8.

TENSOR CALCULUS

By VACLAV VILHELM

References: [16), [23), [35), [42), [64), [90), (114), [116), [128), [154), [157), [161), (166],
[171), [174), [181).

8.1. Contravariant and Covariant Coordinates of a Vector and their

Transformation by a Change of the Coordinate System

If eh e 2 , e 3 are three arbitrary non-coplanar vectors then they define a coordinate

system (eh e 2 , e 3 ) in space in the sense that every vector a can be written uniquely
in the form
(1)
where a 1 , a 2 , a 3 are real numbers. (We mention explicitly that a; does not denote
the i-th power of a but a nurober a; with the upper index i.)
Definition 1. The numbers a 1 , a 2 , a 3 are called the contravariant Coordinates
of the vector a in the coordinate system (e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ).

a3
f,
I

Example 1. Let us choose three mutually perpendicular unit vectors in space

and denote them by e 1 = i, e2 = j, e 3 = k (Fig. 8.1). If a is an arbitrary vector,
then a = a 1 i + a 2j + a 3 k = a;ei (see Remark 2); the numbers al, a 2 , a 3 are its
contravariant coordinates in the coordinate system (i, j, k).
K. Rektorys, Survey of Applicable Mathematics
© Springer Science+Business Media New York 1994
8.1 TENSOR CALCULUS 243

From (1), a vector is obviously uniquely determined by its contra-

REMARK 1.
variant Coordinates in the given coordinate system.
3
REMARK 2. Equation (1) can be written in the form a = I aie;. It is customary
i~1

in tensor algebra to adopt the "summation convention" by which we omit the sum
symbol I and write simply a = aie;. In this convention it is understood that whenever
an index is repeated (as in a;e;) we sum over the values i = 1, 2, 3. Thus, aie;
stands for the sum a 1 e 1 + a 2 e 2 + a 3 e 3 • In what follows weshall normally use this
brief notation.
If e~, e;, e; denote three other non-coplanar vectors in space, then
e~ = e~e 1 + eie 2 + eie 3 ,
e; = eie 1 + e~e 2 + e~e 3 , (2)
e; = eje 1 + e~e 2 + e~e 3 ,
briefly this may be written as
e; = e{e1 (i = 1, 2, 3) ,
since j is a repeatable index.
Definition 2. The matrix A = ( ej) (the upper index refers to the columns, the lower
to the rows) is called the transformation matrix of the coordinate system ( e 1 , e 2 , e 3 )
to the coordinate system (e~, e;, e;).
Theorem 1. The determinant of the transformation matrix is different from
zero; hence we may write
e; = J{ej (i = 1, 2, 3), (3)
where the matrix (fj) is the inverse of (e;) (see Example 2).
Theorem 2 (Transformation of the Contravariant Coordinates of a Vector). If
the contravariant coordinates of a vector a in the coordinate system ( e1 , e2 , e 3 )
are a 1 , a 2 , a 3 and those in the coordinate system ( e~, e;, e;) are a' 1 , a' 2 , a' 3 , then
the following relation holds between these coordinates:
a,; = JJai, ai = eJa'i (i = I, 2, 3). (4)
Here the matrix

is the transpose A' of the transformation matrix A of the system ( e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ) to the

system ( e~, e;, e;) and the matrix
244 SURVEY OF APPLICABLE MATHEMATICS 8.1

is the inverse of the matrix A', i.e.

3
"L. i k = bi
eJ; k ( briefly (5)
i= 1

where b~ = { 1 for k =
Ofork =Fj
j} (see Example 2).

REMARK 3. b~ in Theorem 2 is known as the Kronecker delta.

Theorem 3. Let the contravariant coordinates of vectors a and bin the coordinate
system ( e 1 , e 2 , e 3) be ai and bi, respectively. Then, for the scalar product a . b we
have the relation
3 3
a.b = I I g iia i bi
i=l j=l

or briefly
(6)
where
gii = e;.ei (i,j = 1,2,3)
(see Example 2 below).
Definition 3. The numbers

(see Theorem 4) are called the covariant coordinates of the vector a in the coordinate
system (e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ) and are denoted by a 1 , a 2 , a 3 • Thus, a; = giiai.
REMARK 4. Since the numbers a\ a2 , a 3 can be determined from the equations
a; = g liai uniquely (because the determinant of the matrix (gij) is different from
zero), a vector is, according to Remark 1, uniquely determined by its covariant
coordinates in the given coordinate system. In the system (i, j, k) of Example 1,
ai = ai.

