources)
i. Geographical. Romanesque is the style that grew up on the decline of the
Roman Empire and particularly in the whole Western Empire, in those countries
that had been directly under Rome's rule. The position determined many of the
peculiarities of the style in each country. Apart from its Roman origin, from which it
took its name, the Romanesque style owed Byzantine art. This influence was
carried westward along the great trade routes, such as Venice, Ravenna and
Marseilles, and thus exercised a formative influence on Romanesque, especially in
individual districts, mainly in Italy Lombardy of Europe generally. However,
the new culture introduced by the Goths, Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Normandians,
Angles, Saxons and Jutes, and Islamic countries formed a unique amalgamation in
this new style.
ii. Geological: The use of local materials, whether stone or brick, marble or terra-
cotta, and spolia (ready-made columns and other features from Old Roman
buildings), accounts for many varying characteristics in each country over this vast
area, with its different geological formations.
iii. Climatic conditions also contributed to differences in treatment north and South
of the Alps and Pyrenees. In the duller climates of the North, window openings were
enlarged to admit sufficient light, while in the South, in order to exclude dazzling
sunshine, they were kept small. The slope of the roofs was also primarily determined
by climate. The flat roofs of the South gave way to the high-pitched roofs in the
North to throw off the rain and snow.
iv. Religious:
Christianity, the chief source of education and culture, was gradually extending
throughout northern Europe, and the erection of a church often resulted in the
foundation of a city; for the Papacy had been raising to great power and influence,
and rivalled, or even controlled, such civil government as existed. The "Pragmatic
Sanction" (AD 554) had already conferred authority on bishops over provincial and
municipal governments, and this had increased the power of the Church, which now
often nominated public officials. Bishops and Abbots were also, because of their
feudal rank, military chiefs who sometimes took the field in person, and thus the
Church was everywhere predominant. Religious enthusiasm and zeal found their
material expression in the magnificent cathedral churches and monastic buildings,
which were an even more expected outcome of this period than the feudal lords'
castles.
The term "Romanesque architecture" describes the European style of building design
which flourished during the late Medieval era (c.800-1200). It is customarily studied
under three periods: (1) Pre-Romanesque: Carolingian & Ottonian architecture (c.800-
1000). (2) Early Romanesque(11th century). (3) Mature Romanesque (c., 1070-
1170). It stems from renewed interest in monumental architecture, sculpture, and
mural painting. Romanesque designs depict almost always Christian themes in

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 Arch 225, Part 9, Romanesque Architecture & Art | Netice Yıldız

Christian

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settings. The most important type of religious art produced during the Middle Ages
followed this style. The Romanesque design was influenced mainly by classical
Roman architecture, besides the new elements introduced by the new settlers and
other geographical areas. Thus, it is a compound of many influences: Roman,
Byzantine, Carolingian, Ottonian, Frankish, Viking, Celtic, Saracenic (Islamic)
architecture and art. It was characterised by a new massiveness of scale, expressing
the increasing stability of the age and the re-emergence of European culture after
four centuries of the Dark Ages. Despite a reduction in tension, however, a certain
amount of uncertainty remained during the period 800-950, which was why
Romanesque designs often doubled up as defensive structures. Main characteristics
of Romanesque architecture ae:
• The plan of the churches is cruciform with bell towers and usually a cloister.
• The arches are round and supported on pillars. The chief feature is several
small arcades running in the whole building.
• Horizontal lines are predominant. The walls have no prominent buttresses
and usually ends by a robust flat tablet or cornice.
• The members of the architecture are massive and heavy.
• Faces of walls are rectangular. There are square-edged projections.
• The openings in walls are small.
• Pilgrimage and monasticism are vital factors in the development and
evolution of this style.
Historical Background of the Romanesque Style:
In earlier times, after the Roman Empire's break down, there were a significant
migration and conquest movements by different tribes of people mainly from the
Central Asian and Northern countries. In Europe: Barbaric invasion: Visigoths, Goths,
Ostrogoths, Vikings, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, etc. conquered many lands which were the
states once within the sizeable Roman Empire. Then in the 7 th century, new great
powers appear in Europe as rivals to the Byzantine Empire. The noteworthy of these
are Frankish Kingdom, Otto Empire, Carolingian Kingdom and the Anglo-Saxon
Kingdom. The Islamic Umayyads occupied Spain. Northern Normans' victory over
the Frankish king and a treaty signed in 911 between them is one of the most crucial
turning points in the history of Europe. Viking leader granted territory in France
became known as Normandy. Vikings, then called Normandians, introduced their
artistic style in the new parts they had occupied and left a significant architectural
heritage which reveals their success as great architects. Their particular monuments
in the Medieval era is usually described as Normandian style, the chief feature being
the zig-zag stone decoration over the portals' arches. Celtic art with interlacing foliage
revealing wild animals or human figures formed the art of the pre-Romanesque and
Romanesque styles in architectural decoration and religious book illuminations.
Developments in technical facilities for farming increased the quality of agricultural
products. Development of transportation and stone query techniques provided a
variety of architectural materials and skilled masons for construction sites. These
facilities also increased trade activity. Thus, the resulting population rise once more
created large urban settlements with walled cities. Soon after the residential areas
began to burst beyond their defensive stone walls, such suburbs then grew out around
religious centres, mainly farmhouses and fields around the monastic orders or castles
of the barons, were likewise built within fortified complexes. However, many vast
areas remained entirely rural. In difficult times, mainly at war times, villagers took
shelter either in the Kings or Barons' walled cities while some preferred to take refuge
in monasteries. Of course, in such cases, they had to bring some provisions to the lords
or monasteries.
The same religious aims led to the Crusades against the Islam who had overrun
Palestine and taken the Holy Places. This long-continued warfare (AD 1095-1270)
between Christians of the West and the East's Islamic people inevitably introduces
some effects on western art and architecture.

