Built Form

Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities
June 2013
Reducing the materials and

resource intensity of the built form
in the Perth and Peel regions
Curtin University Sustainability Policy (CUSP) Institute

Funded by the Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population, and Communities through the Sustainable
Regional Development Program
At the scale of a precinct or subdivision, what are

the best practicable options for reducing the
materials and resource intensity of the current built
form for the Perth and Peel regions?
Contents The views and opinions expressed in this publication are

those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of
1.0 Context 3 the Australian Government or the Minister for
Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and
2.0 Stakeholder Workshops 8 Communities.
3.0 Planning the new era 12 While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that
the contents of this publication are factually correct, the
4.0 Analysis and Results 16 Commonwealth does not accept responsibility for the
accuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall not be
5.0 Discussion 26 liable for any loss or damage that may be occasioned
directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the
6.0 Recommendations 29 contents of this publication.
Arup & CUSP | Perth and Peel Built Form Research | June 2013
Arup & CUSP Built Form Research
Executive Summary
In July 2011, the Western Australian Ministers for Planning and Environment and the Commonwealth Minister for
Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities agreed to undertake a Strategic Assessment of the Perth and
Peel regions. During this process, a number of knowledge gaps at a local, state and federal level have been identified within the
planning and sustainability context. One such opportunity is addressed through this research.
Our approach to the research question has centred on the principles of sustainable urban planning, basic raw materials
planning, urban metabolism and offsite manufacturing and new materials. The analysis provides a comparison between the
three main urban form types: outer new area developments (greenfields), middle redevelopment areas (greyfields), and inner
redevelopment areas (brownfields).
Basic raw materials (BRM) are an essential part of Perth planning and housing policy. Not only are sand, limestone, gravel and
clay used in the construction process but they are also used to fill housing sites and enable them to be safely above water tables
or flood lines. These materials are always assumed to be readily available in Perth, however, a series of reports from
government and industry have highlighted growing problems in the availability of BRM. A more holistic view of planning for
BRM extraction and use is required. This will include careful management of the conflicts between environmental protection
and BRM in close proximity to Perth and Peel developments. Changes in Perth’s strategic planning will need to be considered
to minimise the impact of BRM availability.
Two other factors define the response – urban form and construction innovation. The analysis shows that urban infill
opportunities need to be realised in Perth and Peel, with a critical need to address models that will facilitate better development
in the greyfields. One key reason for this is that redevelopment sites generally require substantially less fill than fringe
developments in the southern suburbs. Construction innovation will constitute the use of off-site construction as a model for
better construction practices, much of which can already be demonstrated. Construction innovation is not currently being
applied consistently to Perth’s urban development.
Many of the recommendations contained in section 6 of this document relate to further understanding of the issues surrounding
BRM, suggesting that this is one of the key elements to addressing the materials and resource intensity of the built form in
Perth and Peel. There is a requirement for a deeper understanding in both planning, governance and the development industry
of the BRM issues Perth and Peel faces.
Arup & CUSP | Perth and Peel Built Form Research | June 2013
Arup & CUSP Built Form Research: An Introduction
Introduction
As cities and towns continue to grow, so do their demands for energy, water, natural resources,
food and land. Development and construction methods in the urban environment require a vision
and strategy that seeks to minimise resource use and environmental impact, while enhancing social
connectivity and promoting economic growth.
Arup and the Curtin University Sustainability Policy institute (CUSP) view cities as living
organisms that have a metabolism requiring inputs of land, energy, water and materials that are the
building blocks of city life. The resources are processed by the city in order to create a liveable
built environment, however, in doing so there is an inevitable production of waste due to the laws
of thermodynamics.
It is the living organism approach that Arup and CUSP seek to apply to Perth and Peel in this work
to address the question:
At the scale of a precinct or subdivision, what are the best practicable options for reducing the
materials and resource intensity of the current built form for the Perth and Peel regions?
For further information please feel free to contact us.
Regards,
Hugh Gardner Prof. Peter Newman

Urban & Regional Planner John Curtin Distinguished Professor of Sustainability
Arup & CUSP | Perth and Peel Built Form Research | June 2013 1
Arup & CUSP Built Form Research: An Introduction
Perth’s current population of circa

1.5 million is predicted to more than
double by 2050. To accommodate
this influx we need to build at least
700,000 homes. More than housing,
the city’s entire infrastructure will
have to double. What was built in
179 years will need to be
reproduced in 40.