Theorem 4 (Transformation of the Covariant Coordinates of a Vector). If the

covariant coordinates of a vector a in the coordinate system (e 1 , e 2 , e 3) are a 1 , a 2 , a 3
and those in the coordinate system ( e~, e;, e;) are a~, a;, a;, the the following
relation holds between these coordinates:

a~ = e{a i, a 1 = J{aj ; (7)

the numbers e{,J( having the same meaning as in Theorem 2.
8.2 TENSOR CALCULUS 245

Consider the vector a, the contravariant coordinates of which in the coordinate

system ( e 1 , e 2 , e 2 ) are a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , 1.e.
· a = a ; e;. H ence, a = a 1( e ,1 cos 01: - e 2, sm
• 01:) +

+ a (e~sina+e;cosa) + a te; = (a cosa+a sina)e~ + (-a sina +

2 3 1 2 1

+ a 2 cos a) e; + ta 3 e;. Thus, the contravariant coordinates of the vector a in the

coordinate system (e~, e;, e;) are

a' 1 = a 1 cos 01: + a 2 sin 01:,

a' 2 = - a 1 sin 01: + a 2 cos 01: ,
a'3 = ta3.
The matrix of this transformation (see equation (4)) is

cos 01:, sin 01:,

[ -sin 01:, cos 01:, 0 ,
0]
0, 0, t
which is the inverse of the matrix A' (see Theorem 2).
The covariant coordinates of the vector a in the coordinate system (e 1 , e 2 , e 3) are
(Theorem 3) a; = (e;. e1) ai = ojal = ai (i.e. the same as the contravariant coordin-
ates ), while the covariant Coordinates of the vector a in the coordinate system
1 = e 1 . e1 a
( e I ,e I ,e ' ) area I ( I ') tj = a tl , a I = ( e I .e ' ) a lj = a 12 ,a I = ( e I .e ' ) a I } =
1 2 3 2 2 1 3 3 1
= 4a ' ( stnce
3 • ' e 1' = 0 10r
e;. l' ' . e '1 = e 2
• e1
1• =I= J, ' • e '2 = 1, e '3 • e '3 = 4) .

The scalar product a . a is (Theorem 5)

a. a = aia; = (a 1) 2 + (a 2 ) 2 + (a 3) 2 = a,;a~ = (a 1 cos 01: + a 2 sin 01:) 2 +

+ ( -a 1 sin 01: + a2 cos a)l + ta 3 • 2a 3 •

8.2. The Concept of a Tensor in Space

Wehave shown in§ 1 that in every coordinate system, a vector is detennined by an

ordered triplet of numbers - by its contravariant or covariant coordinates. In chang-
ing from one coordinate system to another, this system of numbers defining the
vector transforms in a certain way. The transformation formulae for contravariant
and covariant coordinates are different (see Theorem 8.1.2 and Theorem 8.1.4).
On the other hand, if to every coordinate system we assign three numbers al, a2 , a 3
or b 1 , b 2 , b3 in such a way that when changing from one coordinate system to another,
these ~umbers are transformed according to the formulae a'i = f]ai (or b; = e{b1),
,\ '

where (ej) is the corresponding transformation matrix and (fj) is the transpose of
the inverse of the matrix (e{) , then these numbers can be understood to be the
contravariant, or covariant coordinates of the vector o, or b, respectively. This fol-
lows from Theorems 8.1.2 and 8.1.4 and, thus, these numbers define the vectors o
and b. This idea is exploited in the following definition of a tensor.
246 SURVEY OF APPLICABLE MATHEMATICS 8.2

Theorem 5. Let ai, bi be the contravariant and ai, bi the covariant coordinates
of vectors a, b in the given coordinate system, respectively. Then the scalar product
a. b satisfies

(where again, aibi = a 1 b 1 + a 2 b2 + a 3 b3 , a;bi = a 1 b 1 + a 2 b2 + a 3b3 ; see

Example 2).

Fig. 8.2.

Example 2. Let (e 1 , e 2 , e 3) = (i, j, k) be the coordinate system of Example I

and let us choose another three linearly independent vectors e~ e;, e; such that the
vector e; is obtained from the vector e; (i = 1, 2) by rotation through an angle a
in the plane of the vectors e 1 , e 2 (see Fig. 8.2), and e; = 2e 3 • Then equations (2)
take the form
e~ = e 1 cos a + e 2 sin a ,
e; =- e 1 sin a + e 2 cos a ,

The transformation matrix of the coordinate system (e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ) to the coordinate

system (e ,1 , e 2, , e ') .
3 lS

cos a, sin a, 0 ]
A = [ -sin a, cos a, 0 .
0, 0, 2

We can easily show that equations (3) have the form

e1 = e~ cos a - e; sin a ,
e2 = e~ sin a + e; cos a ,

and, thus, the transformation matrix of the coordinate system ( e~, e;, e;) to the
system (e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ) is
cos a, - sin a, 0]
B = [ sin a, cos a, 0 ,
0, 0, !
i.e. the inverse of A.
8.2 TENSOR CALCULUS 247