Monastic communities already were in existence as early as the sixth century, which
was erected by Charlemagne. However, during the eleventh century was
remarkable for that significant development of the Monastic system, which, gave an
impulse to civilisation, promoted new methods in agriculture, and exercised its
influence on architecture. Until the middle of the twelfth century, science, literature,
art, and culture were the religious Orders' monopoly. The schools attached to
monasteries were often the cathedrals' designers, and up to this thirteenth-century,
architecture was almost regarded as sacred science.
The chief monastic orders were as follows:
(1) Benedictine Orders was founded during the sixth century in South Italy by S.
Benedict, who decreed that architecture, painting, and all art branches were
instructed. All the older monasteries in England belonged to this order, Canterbury
(No. 118 B) and Westminster Abbey (No. 127) being the top establishments. The usual
arrangement consisted of a square cloister having on one side a church of cruciform
plan with aisles, the transept forming a part of one side of the cloisters. The
refectory was usually parallel to the nave, on the opposite side of the cloister.
The dormitory was generally placed on another side with a staircase in connection
with the Church for night services. The manuscript plan existing in the Library of
the monastery of S. Gall, in Switzerland, is interesting as showing what was
considered a typical plan of the buildings of this order (page 261).
(2) The Cluniac order was founded in A.D. 909, the celebrated Abbey at Cluny
being the headquarters. The plan was especially notable for double transepts, a
feature
adopted in many English Cathedrals, as at Lincoln (No. 117 F) and Salisbury (No.
117 E).
(3.) The Cistercian order was founded in A.D. 1098, at Citeaux, in Burgundy. The
typical Church was divided into three parts, transversely by screens, walls, or steps in
the plan. There were usually no aisles. The transepts were short, and the cross's
eastern arm and the choir extended westward of the transepts. There was an absence
of towers and painted glass. The influence of the Cistercian foundation extended to
various countries of Europe. In England, the most important were Furness, Fountains,
Roche, and Kirkstall Abbeys.
(4.) The Augustinian order differed little from the Benedictine. It was introduced
into England in A.D. 1105, and this order founded Bristol, Carlisle, and Oxford
Cathedrals.
(5)The Premonstratensian order was instituted at Premontre, in Picardy, in A.D. 1119,
and Castle Acre Priory in England.
(6) The Carthusian order was founded by S. Bruno, about A.D. 1080, the chief French
establishment being the Grande Chartreuse, near Grenoble, others being Vauvert,
Clermont in Auvergne, Villefranche de Rouergue, and Montreux. Two churches were
preferred, one for the monks and the other for the people. In plan the typical feature
was the tremendous rectangular cloister, surrounded by an arcade on which the
monks' cells opened, each being self-contained and with its garden. The order's
rules interdicted the speech, and the Carthusian must work, eat, and drink in
solitude. Such a regime explains the extreme severity of their architecture. In, Italy
the establishments at Florence and the Certosa near Pavia, and in England, the
Charterhouse, London, were the most important.
(7.) The military orders included the Knights Templars and Hospitallers. The
Templars' churches were circular in plan, as in the Temple Church, London,
Cambridge, Little Maplestead and Northampton. It is supposed that they were
erected after the Rotunda of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem.
(8.) The Friars, of which there were several orders, were founded at a later period.
Their churches were large, plain, and without aisles, being designed for
preaching purposes.
(a) The Dominicans (preaching or black Friars) were founded by S. Dominic about
A.D. 1170, and later held a high place in Christian art, Fra Angelico being the best-
known member of the order. They came to England about A.D. 1217.
(b) The Franciscans (mendicant or grey Friars) were founded by S. Francis of
Assisi, in A.D. 1209. They were distinguished for intellectual capacity, Roger Bacon
being one of the most distinguished members. They first came to England in A.D.
1216.
(c) The Carmelites (or white Friars), were driven out from Mount Carmel by the
Saracens, in A.D. 1098. They came to England in A.D. 1229.
(d) The Austin Friars (or Hermits)
(e The Friars of the Holy Trinity, instituted in A.D. 1197.
(f) Crutched (or crouched) Friars, instituted in Bologna, in A.D. 1169. Reformation,
and first came to England in A.D. 1538.
(9.) The Jesuit Order was founded against the Reformation and first came to
England in A.D. 1538.
v. Social and Political Conditions
The feudal tenure system, or the holding of land on military service condition, grew
up and caused essential changes in states' social and political organisation. While the
class of actual slaves died out through its operation, the poorer freemen gradually
became serfs, bound to the land and passing with it, on a change of ownership.
The towns' growth as civilisation advanced is noticeable, and the privileges they
acquired, amounting almost to independence, rapidly gave them importance.
Constant warfare rendered the people's condition unsettled during this period, and
skill in craftsmanship was at the lowest ebb. Christianity and civilisation gradually
extended from Southern to Western Europe. The clergy, the scholars of the period,
directed the churches' building, while the influence of the freemasons produced
actual results.

