Gaus Jordan

Chapter 2
Basic Linear Algebra

to accompany
Introduction to Mathematical Programming Operations Research,
Volume 1, 4th edition, by Wayne L. Winston and Munirpallam
Venkataramanan
Presentation by: H. Sarper
1
Copyright (c) 2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.
Chapter 2 - Learning Objectives
 Describe matrices and vectors with basic matrix

operations.
 Describe matrices and their application to modeling
systems of linear equations.
 Explain the application of the Gauss-Jordan method of
solving systems of linear equations.
 Explain the concepts of linearly independent set of vectors,
linearly dependent set of vectors, and rank of a matrix.
 Describe a method of computing the inverse of a matrix.
 Describe a method of computing the determinant of a
matrix.
2
2.1 - Matrices and Vectors
Matrix – an rectangular array of numbers
1 2 1 2 3  1 
      (2 1)
 3 4   4 5 6   2 
Typical m x n matrix
having m rows and n
columns. We refer to  a 11 a 12 .... a 1n 
m x n as the order of  
the matrix. The A  a 21 a 22 .... a 2n 
number in the ith row  .... .... .... .... 
and jth column of A is
 
called the ijth element
of A and is written aij.
 a m1 a m2 .... a mn 
3
Two matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] are equal if and
only if A and B are the same order and for all i
and j, aij = bij.
If 1 2 and  x y
A   B  
3 4 w z
A = B if and only if x = 1, y = 2, w = 3, and z = 4
4
Vectors – any matrix with only one column is a
column vector. The number of rows in a
column vector is the dimension of the 1
column vector. An example of a 2 X 1  
matrix or a two-dimensional column vector 2
is shown to the right.
Rm will denote the set all m-dimensional column vectors
Any matrix with only one row (a 1 X n

matrix) is a row vector. The dimension of (1 2 3)
a row vector is the number of columns.
5
Vectors appear in boldface type: for instance vector v.
Any m-dimensional
vector (either row or 0
column) in which all the
(0 0 0)  
0
elements equal zero is
called a zero vector
(written 0).
Examples are shown to
the right.
6
Any m-dimensional vector
corresponds to a directed line X2
(1, 2)
segment in the m-dimensional

plane. For example, the two-
dimensional vector u corresponds
to the line segment joining the X1
point (0,0) to the point (1,2)
The directed line segments

(vectors u, v, w) are shown on the
figure to the right. (-1, -2)
1  1   1  (1, -3)

u   v   w  
2  3   2 
7
The scalar product is the result of multiplying two vectors
where one vector is a column vector and the other is a
row vector. For the scalar product to be defined, the
dimensions of both vectors must be the same.
The scalar product of u and v is written:
u v u 1  v 1  u 2  v 2  ....  u n  v n
2
Example: u (1 2 3 ) v 1
 
2
u v ( 1  2)  ( 2  1)  ( 3  2) 10
8
 1 2  3 6
Scalar multiple of a matrix: A   3 A  
 1 0   3 0 
Example addition of two

matrices (of same order): C A B
i j i j i j
 1 2 3 
A  
 0 1 1   1 1 2 2 3 3 0 0 0
C    
 0  2 1  1 1  1   2 0 0 
 1 2 3 
B  
 2 1 1 
9
X2
Addition of vectors (of
same degree). Vectors
may be added using the 3
(3,3)
parallelogram law or by
using matrix addition.
(1,2)
2
u+v
v (2 1 ) u
u (1 2 ) 1
(2,1)
v
u v (2  1 1  2 ) X1
u v (3 3 ) 1 2 3
10
Line Segments can be defined
using scalar multiplication X2
and the addition of matrices.
c=1
2
If u = (1,2) and v = (2,1), the c=1/2
line segment joining u and v u
(called uv) is the set of all 1 c=0

points corresponding to the
v
vectors
X1
cu +(1-c)v where 0 < c < 1
1 2
See the example to the right.
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Transpose of a matrix Example
Given any m x n matrix 1 2 3