Definition 1. We say that a tensor is defined in space if, to every coordinate system,
there correspond 3p+q numbers a~~::: (the number of upper indices is p, the number
of lower indices q) such that they are transformed according to the formulae

(1)

by any change from one coordinate system to another (in the right-hand side of
formulae (1) we sum (from one to three) over all indices which appear twice there).
Here, (e;) is the transformation matrix and UJ) the transpose of the inverse of the
matrix '( ei·) The tensor so defined is said to be p-times contravariant and q-times
covariant~ ·rhe number p + q is called the rank of the tensor, the numbers a~~~::: are
called the coordinates of the tensor.

REMARK1. Instead of "tensor of rank two" the term "quadratic tensor" is used.
A quadratic tensor once covariant and once contravariant is called a mixed quadratic
tensor. A tensor satisfying q = 0, or p = 0, is called a contravariant, or covariant,
tensor, respectively.

Example 1 (a scalar). If to every coordinate system (e 1 , e 2 , e 3) there corresponds

the same number a, a tensor of rank zero (p = q = 0), called a scalar, is defined.

Example 2 (a contravariant vector). If ai arecontravariant coordinates of a vector,

then, by a change of the coordinate system, they are transformed according to the
formulae a'i = JJai; this is a particular case of the formulae (1) for p = 1, q = 0.
Thus ai are the coordinates of a contravariant tensor ofrank 1, called a contravariant
vector.

Example 3 (a covariant vector). If ai are covariant Coordinates of a vector, then

by a change of the coordinate system, they are transformed (see Theorem 8.1.4)
according to formulae (1), where p = 0, q = 1. Thus, a; are the Coordinates of a co-
variant tensor of rank 1, called a covariant vector.

Example 4. The coordinates of a contravariant tensor aii are transformed, using

( 1), as follows:

Hence, in the transformation formulae for a contravariant (or covariant) tensor

only the elements ofthe matrix (fj) (or (e;)) appear.

Example 5 (a metric tensor of the space). Ifto every coordinate system (e 1 , e 2 , e 3 )

we assign the numbers g ii = e;. ei (see Theorem 8.1.3), we can easily checkthat these
numbers are transformed, by a change of the coordinate system, according to the
formulae g;i = g 1me:ej. Thus, gii are the coordinates of a double covariant tensor
of rank 2 (i.e. a quadratic double covariant tensor), called the (covariant) metric
248 SURVEY OF APPLICABLE MATHEMATICS 8.2

tensor. The Coordinates g iJ can be written in the form of a matrix

If

is its inverse (i.e. giigik = .:5~ - see Remark 8.1.3), then the numbers gil are the Co-
ordinates of a double contravariant tensor of rank 2, called the (contravariant)
metric tensor. lf the contravariant (or covariant) coordinates of vectors a, bin the
given coordinate system are ai, bi (or a;, b;) and the covariant (or contravariant)
Coordinates of a metric tensor in this system are g;1 (or gii), then a. b = g; 1a 1b1 =
= giia;b1• This justifies the term "metric tensor".

Example 6. If to every coordinate system we assign the numbers

.:5~ =
J
{10 forfor i = j ,
i =1- j ,

then .:5'/ = c:5:ejf; = e'jf; = .:5; (see Theorem 8.1.2). Thus, .:5~ are the coordinates of
a once covariant and once contravariant tensor of rank 2 (i.e. a mixed quadratic
tensor). These Coordinates are the same in all coordinate systems.
Example 7. Let us choose a coordinate system in space and assign to every vector a,
the contravariant Coordinates of which are ai, the vector b, the contravariant Co-
ordinates b; of which are defined by the equations

(2)
i.e.
bt = c~at + da2 + da3 '
b 2 = da 1 + c~a 2 + c~a 3 ,
b3 = cfat + da2 + c~a3 .

If we change the given coordinate system to a new one in which the coordinates of the
vector a, or the vector b, are a'i, or b'i, respectively, then the following relation be-
tween these coordinates holds:
b'i = c'/a'i ,

where c'/ = c:e}f! ((e~) is the transformation matrix of the original coordinate
system to the new one). Thus, c~ are the coordinates of a mixed quadratic tensor.
8.3 TENSOR CALCULUS 249

In particular, considering the so-called small deformations of a solid whereby

the vector ai is transformed into the vector äi, then relations (2) hold between the
vector a 1 and the vector b 1 = äi - ai. The coefficients cJ are the coordinates of the
so-called deformation tensor (see Example 8.4.4, p. 256).