Population of Europe in 1000-1300 AD

c. 1348
54,400,000

c. 950 (Early 14.th

century) Or
22,600,000
73,000,000

(According to
c. 650 another source)
14,700,000

The remark of Raoul Glabber in his history book written c. 1003 is remarkable to
explain the period's mood for the enthusiasm of church building as the most
significant buildings of the cities: "As the third year that followed the year one
thousand drew near, there was to be seen over almost all the earth, but especially in
Italy and the Gaul, a great renewal of church buildings; each Christian community
was driven by a spirit of rivalry to have a more glorious church than the others. It
was as if the word had shaken itself, and, casting off its old garments, had dressed
again
in every part in a white robe of churches".
vi. Historical.
In the year A.D. 799, the Roman Empire in the West practically passed from the
Romans' hands by the first Frankish King, Charlemagne, whose election is a
convenient date to mark the Roman Empire's end as such. Till the time of
Charlemagne, very little building activity took place in Europe. Charlamagne is a
great measure to restore the arts and civilisation to Western Europe before his death
in A.D. 814. Also, since before the year A.D. 1000, it was popularly supposed that the
world would come to an end, little urban organisation was carried out. Still, after
the millennium had passed, buildings sprang up in all parts, with many local
peculiarities. Still, the change was slow. Traditional forms were first transformed in
general design and detail, and then new features were created. Nearly all the nations
of Europe had come into existence; France, Germany, and Spain were becoming
powerful and tend to set aside the Holy Roman Empire's rule, which now had
become only a title. In northern Europe, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway were
distinct kingdoms, and England had become welded into one by the Norman kings at
the end of the eleventh century.
2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER
The term Romanesque may be said to include all those phases of Western European
architecture which were more or less based on Roman art, and which were being
carried out, roughly and readily, in various parts of Europe, from the departure of the
Romans up to the introduction of the pointed arch in the thirteenth century. However,
the Romanesque is a synthesis of several influences, mainly Roman, Byzantine,
Islam and Northern Europe, like Celtic, Visigoth, Ostrogoth and Vikings. The
general architectural character is sober and dignified, while picturesqueness is
obtained by grouping the towers and the transepts and choir's projection.
One can appreciate Romanesque architecture's character and imagine an ancient
civilisation of vast extent, devoid of physical force, and recognisable only by the
multitude of its monuments. Some of these are currently intact, others injured or
partially destroyed, all unguarded, and most of them disused after a calamity which
happens in due course to every great nation or group of peoples. Further on,
suppose that a man, dormant represent the civilisation, but who slowly, and with
many, a contortion, and many a yawn, threw off the sleep of ages and awakened to a
sense of the treasure he possessed. He wants to understand that these are all the
means he could finally attain. In his midst were ruins of vast monuments, some
still standing
among heaps of stones hewn and carved, of sculptured capitals and friezes, of
monoliths of porphyry and marble, while his shelter afforded him little protection
either from heat or cold. What happened? As time went on, he gathered up the
smaller fragments and arranged them perhaps upon the foundations, still intact, of
an ancient building. As he gradually acquired a knowledge of the uses to which he
might apply this and that fragment, he insensibly produced a new art founded on the
old. This explains the birth of Romanesque, for on the collapse of the Western Roman
Empire, the quarry of the ruins of ancient buildings largely influenced the work
done, both in construction and decorative treatment, for the earlier buildings of the
period were often built from the remains of old Roman buildings in the vicinity. Over
time, however, a new style was evolved, for, putting aside spasmodic efforts, the
tenth to the twelfth centuries' period is remarkable for the tentative employment of
a new constructive principle and further use of material. The first was the principle
of equilibrium which succeeded that of static stability as used by the Romans. The