- Richard Weller
The last two centuries have witnessed a variety of attempts biodiversity, all achieved whilst maintaining or improving
at articulating city archetypes stemming from differing and liveability. Arup and CUSP have joined to address a series
largely mechanistic worldviews –Ebenezer Howard’s of critical questions in the Perth and Peel context – all
Garden City, the City Beautiful movement, Frank Lloyd relating to the primary consideration of reducing the
Wright’s Broadacre City, Le Corbusier’s Radiant City – all materials and resource intensity of the built form.
represent a conception of what a city should look like, how
What alternative building methods are able to reduce or
it should be arranged and how it should function. The most
avoid the use of Basic Raw Materials (BRM) and what
recent efforts have included today’s Sustainable City and
substitutes are available with a lower environmental
Resilient City – part of the desire to reduce the impact of
footprint?
city growth whilst at the same time creating greater
liveability. Just as earlier attempts at creating beautiful and What different types of urban form are required to support
equitable urban environments were a reaction to the grimy the use of alternative building methods and materials with
and unpleasant nature of cities of the time, so the a lower environmental footprint?
Sustainable City and Resilient City concepts are a reaction What are the barriers to, and opportunities for, achieving
to the high social and natural resource consumption of the
the identified options for alternative building methods,
modern city.
materials and built form, and how can these be addressed?
The majority of cities around the world have adopted
strategies to manage their resource consumption and
waste. Indeed it is now one of the features of competition
between places to live and work across the globe. In this
competitive aspect of city life Perth has not ranked well
(Economist Group, 2013) despite being high on liveability
rankings (Mercer Consulting, 2012).
The vision underpinning the Sustainable City is one of
reduced consumption of fossil fuels and water; reduced
generation of waste; and an easing in the loss of
Arup & CUSP Built Form Research: The Context
There are good reasons for BRM becoming a critical

1.0 Context consideration in the quest for sustainable housing in Perth
and Peel:
This research has been carefully considered through a  Priority has not been given to significant sand and
participatory approach that has included a number of
limestone deposits as the development front reaches
government and industry stakeholders. As well as the
research and views presented here, a contribution to the them, leaving them unusable in the future (sterilised).
broader discussion around the Strategic Assessment has  Good clay deposits for bricks are now harder to find
been a key outcome for the team.
near Perth.
This body of work has consisted of:  Conflicts between sand and limestone areas and
environmentally significant sites not considered
 Definition of the problem to be addressed suitable for BRM quarries are now common.
 A literature review  Perth’s development along the coast has mostly been
 A round of exploratory expert & stakeholder on the higher Spearwood Sand formations that need
workshops very little extra fill; however the recent and next
phases of Perth’s development are moving into the
 Formulation of an analysis framework based on a lower lying Bassendean sand formations that are
triple bottom line business case approach requiring significant fill of around 1 to 2m of sand.
 Analysis of BAU and an optimal scenario for three This is particularly evident in the southern suburbs.
broad development types (green fields, greyfields, It is important to note that the southern suburbs of Perth
brownfields) using the urban metabolism framework are lower lying than the northern suburbs due to the ‘tilt’
 Draft report circulated to key stakeholder group for described in detail in George Seddon’s Sense of Place
comment (1972).
 Draft report circulated to peers for comment The result of these physical realities is that BRM are
becoming more limited and further away; together this
 Follow up expert & stakeholder workshop means higher transport costs, higher construction costs and
 Final write up and summary presentation ultimately, an impact on housing affordability in Perth. As
we will discuss, changes in Perth’s strategic planning will
1.1 The need for this research need to be considered to minimise the impact of BRM in
this space.
In July 2011, the Western Australian Ministers for
Planning and Environment and the Commonwealth Two other factors define the context for this study: urban
Minister for Sustainability, Environment, Water, form and construction innovation.
Population and Communities agreed to undertake a Urban form is created by decisions about housing
Strategic Assessment of the Perth and Peel regions. typologies as well as locations. Urban form in Perth and
During this process, a number of knowledge gaps at a Peel is addressed in the planning system through the
local, state and federal level have been identified within relative commitment between greenfield development or
the planning and sustainability context. One such redevelopment, especially in or near activity centres.
opportunity is addressed through this research. Directions 2031 and Beyond places an emphasis on
Basic raw materials (BRM) are an essential part of Perth consolidating development around existing and future
planning and housing policy. Not only are sand, limestone, public transport infrastructure and around strategic centres
gravel and clay used in the construction process but they including UWA/QEII, Curtin, Murdoch, Stirling, Perth
are also used to fill housing sites and enable them to be Airport and Midland.
safely above water tables or flood lines. These materials Alternative types of city development, such as
are always assumed to be readily available in Perth, concentrations of residential housing and commercial
however, a series of reports from government and industry activity in centres supported by quality public transport –
have highlighted growing problems in the availability of transit oriented development – offer the potential to supply
BRM. more housing in locations that are accessible to the key
activities and amenities of the city.