8.3. A Tensor on a Surface

Definition 1. Let 1t be a smooth surface in space defined by the radius vector

r(u 1 , u 2 ) (see equations (9.11.1), (9.11.6) where u, v are written instead of u 1 , ~ 2 ).

Fig. 8.3.

lf, to every point M of the surface n, the coordinates of which are u 1 , u 2 , there cor-
responds a vector v(u 1 , u 2 ) having initial point M(u 1 , u 2 ) and lying in the tangent
plane of the surface at this point, we say that a (tangent) vector field, or briefly a
(tangent) vector v(u 1 , u 2 ) is given on the surface 1t (see Fig. 8.3).

REMARK 1. lt is known (see § 9·12) that the vectors

lie in the tangentplane of the surface r(uto u 2 ) at the point M(u 1 , u 2 ) and are non-
collinear. Therefore, they can be taken as the coordinate vectors in the tangentplane
at the point M(uto u 2 ). Every vector v(u 1 , u 2 ) on the surface 1t can then be uniquely
written in the form

(1)
briefly

Definition 2. v 1(u 1 , u 2 ), v2 (u 1 , u 2 ) (briefly vi) are the so-called contravariant

Coordinates of the vector v(u 1 , u 2 ) on the surface r(u 1 , u 2 ) (in the local coordinate
system (r 1(u 1 , u 2 ), r2 (ui> u2 )) of the point M(u 1 , u 2 ) of the surface).
250 SURVEY OF APPLICABLE MATHEMATICS 8.3

REMARK 2. If r'(u;, u~) is another parametric expression of the surface n of

Definition 1 in which the point M with original Coordinates ul> u 2 has Coordinates
u;, u~, then weshall always assume that u;, u~ are continuously differentiable func-
tions of the variables u 1 , u 2 :

u; = u~(ul> u 2 ) , {2)
u~ = u~(u 1 , u 2 ) .

Similarly, weshall assume that u 1 , u2 are continuously differentiable functions of the

variables u;,u~;

u 1 = u 1 (u~, u~), (3)

u 2 = u 2 (u;, u~).

Here, equations (3) represent the solution of equations (2) with respect to the variables
u 1 , u 2 • The determinant of the matrix

is different from zero and the matrix( ~:~ }rormed by the partial derivatives of the

functions (3)) is the inverse of the matri:x( ~:;). hence

where ~~ is the Kroneckerdelta (see Remark 8.1.3).

Theorem 1. If we transform the parametric expression r(ul> u 2 ) of a surface to
a new parametric expression r'(u;, u~) by means of equations (3), then thefollowing
relations hold between the local coordinate t•ectors r 1 (u 1 , u2 ), r 2 (u1> u 2 ) in the
original expression and the local coordinate vectors r;(u;, u~). r~(u;, u~):

(4)

ouj ,
r.= - r ..
, aUi J
(5)
8.3 TENSOR CALCULUS 251

REMARK 3. From (4), we see that the transformation matrix of the coordinate
system (r 1 , r2 ) to the coordinate system (r~, r;) is(ouj)cr. Definition 8.1.2).
ou~

Theorem 2 (Transformation of the Contravariant Coordinates of a Vector on

a Surface). If the contravariant Coordinates of a tangent vector v at a point Mon
a surface n in the local coordinate system (r 1 , r2 ) are vl, v 2 and those in the local
coordinate system (r~, r~) (which has resulted from the original system by the
change of the parametric expression of the surface defined by equations (2) and (3))
are v11 , v' 2 then
,. au; . . aui
= -v 1 •
I'
v ' = - v1 , V1
auj auj
REMARK4. The coordinates v1 , v2 in Theorem 2 are naturally functions of the
variables u 1 , u 2 ; similarly the coordinates V V are functions of the variables
1
\
12

u~, u~.

Theorem 3. Let the contravariant coordinates of vectors a and b on a surface in the

local coordinate system (rl> r2 ) be a 1 and b 1, respectively. Then
2 2
a. b = I I g 1ia 1bi = giia 1bi, (6)
i=l j=l

Definition 3. The numbers a 1 = giiai are said tobe the covariant Coordinates of the
vector a in the coordinate system (r 1 , r 2 ).