second was dressed stonework in comparatively small pieces, connected with
mortar beds of considerable thickness. This building method was not before
attempted since the materials in use up to that time were not in need. By this new
employment of materials, the whole architecture was turned to a constructive system
which should answer to its needs, and which, after many tentative experiments, was
to lead to the next glorious period of architecture the thirteenth century in which
elasticity of structure was joined to the principle of equilibrium. There were
various early Christian edifices erected at Ravenna from the fifth to the seventh
centuries in Italy. During this period, Ravenna was the principal city in Italy, being the
Exarch's seat or representative of the Byzantine Emperor in the western part of his
dominions. These buildings partake, naturally, of the elements of the fully developed
Byzantine style, in the same way in which S. Mark, Venice, and S. Front, Perigueux,
was the result of the close connection of these centres with the trade and commerce of
the East
(No. 84).
In France (page 246), especially in the Western and Northern Provinces, the old
traditional basilican plan was preferred and adhered to during the eleventh and
twelfth centuries, with specific, exceptions, notably South front. On the other hand,
the dome raised on pendentives became the typical kind of vaulting in conjunction
with the aisle-less nave in South France. It is also worthy to note that the use of the
pointed arch occurred in the South of France sooner than in the North. Some consider
it, to have been derived from contact with the Islamic people, who invaded this part
of France from 719-732. Further, monasteries in the eleventh century gave a generous
impulse to civilisation and agriculture and exercised considerable influence on
architecture. Aix en Provence was, moreover, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
the chief centre of the growing traffic from the EEast The highway served fort he
dispersion of the Levant's artistic and other products were through France and the
North of Europe. Similarly, the development from Romanesque to Gothic art was
accomplished through the ordeal of the destructive, yet purifying dissolution of the
Dark Ages, whence the true spirit of Roman construction emerged, cleared to a great
extent extraneous elements with which it had been so long encrusted. 'Up to the end
of the twelfth century the Provençal architects had led the way, but at this period the
lay architects of the North, seizing on the Provençal principle of the Pointed arch, soon
developed from it, the magnificent Gothic system of the perfected architecture of the
thirteenth century.
Romanesque Vaulting
The Roman system of bare cross vaulting (No 111 in A), as used in Europe up to the
twelfth century, when it began to be superseded by the "groin-rib" type of vaulting,
in which framework of ribs supported vaulting surfaces of thinner stone, known as
"severies," or "in-filling." This method introduced a new principle in vaulting, viz.,
designing the profile of the groin ribs and leaving the form of the vaulting surfaces to
adapt themselves to them; whereas in Roman architecture the vaulting body was
first settled, and the profile of the groins followed as a matter of course. Therefore,
the Romanesque architects needed to find the ribs' shape, especially that of the
diagonal rib, which had previously been settled without design, as mentioned above,
by the intersection of the two vaulting surfaces meeting right angles. If the
vaulting bodies were semi-cylindrical, the diagonal groin vault was then formed
in semi- elliptical form. Still, the use of ordinates does not appear to have been
employed by the Romanesque architects, who surmounted the difficulty arising from
the difference of span of the diagonal and transverse ribs as follows: (fl.) On the
Continent, especially in Germany and France, the vaulting ribs were usually portions
of circular
curves of similar curvature starting from the same level, thus the diagonal rib,
having the longest span, rose to a greater height than the transverse and
longitudinal ribs (No. 112, D3 ). The panelling was then filled in on the top of these
ribs, and in consequence, the structure was highly domical. (&.) In England,
however, where the vaults were generally constructed with level ridges, this
domical form was not used. Since the difference in height between the diagonal and
the transverse ribs being equalised by stilting the latter (No. 112 B, D5, G) or else by
forming the diagonal rib as a segment of a circle, the longitudinal and transverse