Most of these redevelopment sites are also likely to be

preferable in terms of BRM than the new areas requiring
1.2 Literature review
substantial fill. However no data detailing how much could A literature review of which a summary of findings is
be saved by redevelopment has been estimated in the Perth presented in section 1.3 was undertaken as the first step to
context. Although mentioned briefly, BRM is not a consistent understanding of the current issues and
highlighted as a potential issue in Directions 2031 and opportunities as they relate to the research question. From
Beyond. the research question, four major themes were identified
and researched:
 Basic raw materials
“The future doesn’t just happen, it is
shaped by vision and discourse,  Urban metabolism
which then translates into what we  Sustainable urban planning
build. What we build this century will
make or break our country.”  Offsite manufacturing and new materials
- Julian Bolleter The outputs from the literature review were subsequently
- used as the basis for discussions with key stakeholders to
Construction innovation is the kind of building determine any gaps or further opportunities from the
techniques and materials that could inform a very different perspective of industries involved in future urban
kind of draw on BRM. The housing construction industry development in Perth and Peel. The workshops were
in Perth is dominated by ‘cottage industry’ building rather framed by the four themes and used to explore their
than adopting new technologies and practices that could relationship with three broad development settings
reduce costs and at the same time reduce resource (greenfields, greyfields, and brownfields). The literature
requirements such as BRM. This, coupled with the review summary can be viewed at Appendix A.
increasing cost of raw materials has driven up construction The Department of Planning’s The Housing We’d Choose
costs at a much higher rate than inflation. was developed in parallel to this research and released in
Researching the new Technologies and Construction May 2013. The document was not a part of the literature
Innovations (TCI) that are emerging in the world and are review as it was not released at the time. The Housing
being adopted across Australia provides another possible We’d Choose sends a clear signal that the residents of
direction to assist in solving the growing problem of BRM Perth and Peel support a shift in focus from urban fringe
in Perth. development of detached four bedroom homes to a wider
range of housing types in the inner and central regions.
1.3 Approach and key ideas 1.3.2 Urban metabolism

Our approach to the research question has centred on the Urban metabolism can be understood as the life force
elements and theories explained in the following sections. underlying all of the technical and socio-economic
The information provided in this section provides both an processes that occur in a city. The idea came to the
overview of information from the literature review and forefront of urban research and planning in the 1970s and
important background information to the analysis then waned until about the 1990s. It has since gained much
presented in section 4. traction, with the recent literature emphasising the growing
trend of modelling cities as living organisms that have a
1.3.1 Basic raw materials (BRM) metabolism requiring inputs of land, energy, water,
information and materials while creating outputs of waste,
A key tool for achieving sustainability in cities is ‘closed
and pollution as well as the various components of
loop’ planning – where waste materials become inputs to
liveability. Urban metabolism is a biological systems way
the next phase of urban development. In order to achieve
of looking at the resource inputs and waste outputs of
closed loop planning a city must have in place policies that
settlements.
encourage this behaviour. Thus policies are needed for the
efficient use and re-use of any materials necessary for the Cities will require better management of the consumption
city’s development and the efficient use of land in relation of resources and production of waste to reduce their
to the supply of raw materials and disposal of inert waste. impact on the environment. A sustainable city requires a
reduction in the use of natural resources and in the
In Perth one such policy is State Planning Policy 2.4 (SPP
production of wastes while simultaneously improving
2.4) on ‘Basic Raw Materials’ that sets out land use
liveability. Cities are major consumers of resources (i.e.
planning policies for raw materials used in construction
water, land, materials, energy and food) and major
and the disposal of construction waste through ‘sequential
producers of waste and greenhouse gases.
land use’. SPP 2.5 on ‘Agricultural and Rural Land Use
Planning’ is also important in its objective to protect land Increasingly the ecological footprints of cities are
resources, minimise conflict and manage natural resources. extending far beyond their boundaries. To be sustainable,
consumption of resources and the generation of wastes
Cumbersome administrative processes and ‘red tape’ can
need to be reduced to better fit within the capacities of the
slow down the planning, release and development of land,
local, regional and global ecosystems. However, to be
infrastructure and vital services. At the same time if each
truly sustainable this reduction needs to be accompanied
development must negotiate for BRM sites as they proceed
with improvements in liveability. This is referred to as an
through local planning schemes, there will inevitably be a
Extended Metabolism Model (Newman, 1999). This
slowing down of the approvals process. This represents
enables a holistic perspective, or ‘systems’ perspective, of
significant cost to businesses, government and the
the inputs and outputs of a city and also enables a
community. Efficient and effective assessment and
recognition of the links between cities and ecosystems,
approval processes for development is in everybody’s
allowing the interactions between the city and the
interests. The focus should be on minimising time and
environment to be more apparent.
costs for proponents and government administrative
bodies, balanced with appropriate consideration for, and An urban metabolism understanding enables the dynamics
input from, stakeholders and communities. and drivers of change within a city to be studied. For
example, it facilitates understanding of the impact of
The issue of BRM should be dealt with through technical
policies to reduce energy use. The development and
advice and clear provision in the Metropolitan Region
management of our cities affects national prosperity and
Scheme so that there is no doubt about its priority and its
the wellbeing of all Australians, no matter where they live.
need to be included in policy relating to sequential land
use. One major omission in the urban metabolism literature is
information about how basic raw materials (for example
Perth’s planning has always depended on an adequate
sand) are used within the system. No literature appeared to
supply of basic raw materials such as sand, clay, gravel
include BRM in its assessment of urban metabolism and
and limestone. Early books like Sense of Place by George
certainly nothing was available on Perth’s urban
Seddon (1972) recognise that sites for these are indeed
metabolism that includes BRM.
limited and that future planning must take into account
how best to ensure these non-renewable resources are used
wisely.