Theorem 4 (Transformation of the Covariant Coordinates of a Vector on a Sur-

face). If the covariant Coordinates of a vector von a surface r(u 1 , u 2 ) in the local
coordinate system (r 1 , r2 ) are v1 and those in the local coordinate system (r~, r;)
(which has resulted from the original system by the change of the parametric
expression of the surface according to equations (2) and (3)) are v;, then

auj auj '

a
I_
V---V·
I I
U;
J'
V·=-V·.
I
U;
J a
Theorem 5. Let a 1, b 1 be the contravariant and a 1, b 1 the covariant coordinates
of vectors a, b on a surface r(u 1 , u 2 ), respectively. Then a. b = a 1b 1 = a 1b 1 (here,
i runs from 1 to 2).

Definition 4 (Definition of a Tensor on a Surface; cf. Definition 8.2.1). We say

a tensor field (briefly a tensor) is defined on a surface rc if, to every local coordinate
system (r 1 (u 1 , u 2 ), r2 (u 1 , u 2 )) defined by the corresponding parametric expression
r(u 1 , u 2 ) of the surface n, there correspond 2p+q numbers (depending on the point
252 SURVEY OF APPLICABLE MATHEMATICS 8.3

of the surface) a!{::: (the number of upper indices is p, the number of lower indices q;
i, j, k, l, ... = 1, 2) suchthat they are transformed according to the formulae

a"..1 "" = a 1m ... -OU~OU~

1 _J
(7)
rs... tv ... OU I OUm

by any change from the coordinate system (r 1 (u 1 , u 2 ), r2 (u 1 , u 2 )) to the coordinate

system (r~(u~, u;), r;(u~, um which has resulted from the original system by the
change ofthe parametric expression ofthe surface according to equations (2) and (3).
This tensor is said to be p-times contravariant and q-times covariant. The number
p + q is called the rank of the tensor, the numbers a;~::: are called the Coordinates
of the tensor.

REMARK 5. The coordinates a!~::: of a tensor on a surface n in the local coordinate

system (r 1 , r2 ) defined by the parametric expression r(u 1 , u 2 ) of the surface n are
evidently functions of the variables u 1 , u 2 (see Remark 4).

Example 1 (A Scalar on a Surface). If to every point of a surface n there cor-

responds a certain fixed number a, then a tensor field of rank zero (p = q = 0),
called a scalar field, briefly a scalar, is determined. In the coordinate system defined
by the parametric expression r(u 1 , u 2 ) ofthe surface n, a is a function ofthe variables
u1 , u2 : a = a(u 1 , u 2 ). For a different expression r'(u~, u;) of the surface n in which
the point with original curvilinear coordinates u 1 , u 2 has curvilinear coordinates
u~, u;, we naturally have a = a(u~, u;) = a(u 1 , u 2 ).

Example 2 (A Contravariant and Covariant Vector on a Surface). Let vi and V;

be respectively the contravariant and covariant coordinates of a vector v on a surface.
Then, comparing the transformation formulae of Theorems 2 and 4 and the formulae
of Definition 4, vi and V; are easily seen to be the Coordinates of a once contravariant,
or a once covariant tensor of rank 1, the so-called contravariant, or covariant,
vector on a surface, respectively.

Example3(The Metric Tensor of a Surface(thefirstfundamental tensorof a surface)).

lfwe assign to every local coordinate system (r 1 , r2 ) defined by the expression r(u 1 , u 2 )
the numbers O;/u 1 , u 2 ) = r1(u 1 , u 2 ). riu 1 , u 2 ), we easily verify that these numbers
under any change of the coordinate system satisfy the transformation formulae

Hence, gii are the coordinates of a twice covariant quadratic tensor, the so-called
(covariant) metric (or thefirstfundamental) tensor of the surface. The determinant
of the matrix (gij) is different from zero and thus there exists the inverse matrix
8.3 TENSOR CALCULUS 253

(gij) (Le. g;igik = 6~; see Remark 8.1.3). The numbers gii(u 1 , u 2 ) arethecoordinates
of ;,, twice contravariant quadratic tensor, the so-called (contravariant) metric tensor
of the surface. If ai, bi, or a;, b;, are the contravariant, or covariant, coordinates,
respectively, of the vectors a, b on a surface in the coordinate system in which the
coordinates of the metric tensor are gii• ther1 a. b = g;iaibi = giia;bi, a. a =
= g iiaiai = giia ;a i· This justifies the term "metric tensor": by means of it we mea-
sure the lengths of vectors on a surface, and angles between them. The coordinates
gii(u 1 , u 2 ) are called the coefficients of the jirst fundamental form of the surface
(§9.14).

Fig. 8.4,
X

Example 4 (The Second Fundamental Tensor of a Surface). Let n be a surface

given by the parametric expression r(u 1 , u 2 ) and h 11 (u 1 , u 2 ) dui + 2h 12 (u 1 , u 2 ) •
. du 1 du 2 + h 22 (ul> u 2 ) du~, briefly hii du; dui, be its second fundamental form (see
§ 9.15). Then hii are the Coordinates of a quadratic twice covariant tensor, the so-called
second fundamental tensor of the surface.