ribs become semi-circular (No. 112 D2 ). In vaulting an oblong compartment, the
difference between the diagonal and wall ribs' heights was still more significant and
produced an awkward waving line of the groins on the plan (Nos. in B and 112 c).
In. the" vaulting of the naves of the Romanesque churches in Germany, as at
Worms (No. 105 G), Mayence and Spires; in France, as at the Abbaye-aux-Hommes
(No. 112 E, F), and Abbaye-aux-Dames at Caen, and Notre Dame, Paris (No. 157);
and in England, as at Canterbury; the difficulty of spanning oblong compartments
was surmounted by including two of them in one square bay
of vaulting, each central bay corresponding with two square rooms of the side
aisles (Nos. 94 A, B, E and 105). In some instances, the intermediate pier was
carried up as a vaulting shaft and formed the vaulting compartment into six
parts on the plan, which was then known as "sexpartite (six-part) vaulting (Nos.
100 c, 105 B and 112 F). The weight of the vaulting, in this case, was therefore
supported by alternate piers, which were accordingly strengthened (No. 105 c).
During the following centuries, this principle of rib design became more
"complicated by multiplicating the ribs' framework as described under the topic of
Gothic vaulting (page 272). It will also be found that all these difficulties of
accommodating the heights of ribs of different
spans, especially in oblong compartments, were surmounted by introducing the
pointed arch (No. 111 D and 112 D).
Baptistery in the Romanesque Period: In later Romanesque and Gothic periods, these
early baptisteries, themselves founded on the Roman circular temples and tombs,
were treated as follows in the different European countries: In Italy, where the
churches were not derived from a combination of a circular eastern church with a
western rectangular nave, as in France, but were direct copies of the Roman
basilica, the baptistery always stands alone. In France, circular churches were built
to stand alone, and when it was necessary to enlarge them, the circular building was
retained as the sanctuary or choir, and a straight-lined nave was added for the use
of the people. Thus from the circular Church originated the apsidal choir of the
Gothic period. In Germany, the earlier baptistery was joined to the square Church
and formed a western apse. The Germans also built circular churches and then
added choirs for the priests to pray apart from the people (No. 83 E). In England,
the Gothic builders generally preferred a square east end, except where French
influence made itself felt, as at Westminster. Circular churches were erected, as the
Temple Church, London, but they were few, and due to the Knights Templars (page
219), being built as copies of the Rotonda of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem.
3. COMPARATIVE.
A. Plans. In church architecture, further developments from the type of the Early
Christian Church took place. Charlemagne gathered around him artists and
skilled workers, and calling architecture out of its sleep, took the Roman
basilica as a model for the new churches. Transepts were usually added, and the
chancel prolonged further east than in the basilicas, the Church partaking
more and more of a well- defined cross on the plan, as at S. Michele, Pavia (Nos.
94 and 95). The transepts were the same extent as the nave, which was usually
twice the aisles' width. The choir was raised considerably through steps, and
underneath, supported on piers, a vaulted crypt as at S. Miniato, Florence (No. 93)
and S. Michele, Pavia (No. 94), in which the saints and martyrs were buried. The
earlier examples have choirs without aisles; the latter is endless round in later
models. The cloisters connected with the churches are often of incredible beauty
and have capitals and other features elaborately carved. The towers are
impressive features and great prominence in the design, as at the Church of the
Apostles at Cologne (Nos. 100 and 105 c). They are either square, octagonal, or
circular, with well-marked stories, having windows to each, and are placed at the
West and the East ends and the crossing of nave and transepts.
B. Walls. Roman work and precedent influenced all constructive art in Europe,
although technical skill was at a very low ebb during this period. Walls were in
general coarsely built, having on the exterior, buttresses formed as pilaster strips of
slight projection, connected at the top by horizontal mouldings, or by a row of semi-
circular arches resting on a corbel table projecting from the wall. Semi-circular
arches, resting on rudely formed capitals, also occur.