1.3.3 Sustainable urban planning Alternative types of city development, such as

concentrations of residential housing and commercial
Directions 2031 and Beyond represents a high level spatial
activity in centres supported by good public transport or
framework and strategic plan. It aims to establish a vision
along transport corridors, known as ‘transit-oriented’
for the future growth of the Perth and Peel region and
development, offer the potential to supply more housing in
provides a framework to guide the planning and delivery
locations that are accessible to a range of jobs, services
of consolidated growth (increased densities in inner urban
and community facilities in our cities. In the process this
areas). Directions 2031 targets represent the current
will help to stop the urban sprawl that threatens many
implementation of sustainable urban planning principles in
environmental values as well as enabling a reduction in the
the Perth and Peel context and show clearly a desire to
urban metabolism of the city due to less need for resources
move towards a more compact city form (more detail
and more opportunities to manage waste. The literature on
provided in Delivering Directions 2031 Annual Report
this is extensive globally, nationally and locally.
Card 2012):
The Federal Government report on cities highlights these
 50 per cent improvement on current infill residential
issues. It suggests that the challenges that we face in
development trends of 30 and 35 per cent; and, a
Australian cities are broadly categorised by need to:
target of 47 per cent or 154,000 of the required
328,000 dwellings as infill development.  Improve productivity growth
 50 per cent increase in the current average residential  Provide affordable and accessible housing
density 10 dwellings per gross urban zoned hectare;
 Create safe community spaces
and, a target of 15 dwellings per gross urban zoned
hectare of land in new development areas.  Meet the needs of a growing and ageing population
Sub-regional strategies are currently being developed to  Ensure an inclusive and cohesive society
provide guidance at a local level – a regional response at a  Address the implications of climate change
finer grain.
Australia’s peri-urban areas face competing pressures and
The 2009 Urban Growth Monitor indicated that the current decision makers are required to balance competing
supply of land in the Metropolitan Region Scheme and priorities as residential or other forms of land use encroach
Peel Region Scheme includes more than 18,600 hectares on valuable land. Whilst urban development may be seen
of land that is zoned either urban or urban deferred and is as a more valuable higher-order land use, the economic,
yet to be developed. social and environmental implications of business as usual
Over the last decade there has been increased residential are largely agreed to be significant.
development in and around Australian CBDs, coinciding The Housing We’d Choose (2013) indicates that a dwelling
with growth in outer metropolitan areas. The desire for supply of affordable accommodation matching preferences
inner-city living changes preferences for dwellings and for semi-detached dwellings would result in a much more
location and reflects state and local government planning compact city with a far greater proportion of households
frameworks that encourage infill developments. As living in the Inner Central region of Perth and Peel.
expected, we have seen a decrease in the average size of
dwellings and a trend towards a more diverse group of Residential and commercial buildings are responsible for
dwellings. approximately 20% of Australia’s total energy
consumption (Prime Minister’s Task Group on Energy
Urban infill needs to be accompanied by improved urban Efficiency, 2010). The energy used by households in
amenity. particular is closely linked to urban and built form. Flows
of people and freight between our cities are growing and
rapidly placing pressure on the capacity of air, road and
“Australia is at a watershed point for rail infrastructure. Western Australia has a suite of policies
its capital cities and their strategic focussed on the integration of public transport with land
planning… this must also include use planning.
reconsideration of Australia’s
settlement patterns” The WAPC State Planning Policy No. 1: State Planning
Framework (SPP1) sets out the key principles relating to
- COAG Reform Council environment, community, economy, infrastructure and
regional development, that should guide the way in which The waste that is produced can be controlled and recycled.
future planning decisions are made. New techniques and materials are becoming highly cost
effective as well as using much less BRM.
The new WAPC State Planning Policy 4.2 Activity
Centres for Perth and Peel requires minimum residential This new offsite approach thus supports product and
densities to ensure that the benefits of providing affordable process innovation to help deal with the decline in housing
and diverse housing will be maximised in activity centres. affordability as well as sustainability.