Example 5. In a reetangular coordinate system, let a spherical surface with centre

at the origin of the coordinate system and radius r be given (see Fig. 8.4). Let us
choose the parametric expression r(u 1 , u 2 ) in such a way that the coordinates of
r(u 1 , u 2 ) are
x = r cos u 1 s1n u 2 ,

y = r sin u 1 sin u 2 , 0 ~ u 1 < 2n, 0 < u 2 < 1t.

z = r cos u 2 ,

The coordinates of the local coordinate vectors r1 (u 1 , u 2 ), r2 (u 1 , u 2 ) (see Remark 1)

are

r1 (u 1 , u 2 ) = (- r sin u 1 sin u 2 , r cos u 1 sin u 2 , 0),

r2 (u 1 , u2) = ( r cos u 1 cos u 2 , r sin u 1 cos u 2 , -r sin u 2 ).

 254 SURVEY OF APPLICABLE MATHEMATICS 8.4

;i
The covariant Coordinates g u 1, u 2) of the metric tensor (see Example 3) are

g 11 = r 1 • r 1 = r 2 sin 2 u 1 sin 2 u 2 + r 2 cos 2 u 1 sin 2 u 2 = r 2 sin 2 u 2 ,

g 12 = g 21 = r 1 • r 2 = -r 2 sin u 1 sin u 2 cos u 1 cos u 2 +
+r 2 cos u 1 sin u 2 sin u 1 cos u 2 = 0,
g 22 = r 2 • r 2 = r 2 cos 2 u 1 cos 2 u 2 + r 2 sin 2 u 1 cos 2 u 2 + r 2 sin 2 u 2 = r 2 .

The contravariant Coordinates gi1(u 1 , u 2) of the metric tensor satisfy g iJgik = !5~, i.e.

gugu + gtzgzt = gltrz sin2 u2 = 1'

gllg12 + g12g22 = g12r2 sinz Uz = 0'

g 21 gu + g 22 g21 = g21rz = 0,
g 21 g12 + g 22 g22 = g22rz = 1.

Thus, g 11 = 1/(r2 sin 2 u 2), g 12 = g 21 = 0, g 22 = 1/r2. Let a vector a at a point M

of the spherical surface be given, the contravariant Coordinates of which are a 1, a 2 •
Then its covariant Coordinates are (see Definition 3)
a -- g a}_12·2
1 11 - a r sm u , a = g aJ. = a 22
2 2 r .
21

The scalar product a. a has the form (see Example 3)

a. a = gliaiai = (a1)2 rz sin2 u2 + (a2)2 rz.

8.4. Basic Algebraic Operations on Tensors

REMARK 1. By the term "tensor" we understand here both tensor in space and
tensor on a surface. It is necessary to bear in mind that the indices of the coordinates
of a tensor in space assume the values 1, 2, 3 while those of the coordinates of a tensor
on a surface only the values 1, 2.
Definition 1 (Equality of Tensors). We say that two tensors are equal if they are
both p-times contravariant and q-times covariant and their coordinates are equal
in at least one coordinate system. (Then, the coordinates are equal in every coordinate
system.)
Definition 2 (Addition of Tensors). If a~~:::, b;~::: are the coordinates of two tensors
of the sametype (i.e. if both are p-times contravariant and q-times covariant), then
the numbers

are the coordinates of a tensor which is said to be the sum of these tensors (and is
of the same type).
8.4 TENSOR CALCULUS 255

Definition 3 (Multiplication of Tensors). If a~,j::. are the coordinates of a Prtimes

contravariant and q 1 -times covariant tensor and b~!::: the coordinates of a p 2 -times
contravariant and q 2 -times covariant tensor, then the numbers
ciJ ... kl ... = a iJ ... bkl ...
pq ••• rs... pq... rs •••

are the coordinates of a {p 1 + p 2 )-times contravariant and (q 1 + q2 )-times co-

variant tensor which is said to be the product of these tensors.
Definition 4 ( Contraction of Tensors). Let a!L be the coordinates of a p-times
contravariant and q-times covariant tensor. Consider the sums
cJr...
... = "a~J ... =
~ &r...
a 11Ir "·.
...
i