C. Openings. The door and window openings are very characteristic. The principle
upon which the jambs were formed was in receding planes, or rectangular recesses,
known as "orders," in which were placed circular columns or shafts. The arches
followed the same method, built-in concentric rings (No. 94 F, H, J). A continuous
abacus often occurs over these columns, and the profile of the jamb's profile is carried
around the semi-circular portion of the arch in southern examples. The principal
doorways are usually placed in the transepts.
The characteristic rose (or wheel) window occurred over the main door of the
Church in the west front, as at Iffley Church, Oxon (No. 138); also in Southern Italian
examples, as at Palermo.
Figure 1 Portals of the Romanesque churches: archivolts; the apse on the east.

Figure 2 Nave walls and openings of the Romanesque Church. Wall structural systems (interlacing arches, brackets, piers.

Figure 3. Groin and barrel vault of the Romanesque architecture.

D. Roofs. The general employment of vaulting, especially over the side aisles in the
eleventh century, was due to the desire of fire-proofing the building. However, the
central nave was still often covered with a plain wooden roof. The form of arch
universally employed was semi-circular (No. 94 A), often raised, i.e. t stilted (No. 112
D5, G).
In early examples, rib mouldings were not used in the vaulting, but when introduced,
about 1100 A.D., were at the first plain, and afterwards moulded simply (No. 94).
Intersecting barrel vaults (No. 112 G) were usual, and the difficulty in constructing
these in oblong bays led to the use of pointed arches in later times. When an
octagonal dome crowned the crossing, four of the sides were carried on "squinch"
arches (Nos. 94 and 105). The Romanesque architects used "flying buttresses" under
the aisle roof, in the case where the thrust of a vaulted ceiling had to be met (Nos. 94
and 100). Still, it was left for the thirteenth century's Gothic architects to place them
above the aisle roof and weight them with pinnacles.
E. Columns. The columns' shafts have various treatments, flutings being used (Nos.
98 B, 107 L), of vertical, spiral, or trellis work form, or the whole shaft is sometimes
covered with sculptured ornaments. In early examples forms of the Corinthian or
Ionic capitals occur as in the third column from the right in S. John's Chapel, Tower
of London (No. 135), where Classic influence is apparent. Also, see Nos. 98 j, K, L, M,
and 103 D, E.
The capital in later times was often of a cushion (cubic-form) shape, as in S. John's
Chapel, Tower of London (No. 135), with lower corners rounded off and no carving,
or is sometimes richly carved and scalloped (Nos. 146 and 148 B, c).
F. Mouldings. These were often carved elaborately, referred to in English
Romanesque (Norman) architecture (No. 139). The abacus over the capital (Nos. 98,
j, M, 103, 107 and 146) is always distinctive in form; it is higher, but projects less
than the ones made in the Classical style, moulded with alternate fillets and hollows.
The base to the column (Nos. 107 D, H, and 146) is generally an adaptation of the
old Classical form, or Attic style, resting on a square plinth, at the 'angles of which
flowers or animals were occasionally carved to fill up the triangular part, and the
lower circular moulding often overhangs the plinth.
G. Ornament. The carving and ornaments were derived from many vegetable and
animal kingdom types and treated conventionally, often but rudely carved (No.
139). In the interiors, fresco is more commonly used than mosaic, which required
great technical skill. Early stained glass was influenced by Byzantine mosaic.

Figure 4 Romanesque ornaments.

Note. The above are the principal characteristics of the style as a whole. Local
influences of taste, climate, geography and geological formations were instrumental
in producing the different aspects of each country.
The great Abbey-Church of Cluny (1089-1131) was the most famous in this
province and was the longest in France with double side aisles to the main body of
the Church, and a chevet of five apsidal chapels.
Concluding Words
The eminent archaeologist Pierre Lavedan classified Romanesque architecture according to
the vaulting system adopted in the central nave. He distinguishes three groups: (1) churches
with a barrel or groined vaults without galleries over the aisles; (2) churches with a barrel or
groined vaults with galleries over the aisles; and (3) churches vaulted with a series of domes.
The first category includes Burgundy, Poitou and Provence. The second comprises the fine
series of churches in Clermont-Ferrand, and this group is known as churches on the
pilgrimage roads. Besides the compact group of domed churches in Angoumois, Perigord
and Quercy, the third group are the three separate buildings that seem to have little
connexion with one another or their surroundings. These are St Hilaire at Poitiers, Solignac,
and the cathedral at Le Puy.
Romanesque Architecture in Brief
Romanesque architects built a wide variety of different buildings, of which the most common
were: village churches, abbey churches, cathedrals and castles. The most important was the
great abbey churches, many of which are in use. Typical characteristics of Romanesque
architecture include:

Figure 5 Principal parts of the Romanesque.