Medium-rise higher density housing is the preferred form
Examples of innovative materials and methods used by
of development along urban corridors linking activity
some of the developers in Australia are still relatively rare,
centres, not only to capitalise on access to and maximise
but they are promising enough to motivate the government
use of high-frequent public transport, but also to contribute
and the industry to take initiatives to adopt Off-site
to the viability of the activity centres.
Manufacturing (OSM) and Modern Methods of
The quantity of waste generated in Western Australia is construction (MMC) as the driving forces and further, to
growing and the trend is expected to continue. Waste can take the next big leap to streamline the construction
be managed and recycling increased through improved processes for improving the productivity, predictability
strategic planning, regulatory measures, economic and consistency of the construction industry as a whole.
incentives, and community education and engagement. Case studies are being carried out and positive results are
being demonstrated.
The Perth and Peel regions are focussed on diverting waste
from landfill (particularly construction and demolition These demonstrations are so far in the east, e.g. UB
waste), while improving the performance at ladfills, Construction projects. Revolution Road was a project in
transfer stations and processing facilities. The Western the Armadale area where innovative materials were
Australian Waste Strategy: Creating the Right demonstrated by Landcorp, however no data was collected
Environment, released in March 2012, discusses these on the claims of reduced footprint. For more case studies,
objectives in detail. please refer to the literature review at Appendix A.
Government organisations at state and national levels,
1.3.4 Offsite manufacturing and new industries (small and big builders), suppliers, universities
materials and research bodies have to come together to develop a
The housing providers in Australia mostly use small scale model of practice, which will pave a solid future for
cottage industry techniques involving a lot of basic raw affordable and sustainable dwellings using OSM and
materials and are very wasteful on the site. Offsite MMC.
construction generally occurs in a manufacturting plant
Through the State Affordable Housing Strategy 2010 –
specifically designed for the production of modular units 2020 released in 2011, The Department of Housing has
that can then be transported to site and installed. New
committed to using land resources to undertake innovative
offsite-construction methods (state of the art
trials in partnership with the private sector. The aim of
manufacturing techniques in highly automated factories) these trials is to promote public/private partnerships and
offer much more sustainable products (low carbon, low
innovative projects (built to affordable price points) that
water, innovative low embodied energy materials) with
trial pioneering designs and new approaches to
much greater precision in their manufacture and hence construction techniques and use of materials. Continuing
considerable reductions in waste.
to harness the combined creativity, resources and expertise
One such method might include the use of BRM of Perth and Peel, by showcasing new affordable housing
substitutes which reduce the total amount of building and affordable living outcomes in commercially viable
materials required per construction project. In addition developments is an important consideration in this context.
these substitutes are often less carbon intensive. They
include materials such as concrete/brick made from fly
ash, steel or besser bricks, floating slabs, roof trusses and
metal frames, pre-cast concrete walls and cross laminated
timber (CLT’s).
Factory production lines using computer numerical control
machines for accurate cutting, aligning, screwing, nailing,
painting and handling, drastically reduce waste materials.
Arup & CUSP Built Form Research: Stakeholder Workshops
The stakeholder group expressed their desire for this project

2.0 Stakeholder Workshops to provide:
 A brave strategic research piece that recognises multiple
2.1 What we heard stakeholders and re-engages planners
A stakeholder engagement process was undertaken to gather  Acceptance and implementation of evidence based
the views and inputs of both government departments, ideas/recommendations in a policy setting
industry bodies and the private sector on this broad ranging
research. The organisations invited to participate were from  The start of a paradigm shift towards truly sustainable
development in Perth and Peel
three representative groups:
 Clarity that results in a reduction of demand for basic
Regulators
raw materials (BRM) in Perth and Peel
 Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water,
 A challenge issued to the construction industry –
Population and Communities
particular in greenfield development scenarios
 Department of Premier and Cabinet
 A move towards sequential land use and development
 Department of Planning
 Dramatic improvements in building waste re-use
 Department of Environment and Conservation
 information that allows zoning to be revisited by
 Department for Mines and Petroleum planners in critical areas
 Office of the Environmental Protection Authority Some important higher level goals were broached during the
 Main Roads workshop process and while the scope of this project does not
extend to providing extensive commentary on a path towards
 Department of Water achieving these in this setting, we feel that they are important
 Department of Transport to give context to this generative research piece.
 Water Corporation Participants had a desire to, in the long term, move towards:
 Western Australian Local Government Association  a plan for 50 years of BRM supply – assuming efficient
use not business as usual
 practical policy to drive change and streamline approvals
Environmental Focus
 towards zero urban sprawl – planning changes
 Conservation Council
 bring Perth and Peel in line with international leading
 World Wildlife Fund practice as it relates to the materials and resource
 Waste Management Authority intensity of the built form
 Peel Harvey Catchment Council  a quantum shift in the way we view our city and its
metabolism
Development Focus
 Landcorp
 Department of Housing
 Cement, Concrete and Aggregates Australia
 Planning Institute of Austrlia
 Urban Development Institute of Australia
A series of one on one interviews were undertaken in an
informal setting to complement the more formal exploration
workshops facilitated in Perth in April 2013.