A  
4 5 6
 a11 a12 a13 
 
A  a21 a22 a23 
1 4
a a a  T 2 5
 31 32 33  A
 
3 6
 a11 a21 a31 
T
 
A  a12 a22 a32 
a a a 
 13 23 33 
Observe: A T
T
A
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Matrix multiplication Example
1 1
Given to matrices A and B, the 1 1 2 B 2 3
A    
matrix product of A and B 2 1 3
 1 2 
(written AB) is defined if and
only if the number of columns
1 1
in A = the number of rows in B. C ( 1 1 2 ) 2  5 C ( 1 1 2 ) 3  8
11   12  
The matrix product C = AB of A 1 2
and B is the m x n matrix C 1 1
C ( 2 1 3 ) 2  7 C ( 2 1 3 )   3  11
whose ijth element is 21   22  
determined as follows: 1 2
 5 8 
Cij = scalar product of row i of C  
A x column j of B  7 11 
Note: Matrix C will have the same number of rows as A and the same
number of columns as B.
13
Matrix Multiplication with Excel
Step 3 – In the upper left-hand
corner (B8) of this selected
Use the EXCEL MMULT output range type the formula:
function to multiply the matrices:
= MMULT(B1:D2,B4:C6).
1 1 Step 4 - Press CONTROL
 1 1 2 
A   B 2 3 SHIFT ENTER (not just enter)
 2 1 3   
1 2
A B C D
1 Matrix A 1 -1 2
Step 1 – Enter matrix A into 2 2 1 3
cells B1:D2 and matrix B into 3
cells B4:C6. 4 Matrix B 1 1
5 2 3
Step 2 – Select the output 6 1 2
range (B8:C9) into which the 7
8 AB= 1 2
product will be computed. 9 7 11
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2.2 – Matrices and Systems of Linear Equations
Consider a system of linear equations a11 x1  a12 x2  ....  a1n xn b1
shown to the right. The variables
(unknowns) are referred to as x1, x2, a21 x1  a22 x2  ....  a2n xn b1
…, xn while the aij’s and bj’s are
constants. A set of such equations is .... .... .... ....
called a linear system of m equations
in n variables. am1 x1  am2 x2  ....  amn xn bm
A solution to a linear set of m equations in n unknowns is a set of values

for the unknowns that satisfies each of the system’s m equations.
 1
Example Given x   where x1 1 x2 2
2
is a solution to the system x1  2x2 5 2x 1  x 2 0
since (using substitution) 1  2 ( 2) 5 2 ( 1)  2 0
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Matrices can simplify and compactly represent a system of linear

equations.
 a 11 a12 .... a 1n   x1  b1 

     
 x2 
A  a 21 a 22 .... a 2n  x  b2 
 .... .... .... ....   ....  b
   .... 
   
a
 m1 m2a .... a mn   xn 
bm
A system of linear equations may be written Ax = b and is called it’s
matrix representation. The matrix multiplication (using only row 1 of
the A matrix for example) confirms this representation thus:
a 11 x 1  a 12 x 2  ....  a 1n x n b1
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Ax = b can sometimes be abbreviated A|b.

For example, given:
1 2   x1  5
A   x   b  
 2 1   x2  0
1 2 5
A|b is written:
 
 2 1 0 
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2.3 – The Gauss-Jordan Method
Using the Gauss-Jordan method, we can show that any system of
linear equations must satisfy one of the following three cases:
Case 1 The system has no solution.
Case 2 The system has a unique solution.
Case 3 The system has an infinite number of

solutions.
The Gauss-Jordan method is important because many of the

manipulations used in this method are used when solving
linear programming problems by the simplex algorithm (see
Chapter 4).
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Elementary row operations (ero).
An ero transforms a given matrix A into a new
matrix A’ via one of the following operations:
Type 1 ero – Matrix A’ is obtained by multiplying any

row of A by a nonzero scalar.
Type 2 ero – Multiply any row of A (say, row i) by a

nonzero scalar c. For some j ≠ i, let:
row j of A’ = c*(row i of A) + row j of A.
Type 3 ero – Interchange any two rows of A.
19
Finding a solution using the Gauss-Jordan method.
The Gauss-Jordan method solves a linear equation
system by utilizing ero’s in a systematic fashion.
The steps to use the Gauss-Jordan method (with
an accompanying example) are shown below:
2 2 1 9
Solve Ax = b where: A  2 1 2  b 6
   