Then c:::: are the coordinates of a (p - 1)-times contravariant and (q - 1)-times

covariant tensor. The tensor c:::: is called a contraction oj the tensor a!~:::. Contraction
can be performed not only on the first upper and the first lower indices but also on
arbitrary k upper and k lower indices. For example, the contraction of a tensor a!~
performed on both upper and both lower indices is the scalar = a aB= L L aH.
I 1
Example 1. Let v1 be a contravariant vector, g 11 a (covariant) metric tensor. By
multiplication, we get the tensor g 11vk of rank three; the covariant vector v1 = g 1ivl
is its contraction.
Definition 5 (Lowering and Raising of Indices). For every p-times contravariant
and q-times covariant tensor a!~::: a new (p + q)-times covariant tensor a 11..., .... =
= gk 1g IJ ... a~~::: can be constructed, where g 11 are the coordinates of the metric tensor.
We say that the tensor a 11 ... rs ... was obtained from the tensor a!L by lowering of
indices.
Similarly a new (p + q)-times contravariant tensor a•s ... IJ ... = g'kg• 1•.• a!{::: can
be constructed from a tensor a!~:::. The tensor a•• ... iJ ... was obtained from a!~::: by
raising oj indices.
REMARK 2. By raising some of the indices of a covariant tensor we again get
a tensor; however, it is necessary to indicate those indices which have been raised.
This may be done by means of dots which indicate the place of the raised indices,
as illustrated in the following examples:
i
a.ik
j
= g il a,ik• a;.k = g lj ailk• a lj..k = g ilg jpalpk'
A similar notation is used when lowering indices, e.g. a 1jk = g liallk.
Example 2. By lowering the contravariant coordinates v1 of a vector we get its
covariant Coordinates v 1 = g 11 vi.
Definition 6. A tensor is said to be symmetric with respect to given upper (or
lower) indices if its Coordinates do not alter by an arbitrary permutation of these
256 SURVEY OF APPLICABLE MATHEMATICS 8.5

indiees. For example, a tensor a:i" is symmetrie with respeet to the first two lower
. d"1ees 1"f a Iiik = a Jik·
m I

Example 3. The metrietensorg 11 is symmetrie for g 11 = r 1 • r1 = r1 . r 1 = g 11 . Also

the tensor gii and the seeond fundamental tensor h11 of a surfaee (see Example 8.3.4)
are symmetrie.
Definition 7. A tensor is said to be skew-symmetric (alternating) with respect to
a given group of upper (lower) indices if the sign ehanges with every interehange
of two arbitrary indices of the group. For example, a tensor aii is skew-symmetric
if a 11 = -a 11 .
Definition 8 (Operation of Symmetrization). For every tensor, a tensor symmetrie
with respeet to a given group of indiees can be eonstrueted. For example, by sym-
metrization of a tensor a tikt ... with respeet to the first three indiees we get the tensor

I
a(l"k)l
J ••• . IJ· "kl •••
= -3! (a + atkJI ••• + a Jl··kz ••• + aJ·k·z + a".IJ·z ••• + akJl··z ••• )
I ••• • (1)

The tensor a(iik) is the so-ealled symmetric part of the tensor a 11".
Definition 9 (Operation of Skew-symmetrization ). For every tensor, a tensor skew-
symmetric with respeet to a given group of indiees can be eonstrueted. For example,
by skew-symmetrization of a tensor a 1ikl ... with respeet to the first three indices we
get the tensor

1
a[tikJI ... = 3! (atJkl ... - atkJI ... - aitkl ... + aiktl ... + aktJI ... - akitl ... ) · (2)

(Here, we choose the plus sign with an even and minus with an odd permutation of the
indiees i, j, k.)
The tensor a[tikl is the so-ealled skew-symmetric part of the tensor a 11".
REMARK 3. A quadratie tensor is the sum of its symmetrie and skew-symmetrie
parts: a 11 = a(ti> + a[iJJ·
Example 4. If aii = c~g 1 " are the covariant coordinates of the deformation
tensor of Example 8.2.7, then its symmetrie part a(ii> = !-(a 11 + a11) is the so-ealled
tensor of a pure deformation, its skew-symmetric part a[iil = t(aii - a11) is the
so-ealled tensor of rotation (it represents, roughly speaking, the rotation ofthe body).