 Address implications of multiple land holders in
2.2 Generating ideas: recurring themes greyfield areas
More specific ideas as they relate to the research question
 Review fines and penalties for environmental
were collected across three categories – the same as those
infringements
addressed in the literature review. These themes and ideas are
not necessarily those of the project group, more a collation of  Reward early adopters
stakeholder thoughts, which were ultimately used for ideas  Someone needs to be ultimately responsible for
generation and as a consideration in forming
managing the conflict between natural resource (BRM)
recommendations.
management/extraction and other urban land uses
A number of these ideas represented perceived solutions to  An established toolkit for urban infill that addresses the
localised issues and were not considered appropriate to
issue of multiple land ownership and takes a precinct
pursue further as part of this research. However, it is
based approach
important that they are shown here to represent the broad
range of opinions and the scope required to address this  Adaptable, realisable and transportable housing – ability
question in detail. to increase density as activity increases (staged
approach)
2.2.1 Urban planning and regulation
2.2.2 Basic raw materials
 Planning tools to evaluate materials use (actual materials
Vs. perceived need for materials)  Collection and availability of basic raw materials data
(e.g. sites, transport, etc.)
 Remove disincentives to innovate
 Incentivise the involvement of a developer in urban
 Encourage businesses (construction and development
quarry applications to stimulate sequential land use
industry) to innovate
 Long term BRM decision making needs to move away
 Consider sequential land use planning principles –
from business as usual Perth at 3.5m estimates
particularly as they relate to use of onsite BRM
 Replace current BRM with different products (e.g. fly
 Tree preservation mechanisms may need to be addressed ash, Alcoa overburden, red mud, waste)
 Require a regulatory impact assessment of restrictive
 Promote the use of BRM from the vicinity of the
covenants during the local structure plan process
development – remove barriers
 Change in planning policy to move towards an outcome  Look to develop in areas that either don’t require BRM
focus – R-codes are not flexible enough
or require minimal BRM
 Install ‘form based’ built form guidelines
 Consider BRM use as part of transport corridor planning
 Plan infrastructure and development priorities/location
together
 Promote smaller lot sizes and building footprints (higher
density)
 Quality is currently dependent on state involvement
 Mechanisms to reduce the cost of multi-storey buildings
 Mandatory universal design specifications
 Geological stipulation to determine where density should
occur
 Specify a proportion of building materials that need to be
recycled in new developments
 Address implications of A&S class lots
2.2.3 Construction and new materials
 Introduction of containerised and modular construction
 Structurally insulated panels
 Investigate opportunities for different footing designs (to
address perceived need for cut and fill terracing)
 Inspire leadership and change in the housing
construction industry – too much reliance on government
 Address over ordering by construction companies or
collect left over materials
 Increase cost of disposing of construction waste
 Free construction waste recycling facilities
 Eco-labelling or certification for building materials
 Mechanisms that create market demand for alternative
built form and alternative building materials
 Incentivise the use of alternative building materials by
streamlining the approvals process for alternative
materials
 End of life materials specifications – materials
stewardship
 Increased number of demonstration sites to promote
alternative built forms
 Construction should conform to existing landscape
 Promote whole of life resource intensity assessments
 Promote recycling and reuse of construction materials –
address asbestos issues
 Incentivise the diversion of construction waste from
landfill
 Quality standards for recycled construction materials
 Consider earthworks at a lot scale as opposed to a
subdivision scale
 Continue to promote the use of recycled materials in
road base
“Home builders cop a lot of flak
and are accused of producing
housing that is unimaginative,
lacks innovation and is of poor
design. The reality is that home
builders are retailers and provide
an affordable product to a
consumer. The biggest challenge is
to get consumers to be more
daring and challenge the status
quo. Consumers, who demand a
well designed, adequate, energy
efficient and responsive home will
ultimately be served this. Our
livelihood depends on meeting our
clients’ demands.”
Dale Alcock
BedZED
Social housing project in London that showed an innovative and successful approach to BRM use
Arup & CUSP Built Form Research: Planning the new era
Current metropolitan strategy is based on the consolidation

3.0 Planning the new era principles that have dominated the last 30 years of planning –
polycentric high density development around major
This section discusses some of the planning issues facing infrastructure with office and retail development limited to
Perth and Peel and provides a point of view on the need for key locations in order to help create agglomeration
the analysis and recommendations that follow. economies.