 1 1 2  5
Step 1 – Write the 2 2 1 9

augmented matrix A|b =
 2 1 2 6 
representation:  
 1 1 2 5 
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The method uses ero’s to
transform the left side of A|b 1 0 0 1 1
into an identify matrix. The
0 1 0 2 x 2
   
solution will be shown on the 0 0 1 3 3
right side. See x to the right.
Step 2 – At any stage, define a current 2 2 1 9

row, current column, and current entry A|b =  2 1 2 6 
(the entry in the current row and column).  
Begin with row 1 as the current row and  1 1 2 5 
column 1 as the current column, and a11
(a11 = 2) as the current entry.
1
0
If the current entry (a11) is nonzero, use ero’s to
 
transform the current column (column 1) entries to: 0
21
Steps to accomplish this were:
 1 1 1 9 
A1|b1 =  2 2
1. Multiply row 1 by ½ (type 1 ero).
 2 1 2 6 
 1 1 2 5 
 1 1 1 9
2. Replace row 2 of A1|b1 by -2*(row1  2 2 
A2|b2 =
A1|b1) + row 2 of A1|b1 (type 2 ero).  0 3 1 3 
 1 1 2 5 
 
1 1 1 9 
 
2 2
3. Replace row 3 of A2|b2 by -1*(row 1  
A3|b3 =
of A2|b2) + row 3 of A2|b2 (type 2  0 3 1 3 
ero).  3 1 
 0 2 
 2 2 
22
Then obtain the new current row, column, and entry by

moving down one row and one column to the right and
go to Step 3. 1
0
If a11 (current entry) would have equaled zero, then do a  
type 3 ero with the current row and any row that 0
contains a nonzero entry in the current column. Use
ero’s to transform column 1 as shown to the right.
If there are no nonzero numbers in the current column,

obtain a new current column and entry by moving one
column to the right.
Step 3 - If the new current entry is non zero, use ero’s to transform it to
1 and the rest of the column entries to 0. Repeat this step until finished.
23
Making a22 the current entry: 1 1 1 9 
 2 2 
 
A4|b4 =  0 1 1
4. Multiply row 2 of A3|b3 by -1/3 1 
(type 1 ero)  3 
 3 1 
 0 2 
 2 2 
1 0 5 7 
 6 2 
 
5. Replace row 1 of A4|b4 by -1*(row A5|b5 =  0 1 1 1 
2 of A4|b4) + row 1 of A4|b4 (type 2  3 
ero).  3 1 
 0 2 
 2 2 
1 0 5 7
 6 2
6. Place row 3 of A5|b5 by 2*(row 2 of  
A6|b6 =  0 1 1
A5|b5) + row 3 of A5|b5 (type 2 ero). 1
 3 
 5 5
0 0 
 6 2
24
Repeating Step 3 again for the another 1 0 0 1
new entry (a33) and performing an A9|b9 = 0 1 0 2
additional three ero’s yields the final
augmented array:
 
0 0 1 3
Special Cases: After application of the Gauss-Jordan method, linear
systems having no solution or infinite number of solutions can be
recognized.
No solution example: Infinite solutions example:
1 2 3   1 0 1 2 
  0 1 0 3 
 0 0 2   
0 0 0 0 
25
Basic variables and solutions to linear equation systems
For any linear system, a variable that appears with a coefficient

of 1 in a single equation and a coefficient of 0 in all other
equations is called a basic variable.
Any variable that is not a basic variable is called a nonbasic

variable.
Let BV be the set of basic variables for A’x=b’ and NBV be the
set of nonbasic variables for A’x=b’. The character of the
solutions to A’x=b’ ’ (and Ax=b) depends upon which of
following cases occur.
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Case 1: A’x=b’ has

at least one row of the
form [0, 0 , …, 0 | c] (c 1 0 0 1 1 
≠ 0). Then A’x=b’  
0 1 0 2 3
(and Ax = b) has no  
solution. In the matrix A’|b’ = 0 0 1 3 1 
to the right, row 5
meets this Case 1
0 0 0 0 0 
criteria. Variables x1,  
x2, and x3 are basic 0 0 0 0 2 
while x4 is a nonbasic
variable.
27
Case 2: Suppose
Case 1 does not apply
and NBV, the set of
nonbasic variables is
empty. Then A’x=b’
1 0 0 1
will have a unique A’|b’ = 0 1 0 2
solution. The matrix to
the right has a unique
 
solution. The set of 0 0 1 3
basic variables is x1,
x2, and x3 while the
NBV set is empty.
28
Case 3: Suppose
Case 1 does not
apply and NBV is
 1 0 0 1 1 3

not empty. Then
 0 1 0 2 0 2
A’x=b’ (and Ax = b) A’|b’ =
will have an infinite 0 0 1 0 1 1
number of solutions.
0 
BV = {x1, x2, and x3}  0 0 0 0 0
while NBV = {x4 and
x5}.
29
A summary of Does A' | b ' have a row [ 0, 0 , ..., 0 | c ] (c < > 0 ) ?