• Semi-circular Arches
Most arches were semi-circular although a few buildings (Autun Cathedral, France;
Monreale Cathedral, Sicily) have pointed arches. A stone lintel might top narrow
windows/doors. Larger openings were nearly always arched.
• Thick Walls: These massive supporting walls had few and comparatively small openings
and almost eliminated the need for buttresses.
• Arcades: These were a prevalent feature. Note: an arcade consists of a row of arches,
supported on either columns or piers. Columns were either drum columns (if small) or
hollow-core (if large). Piers were typically built out of masonry and were either square or
rectangular. Capitals on columns were usually of the foliate Corinthian style.
• The Roofs initially were made from wood. Later, vaulted roofs generally featured as barrel-
vaults and groin vaults were made of stone or brick. Eventually, these evolved into the
pointed ribbed arch used in Gothic architecture.
• Towers: These were a regular feature of Romanesque churches. Types included: square,
circular and octagonal towers.
Romanesque masons were far from being theoreticians. Their sparing economy, absolute
rejection of waste, practicality, and liking of security in preference to any form of expensive
elaboration, were all excellent "peasant" virtues. To oversimplify a complicated situation,
every aspect of Romanesque architecture brings us back to a few straightforward rules.
These are the organisation of space into regular bays, and the juxtaposition or occasional
superimposition of conventional masses arranged as interlocking cubes. Whether the result
of a migration of artisans, every advance in technical progress, a detail seized by an
architect's quick eye, or political conquest, was adapted to fit in with this schematic outline.
Figure 6 Towers of the Romanesque churches. Pisa tower and others.

Example:
Cluny Abbey (or Cluni, or Clugny, dedicated to St Peter, is a former Benedictine monastery
in Cluny, Saô ne-et-Loire, France Romanesque style. The three churches were built in
succession from the 10th to the early 12th centuries. Cluny Abbey was founded in 910 by
Guillaume d'Aquitaine. Construction was completed in the mid-12th century, the high point
of Abbey's history. For five hundred years, until Saint Peter's in Rome was built, the abbey
church of Cluny was the largest religious building in Europe (177m long).

Figure 7 Cluny Abbey (or Cluni, or Clugny, dedicated to St Peter, is a former Benedictine monastery in Cluny, Saône-
et- Loire, France.