“Government can create the planning
3.1 Cities as systems framework to facilitate the development of
Perth’s planners cannot optimise the performance of the city higher density housing, and has done so
by planning for the use of individual components or resources through State Planning Policy 4.2 for
in isolation. An isolated approach will lead to unexpected Activity Centres. It can also use other
impacts on related streams (i.e. because of the complex demand and supply incentives to
nature of the issues by solving some, others are created). The encourage builders, developers and
Department of Planning is well placed to step up its consumers to build smaller homes and
leadership role, with the support of other departments, and apartments. However, the ultimate test of
look at city flows in a holistic manner. It is easy to see given the industry’s appetite will be consumer
current conditions how potential issues such as BRM can be attitudes and demand. To date, these have
shifted around instead of addressed through planning not been comprehensively tested in the
processes such as structure plans and town planning schemes. Perth market.”
With Perth set to double its population and resource usage on - The Housing We’d Choose
the increase, city makers need to start looking not just to DoP, WAPC & DoH 2013
provide infrastructure building programs, but better The link between this kind of urban form analysis and the
utilisation of existing urban infrastructure and by extension flows of the city has been pursued in recent times through
local resources. More compact and more efficient cities can urban metabolism reporting. Urban metabolism has been
be achieved by understanding the interplay between the used as the basis of reporting on cities and settlements in the
complex systems that make up the urban environment. Commonwealth Government’s State of the Environment
Looking forward to 2031, there will be a need for a further Report since the early 1990’s. The urban metabolism model
375,000 new homes in the Perth and Peel metropolitan area. shown in the Sustainability and settlements section of the
If we are to achieve the predicted growth while maintaining State Sustainability Strategy (2003) gives us a framework for
liveability, there will be a range of resource-related issues analysing the flows of a city – in this case land, energy, water
like BRM that will become serious if the resource hungry and materials. Essentially it is a tool that allows us to see the
business as usual approach continues. This research paper city as a single entity – to evaluate flows regardless of origin,
seeks to set out the options that are available in the planning ownership, quality and jurisdiction. BRM, given the forecast
system and identify the quantitative implications. Across all requirement for these finite resources, becomes a major
Australian cities, the average target is for 60% infill consideration in these streams. It is clear that future BRM
development and 40% greenfield development. If Perth requirements are driven by the ability of planners to integrate
began to follow the approaches suggested in this report then a and understand the processes that contribute to large scale
figure in the order of 60% would be achievable. residential development.
Directions 2031 makes a case for the ordered planning of Better metrics of urban performance, such as BRM use, are
Perth with a strong rationale presented for both sequential required to move beyond our current understanding of cities
development of suburbs (rather than scattering land as systems. Benchmarking of cities as organisms is in its
development around at the fringes) and also for redeveloping fledgling stage, but the process has the potential to reveal yet
when land is ready (when market forces suggest land is ready unseen efficiencies in resource flows. For example: Sydney
and when suitable zoning enables it to happen). The two has managed to add a million people to its population without
processes are the fundamentals of good planning and have increasing total water usage, implementing strategies aimed
serious consequences for cities if they do not happen at more compact housing and water efficiency measures.
effectively. Innovative and sustainable building processes are vital to the
Directions 2031 aims to address urban growth needs and take reduction of the material and resource intensity of the built
into consideration the need to protect our natural ecosystems. form in Perth and Peel. In order to implement meaningful
change in the development and construction industries, For example, all carbon products will eventually end up as
government needs to continue to work with industry to CO2 and this is not possible to recycle any further without
change both the perceptions of the consumer and developers. enormous energy inputs that in themselves have associated
wastes. This is the entropy factor in metabolism.
3.2 Urban Metabolism and Closed Loop
Planning “Cities can operate this model on many
such levels, but most of all they need to be
A key tool for achieving sustainability in cities is ‘closed
loop’ planning. Closed loop planning is an approach to urban
able to measure how they are doing
and regional planning that recognises the need for all waste overall as a city in reducing their
materials to be regarded as inputs to the next phase of urban metabolic flows whilst improving their
development. This is based on the fact that metabolism human liveability. Most cities will be able
processes in natural ecosystems take the wastes from to point to a few innovations they are
production processes and feed them back into the next step of making in sustainability but until they can
production. In the same way cities can take the wastes from bring a full assessment of these matters
any production process and recycle them back into together they will not be addressing the
production, thus closing the loop on the urban metabolism fundamentals of urban sustainability.”
process. If this does not occur then cities will lose significant
efficiencies in production and will build up their wastes until - Peter Newman
they become a source of pollution. Broadly, cities should be
looking to close the loop on their wastes by using them as What this means, is that the best way to ensure that there are
resources. reductions in impact is to reduce the resource inputs. This
approach to resource management is implicitly understood by
This idea of cities having a metabolism was first suggested scientists but is not inherent to an economist's approach
by Wolman in 19651. Peter Newman expanded this concept in which sees only ‘open cycles’ whenever human ingenuity
‘Sustainability and Cities’ to show how sustainability and technology are applied to natural resources.