Gauss-Jordan
method is Yes No
shown to the
Ax = b has no
right. The end solution.
Find BV and NBV.
result of the
Is NBV empty?
Gauss-Jordan
method will be Yes
one either Case No
1, Case 2, or Ax = b has a unique

solution.
Case 3. Ax = b has an infinite
number of solutions.
30
2.4 – Linear Independence and Linear Dependence
Let V = {v1, v2, …, vk} be a Example:
set of row vectors all
having the same
dimension. If V = { [1 , 2] , {2 , 1] }
A linear combination of
the vectors in V is any 2v1 – v2 = 2([1 2]) – [2 1] = [0 3]
vector of the form c1v1 +
c2v2 + … + ck where c1,
c2, …, ck are arbitrary and
scalars.
v1 + 3v2 = [1 2] + 3([2 1]) = [6 3]
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A set of vectors is called linearly independent if the only linear

combination of vectors in V that equals 0 is the trivial linear
combination (c1 = c2 = … = ck = 0).
A set of vectors is called linearly dependent if there is a nontrivial

linear combination of vectors in V that adds up to 0.
Example
Show that V = {[ 1 , 2 ] , [ 2 , 4 ]} is a linearly dependent set of
vectors.
Since 2([ 1 , 2 ]) – 1([ 2 , 4 }) = (0 0), there is a nontrivial linear
combination with c1 =2 and c2 = -1 that yields 0. Thus V is a
linear independent set of vectors.
32
X2
What does it mean for a set of 2
v2 = (2 2)
vectors to linearly dependent? A set

of vectors is linearly dependent only
if some vector in V can be written as 1
Linearly Dependent
a nontrivial linear combination of
other vectors in V. If a set of vectors v1 = (1 1)
in V are linearly dependent, the 1 2 X1

vectors in V are, in some way, NOT X2
v1 = (1 2)
all “different” vectors. By “different 2
we mean that the direction specified Linearly Independent

by any vector in V cannot be
expressed by adding together 1 v2 = (2 1)
multiples of other vectors in V. For

example, in two dimensions, two
linearly dependent vectors lie on the 1 2 X1
same line.
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The Rank of a Matrix: Let A be any m x n matrix, and denote the

rows of A by r1, r2, …, rm. Define R = {r1, r2, …, rm}.
The rank of A is the number of vectors in the largest linearly
independent subset of R.
Given V = {[1 0 0], [0 1 0], [1 1 0]}
To find the rank of matrix A,
apply the Gauss-Jordan 1 0 0
method to matrix A. Let A’ be
A 0 1 0
Form
the final result. It can be matrix A  
shown that the rank of A’ = 1 1 0
rank of A. The rank of A’ =
the number of nonzero rows After the 1 0 0
in A’. Therefore, the rank A = Gauss-Jordan A'  0 1 0 
method:  
rank A’ = number of nonzero 0 0 0
rows in A’.
34
A method of determining
whether a set of vectors Given V = {[1 0 0], [0 1 0], [1 1 0]}
V = {v1, v2, …, vm} is 1 0 0
A 0 1 0
Form
linearly dependent is to matrix A  
from a matrix A whose ith 1 1 0
row is vi. If the rank of A
= m, then V is a linearly After the 1 0 0
independent set of Gauss-Jordan A'  0 1 0 
method:  
vectors. If the rank A < 0 0 0
m, then V is a linearly
dependent set of vectors. Since the rank of A’ = 2 which is
See the example to the < 3, the set of vectors in V are
right. linearly dependent.
35
2.5 – The Inverse of a Matrix
A square matrix is any matrix

that has an equal number of
rows and columns.
The diagonal elements of a
square matrix are those 1 0 0
elements aij such that i = j.
I3 0 1 0
A square matrix for which all
diagonal elements are equal to
 