Three abbey churches were built in the complex at different times. The first Church
was built in the 10th century in Carolingian style. In the following century, a second
church was the first example of "early Romanesque art". Less than a hundred years
later, building work began on the basilica of St-Pierre-et-St-Paul. The monastery was
expanded around the cloister garden with open space for a central square and a free
gallery that provides access to the estate. In the north wing, the faculty's gallery
communicates with the Church and the remaining three branches are open to the
chapter room, the dining hall and administrative placements. On the top floor of the
cloister are located dormitories of the monks, who reach the Church's transept via a
staircase. The distribution of other units, such as the house of Abad, the school of
novices, warehouse, cellar, stables, guest house for pilgrims, garden and the cemetery,
is variable depending on the land, climate, the number of monks and the richness of
the community.
This building, dating from the very end of the pre-Romanesque period, was undoubtedly
important even though by no means a masterpiece. Basilican in the plan, its nave of seven
bays was unvalued, flanked by aisles, and cut by a narrow transept which projected widely
from the Church's body, each arm ending in a small semi-circular apse. The deep-set choir
had pillars, and a semi-circular apse flanked by two small apses protruded from the straight
walls. Between the choir aisles which gave access to these chapels and the small apses at
the ends of the transepts were inserted two long rectangular rooms divided by interior
partitions and linked by narrow passages either with the transepts or the sanctuary. The
composition freely developed the monumental plan of graded apses, known as Benedictine
on account of its frequent, though not exclusive, used by this order. Romanesque architects
derived some subtle effects from it. The nave at Cluny was preceded by a narthex or galilee
that heralded the beautiful closed porches flanked by towers that were the following
generation's work.
The building was resumed by Abbot Odilo who did not limit his activity to Cluny but
devoted himself to many churches elsewhere, including Payerne, Charlieu, Ambierle-en-
Forez, Ris and Sauxillanges in Auvergne, Souvigny, Saint-Saturnin-du-Port in Provence, and
Lavoute- sur-Allier. The latter was founded on one of his estates and later became the
starting point of one of Santiago's routes. At Cluny he devoted his final years to the building
of a beautiful cloister, but first restored all the interiors, except for the Church's walls: it is
thought that he had a stone vault constructed, replacing the timber roof.
A little less than 150 feet long, this Church was sufficient for a medium-sized community's
needs. However, the continual growth in the number of brethren in the eleventh century
rendered it too small. Soon after, Abbot Hugh of Semur was forced to envisage not merely
rebuilding and extension, but the construction on the grounds to the North, of an abbey
church surpassing all those of Western Christendom in size. A hefty annual tribute drawn
from the kings of Spain assured the financing of the undertaking conceived as the outward
manifestation of the power of the head of the order. The new Church's design with its nave of
eleven bays flanked by double aisles to balance its length, its two transepts and ambulatory
with small radiating apses was so magnificent as to earn it the name of 'the angel's walk.'
Decorated with sculptures, mosaics and murals, and envied by all Christianity, St Hugh's
abbey church was to remain the Cluniac order's pride for seven hundred years.
The immense nave was covered with a barrel vault with double-pointed arches and naves
with low vault edges. It also has staggered basilica, where the light reaches all three levels.
The arches and the wall above were treated as a "screen skeleton" between the semi-
attached columns supporting the arches of the cross-barrel vault run. The clerestory, with
three windows on each corridor, and the supports' main shafts were divided into three
overlapping elements. The crossing, with excellent illumination from its many windows,
consisted of three cylindrical vaults. With the introduction of a second crossing, an
independent centralised structure, the presbytery church's proportions increased. The
western facade of the Church had a profound recessed portal, which was the first instance
of such and then became a characteristic feature of Gothic cathedrals
The Abbey was sacked and mostly destroyed during the French Revolution in 1790, with
only a small surviving.
Notre Dame la Grande, Poitiers. The Abbey of Fontevraud (A.D. 1101-1119)
resembled Angouleme Cathedral in its aisleless nave and general arrangement.
Figure 8 The Abbey of Fontevraud (A.D. 1101-1119);

Burgundy was especially rich in monastic establishments that influenced the

churches' architectural treatment, many of "which have been destroyed. The great
Abbey-Church of Cluny (1089-1131) was the most famous in this province and was
the longest in 1< ranee, with double side aisles to the main body of the Church, and a
chevet of five apsidal chapels. The pointed arch was employed in the nave arcade,
covered with a great barrel-vault, and the aisles probably had groined vaulting.
Autun. Cathedral (1090- 1132) is an example of the aisleless churches found in various
parts of France.
The Church at Vezelay (A.D. 1100) and Vienne are other interesting examples,
the former having a groined vault instead of the longitudinal barrel-vault.
Vézelay Abbey (French: Abbaye Sainte-Marie-Madeleine de Vézelay)
Shortly after its foundation in the 9th century, the Benedictine abbey of Vézelay
acquired St Mary Magdalene's relics. Since then it has been one of the most visited
places of pilgrimage. St Bernard preached the Second Crusade there in 1146 and
Richard the Lion-Hearted and Philip II Augustus met there to leave for the Third
Crusade in 1190. With its sculpted capitals and portal, the Madeleine of Vézelay – a
12th-century monastic church – is a masterpiece of Burgundian Romanesque art and
architecture.

Figure 9 Vézelay Abbey (French: Abbaye Sainte-Marie-Madeleine de Vézelay).

Tournus Abbey Church is an interesting example in which the arches resting on

piers are spanning all along the nave supported by transverse arches. Below each
vault resting on these arches on the high nave walls on the South and north sides,
small windows illuminate the interior.
The North of France comprises the provinces of Central France, with Paris as the
radiating centre, and the provinces of Normandy and Brittany.

Figure 10 11th and 12th centuries, Arles became one of the most attractive cities in the Mediterranean. Within
the city walls, Saint-Trophime, with its cloister, is one of Provence's major Romanesque monuments .

Important web site for further reading:

http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/architecture/romanesque.htm#features