8.5. Symmetrie Quadratic Tensors

Definition 1. On a surfaee defined by a parametric expression r(u 1 , u 2 ), Iet a quad-

ratie symmetrie (non-zero) tensor be given. Aeeording to Definition 8.4.5 we can
8o5 TENSOR CALCULUS 257

assume that it is covariant and its coordinates are aii(u 1 , u 2 ) (aiJ = a11 )o Let us
choose a point 0 on the surface whose curvilinear coordinates are u 1 , u 2 and con-
struct in the tangentplane at this point the locus ofterminal points ofvectors t 1 on the
surface with the initial point at 0 which satisfy whichever of the equations

a 11 t't1
0 0

= a 11 t 1)2 + 2a 12 t 1 t 2 + a 22 ( t 2)?- =
(
±1 o (1)
This locus is called the indicatrix of the tensor a 11 at the point (u 1 , u 2 )o

I
a) cJ

Figo 8o5o

Theorem 1. The indicatrix of the tensor a 11 at a point 0 is

1. an ellipse (or a circle), if the determinant

l au,
a21o
a121
azz
(2)

is positive (ioeo theform a 1/ti is definite) (see Fig. 8o5a);

2. a pair of hyperbolas with common asymptotes and centre at the point 0
(see Figo 8o5b), if the determinant (2) is negative (ioe. theform a 1/t 1 is indefinite);
3. a pair of parallel lines, if the determinant (2) equals zero (see Figo 8o5c)

In what follows we shall restriet our considerations to the case when

REMARK 1.
the determinant (2) is non-zero.

Definition 2. The directions of conjugate diameters of the indicatrix of a tensor are

called conjugate directions of the tensor; the directions of the axes are the principal
directions of the tensor.

Theorem 2. Vectors v1, w1 lie in conjugate directions of a tensor aiJ if and only
f
1 aiiv i wj = 0 0

REMARK 20 Determination of the principal directions of a quadratic tensor:

1. If a iJ is a multiple of the metric tensor (i.e. a Ii = Äg iJ), then the indicatrix is
a circle and any direction is principal;
258 SURVEY OF APPLICABLE MATHEMATICS 8.5

2. Let au not be a multiple of g 11 ; Iet v, w be vectors lying in the principal direc-

tions of the tensor a 11 (see Fig. 8.5a,b), v1, w1 their contravariant coordinates. Then

a 11v1w1 = 0,
(3)
v . w = g 11v1wi = 0 .
Re-write the equations (3) in the form

v1(a 11w1) = 0,
v1(g;1w1) = 0.
In orderthat there exist a non-zero solution v1, the determinant

must be equal to zero, i.e. a1Jw1 = A.g 11 w1 and thus

(4)
In orderthat equations (4) have a non-zero solution for wi, it is necessary that

Iau -
a21 -
A.gu, a12 - A.g121 = 0.
A021• a22 - A.g22
(5)

The roots A.lt A.2 of the quadratic equation (5) are the so-called characteristic num-
bers of the tensor. Substituting them successively into equations (4) we can determine
the required vectors w1, v1 (see Example 1).

REMARK 3. Fora quadratic symmetric tensor in space we can obtain results similar
to those just introduced. However, the indicatrix is then a quadratic surface (or a pair
of such surfaces) and there are, in general, three principal directions.

Example 1. Let the tensor of the membrane stresses in the middle surface of
a spherical shell of radius r be given by the covariant coordinates uiJ(u 1, u 2 ), with
respect to the coordinate system of Example 8.3.5. Let us find the directions of the
principal stresses in the middle surface.
The tensor of the membrane stresses is symmetric and its principal directions
coincide with the directions of the principal stresses. In order to determine the prin-
cipal directions of the tensor u 11 we substitutein equation (5) above (where g 11
= r2 sin 2 u 2 , 9 12 = 9 21 = 0, 9 22 = r2 ), giving
Iu 11 - A.r2 sin2 u2, u 12 I = 0,
iI 0'12• 0'22 - Ä.r 2
i.e.
12 r 4 sm
Jl.
. 2
u2 - , 2( u 11
Ar . 2 u 2) +
+ u 22 s1n 2
0' 11 0' 22 - 0'12 = 0.
8.5 TENSOR CALCULUS 259

Denoting the roots of this equation by ..1. 1 , ..1. 2 , we find vectors v1, w1 lying in the prin-
cipal directions, from equations (aii - A. 1 gii)vi = 0, (aii - A. 2 gii)wi = 0, i.e.
( u 11 - 1
~~. 1r sm 2 u 2 ) v 1
2. + u 12 v 2 = 0 , (u
11 -
1
11. 2 r 2stn
. 2 u 2) w1+ u 12 w2 -_ 0 •

Thus, v1 jv 2 = u 12 j(A. 1 r2 sin 2 u 2 - u 11 ) and similarly w1 jw 2 = u 12 j(A.2 r 2 sin 2 u2 -

- u 11 ). Here, the ratio v1 jv 2 (or w1 jw2 ) represents the tangent ofthe angle which the
principal direction (axis of the indicatrix) makes with the corresponding parallel
Iine on the middle surface.
REMARK 4. In tensor calculus, tensors may also be introduced by means of the
concept of a dyad (see e.g. [90]). For tensor analysis.(covariant derivative etc.) see
e.g. [181}).