1 and all non-diagonal 0 0 1
elements are equal to 0 is
called an identity matrix. An
identity matrix is written as Im.
An example is shown to the
right.
36
For any given m x m matrix A, the m
x m matrix B is the inverse of A BA AB Im
if :
Some square matrices do not have
inverses. If there does exist an m
x m matrix B that satisfies BA = 1
AB = Im, then we write: B A
 2 0 1   1 0 1
A  3 1 2  B A
1  5 1 7 
Example  
 
 1 0 1   1 0 2
 2 0 1   1 0 1   1 0 0 
AB AA
1
I3  3 1 2    5 1 7   0 1 0 
    
 1 0 1   1 0 2   0 0 1 
37
To see why we are interested in the

inverse of a matrix, suppose we want Ax b
to solve a linear system Ax = b that
A 1Ax
has m equations in m unknowns.
Suppose that A-1 exists. The results 1
of multiplying both sides of the
A b
equation by A-1 is shown to the right.
1
This shows that knowing A-1 enables us Im x A b
to find the unique solution to a
square linear system of equations.
The Gauss-Jordan method may be 1

used to find A-1 (or show that A-1 x A b
does not exist).
38
Using the Gauss-Jordan Method to find A-1.
Given matrix A, create the 2 5

augmented matrix A | I2.
A  
1 3
Create the augmented 2 5 1 0

matrix A | I2. A | I2 =  
1 3 0 1
Transform A into I2 using ero’s.
1 5 1 0
Step 1 - multiply row 1  2 2 
A’| I2’ =  
by ½ yielding:
1 3 0 1
39
1 5 1
0
Step 2 - replace row 2 by (-1)
A’’| I2’’ =
 2 2
(row1) + row 2 yielding:  
1 1
0 1
 2 2 
1 5 1 0
Step 3 - multiply row 2 A’’’| I2’’’ =  2 2 
by 2 yielding:  
 0 1 1 2 
Step 4 - replace row 1 by (–5/2)(row1)  1 0 3 5 

 
+ row 1 yielding:  0 1 1 2 
I2 has been transformed into A-1.
40
Some matrices do not have

inverses.
 1 2
Consider matrix A (shown to the A  
right). Applying the Gauss-Jordan
method yields A’. 2 4
Matrix A does not have a solution
1 2
since the bottom row of A’ has A'  
zeros. This can only happen if
rank A < 2. If m X m matrix A has 0 0
rank < m, then A-1 will not exist.
41
Use matrix inverses to solve linear 2 x1  5 x2 7

systems.
Using appropriate matrix representation x1  3 x2 4

to solve the system to the right.
 2 5   x1   7   3 5 
Ax b or      where: A'  
 1 3   x2   4   1 2 
1  3 5   7  1
x A b     
 1 2   4  1
Thus, x1 = 1, x2 = 1 is the unique solution to the system.
42
In the upper left-hand corner
Inverting Matrices with Excel
of the output range (cell B5),
Use the EXCEL MINVERSE enter the formula:
function to invert the = MINVERSE(B1:D3)
matrix:
A B C D
 2 0 1  1 Matrix A 2 0 -1
A  3 1 2 
2 3 1 2
  3 -1 0 1
 1 0 1 
4
5 Matrix A-1 1 0 1
6 -5 1 -7
Enter the matrix into cells 7 1 0 2
B1:D3 and select the output
range (B5:D7 was chosen) Press CONTROL SHIFT
where you want A-1 ENTER and out A-1 is
computed. computed in the output range
43
2.6 – Determinants
Associated with any For a 2 x 2 matrix:
square matrix A is a
 a11 a12 
number called the A  
determinant of A  a21 a22 
(often abbreviated as
 
det A or |A|). det A = a11a22 – a21a12
For a 1 x 1 matrix: Example:

det A = a11
2 4
det   = 2(5) – 3(4) = -2
3 5
44
If A is an m x m matrix, 1 2 3
then for any values of i If A 4 5 6
 
and j, the ijth minor of 7 8 9
A (written Aij) is the (m
- 1) x (m - 1) submatrix 4 6
of A obtained by then A
12  
7 9
deleting row i and
column j of A.
1 3
A
32  
4 6
45
 a 11 a 12 .... a 1m 
 
 a 21 a 22 .... a 2m 
Let A be any m x m matrix. A
We may write A as:  .... .... .... .... 
 
 a m1 a m2 .... a mm 
To compute det A, pick any value of i ( i = 1, 2, …, m) :
det A = (-1)i+1ai1(det Ai1) + (-1)i+2ai2(det Ai2) + …

+ (-1)i+maim(det Aim)
The above formula is called the expansion of det A by

the cofactors of row i.
46
1 2 3
Find det A given matrix A: A 4 5 6
 
7 8 9
det A is expanded by using row 1 cofactors (row 2 or row 3
could be used with similar results). Notice that using row
1: a11 =1, a12 = 2 and a13 =3 and the minors of matrix A.
5 6 4 6 4 5
A
11   A
12   A
13  
7 9 7 9 7 8
47
Thus: det A11 = 5(9) – 8(6) = -3
det A12 = 4(9) – 7(6) = -6
det A13 = 4(8) – 7(5) = -3
det A = (-1)i+1ai1(det Ai1) + (-1)i+2ai2(det Ai2)

+ (-1)i+2ai2(det Ai2)
= (1)(1)(-3) + (-1)(2)(-6) + (1)(3)(-3) = -3 +12 + -9 = 0
Note: det A = 0 makes “sense” since the set of row vectors

forming matrix A are clearly linearly dependent.
48

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Chapter 2

Basic Linear Algebra

Presentation by: H. Sarper

 Describe matrices and vectors with basic matrix

A = B if and only if x = 1, y = 2, w = 3, and z = 4

Rm will denote the set all m-dimensional column vectors

Any matrix with only one row (a 1 X n

Vectors appear in boldface type: for instance vector v.

segment in the m-dimensional

point (0,0) to the point (1,2)

The directed line segments

1  1   1  (1, -3)

The scalar product of u and v is written:

Example addition of two

(called uv) is the set of all 1 c=0

See the example to the right.

Given any m x n matrix 1 2 3

A solution to a linear set of m equations in n unknowns is a set of values

since (using substitution) 1  2 ( 2) 5 2 ( 1)  2 0

Matrices can simplify and compactly represent a system of linear

 a 11 a12 .... a 1n   x1  b1 

a 11 x 1  a 12 x 2  ....  a 1n x n b1

Ax = b can sometimes be abbreviated A|b.

Case 1 The system has no solution.

Case 2 The system has a unique solution.

Case 3 The system has an infinite number of

The Gauss-Jordan method is important because many of the

Type 1 ero – Matrix A’ is obtained by multiplying any

Type 2 ero – Multiply any row of A (say, row i) by a

Type 3 ero – Interchange any two rows of A.

Step 1 – Write the 2 2 1 9

Step 2 – At any stage, define a current 2 2 1 9

Then obtain the new current row, column, and entry by

If there are no nonzero numbers in the current column,

Basic variables and solutions to linear equation systems

For any linear system, a variable that appears with a coefficient

Any variable that is not a basic variable is called a nonbasic

Case 1: A’x=b’ has

A summary of Does A' | b ' have a row [ 0, 0 , ..., 0 | c ] (c < > 0 ) ?

one either Case No

1, Case 2, or Ax = b has a unique

v1 + 3v2 = [1 2] + 3([2 1]) = [6 3]

A set of vectors is called linearly independent if the only linear

A set of vectors is called linearly dependent if there is a nontrivial

vectors to linearly dependent? A set

in V are linearly dependent, the 1 2 X1

we mean that the direction specified Linearly Independent

multiples of other vectors in V. For

The Rank of a Matrix: Let A be any m x n matrix, and denote the

A square matrix is any matrix

To see why we are interested in the

The Gauss-Jordan method may be 1

Using the Gauss-Jordan Method to find A-1.

Given matrix A, create the 2 5

Create the augmented 2 5 1 0

Step 4 - replace row 1 by (–5/2)(row1)  1 0 3 5 

Some matrices do not have

Use matrix inverses to solve linear 2 x1  5 x2 7

Using appropriate matrix representation x1  3 x2 4

For a 1 x 1 matrix: Example:

To compute det A, pick any value of i ( i = 1, 2, …, m) :

det A = (-1)i+1ai1(det Ai1) + (-1)i+2ai2(det Ai2) + …

The above formula is called the expansion of det A by

det A = (-1)i+1ai1(det Ai1) + (-1)i+2ai2(det Ai2)