simultaneously requires that the metabolism of cities and
their liveability must be considered together. Opponents of In 2003, the Government’s Strategic Framework for Waste
the extended urban metabolism model argue that it is too Management set an agenda to move toward a waste free
complex, however, the more integrated and accurate the data society, embracing the vision toward zero waste by 2020
collected, the more useful the framework becomes. Our developed by the WAste 2020 Strategy. It was recognised that
argument and the argument of others (Steven Kenway, in order to achieve this, a shift toward a closed loop planning
Francis Pamminger, Anthony Preistly, et al) is that an – optimising consumption and ensuring wastes from one part
extended urban metabolism concept is highly effective for of society become the raw materials for another – was
assessing water, energy and materials flows on a city scale required. In order to implement strategic directions for waste,
and thereby pursue the interventions that are going to enable the Western Australian Government developed a model to
the greatest returns. An understanding of urban metabolism is achieve zero waste. Basic Raw Materials and building waste
necessary if we wish to pursue more resilient and adaptable were on the agenda. Since 2008 BRM has been growing in
city forms. status as an issue requiring resolution and creativity within
government.
It is possible to define the goal of sustainability in a city as
the reduction of the city's use of natural resources and
production of wastes while simultaneously improving its
liveability, so that it can better fit within the capacities of the
local, regional and global ecosystems.
A balance sheet of inputs and outputs can be created. It also
means that we can manage the wastes produced, but they
require energy in order to turn them into anything useful and
ultimately all materials will eventually end up as waste.
1
Wolman A (1965) The Metabolism of the City, Scientific American,
213:179.
construction and residential development earthworks.

3.3 Basic Raw Materials Planning Demand for Clay to make bricks and tiles, while remaining
The Western Australian Planning Commission’s (WAPC) constant, will continue to be a major factor in the Perth and
Statement of Planning Policy 2.4 Basic Raw Materials (SPP Peel context.
2.4) was adopted in 2000. The Extractive Industries
The Department of Planning’s The Housing We’d Choose
Committee of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of
(2013) found that affordability drives housing decisions for
Western Australia provided research around Basic Raw
all but the highest income earners in Perth. There are
Materials (BRM) planning for the previous decade. A
potentially devastating housing affordability implications if
proposed BRM strategy for the previous decade recognised
the price of BRM increases in the same way building and
that the use of BRM is fundamental to the sustainable
land has in recent times. Transport is one of the primary
development of Western Australia. In addition, it highlighted
considerations of BRM price and for this reason, all efforts
the effect that good supply levels have traditionally had on
should be made to ensure BRM deposits in the Perth and Peel
standard of living and housing affordability in Perth and Peel.
metropolitan region are utilised to their full potential.
The prediction that the planning and environmental Extracting BRM from areas remote to Perth and Peel is a
protection system would, as a result of demand for competing poor outcome for consumers and the environment due to
land uses, give low priority to the protection and extraction of transport requirements.
BRM has become a reality.
DoP has the opportunity to lead strategic planning
In 2007, the Extractive Industries Committee highlighted considerations as they relate to BRM extraction and the
their desire for a planning strategy that protected current sites extractive industries as a whole. This will be achieved by
and future resources by including BRM considerations at the implementing SPP 2.4 (currently under review) and SPP 2.5
town planning scheme, structure plan and regional plan that aim to assist in the wise use of resources including BRM
levels. The report recommended policy and legislative and incorporate land management standards and sequential
changes at a State Government level to protect and ensure a land use in planning and development. It is important that
sustainable supply of quality and competitively priced BRM DoP protects resources identified for future extraction,
into the future. The majority of these recommendations have particularly given future demand estimates.
not been implemented in full. The recommendations continue
As discussed in sections 3.1 and 3.2, a more holistic view of
to be relevant in 2013 – particularly in light of future housing
planning for BRM extraction and use is required. This will
affordability.
include careful management of the conflicts between
Known sand supplies to service the south west and south east environmental protection and basic raw materials in close
corridors are inadequate, necessitating a need to source sand proximity to Perth and Peel developments.
from more remote resources – a less than desirable
In 2012 a southwest BRM supply and demand study was
sustainability outcome. Sand sources have been identified in
undertaken. The study introduced some spatial databases that
the Peel Region, but remnant vegetation and acid sulphate
were used for mapping supply. A spreadsheet containing
soil occurrence makes them difficult to extract with due
demand data was made publicly available. The southwest
consideration to environmental impact. Approved limestone
study has led to increased consideration in the Perth and Peel
resources in both the southern and northern metropolitan
context, thus the inclusion of BRM considerations in the
regions are also at low volumes, however, sequential use
Perth and Peel Strategic Assessment.
programs at Neerabup and Hope Valley/Wattleup have
contributed to easing the pressure to source limestone from
more remote areas. Plastic clays continue to be in critically
short supply and are costly to extract due to acid sulphate
management. Hard rock quarries are well distributed and
plentiful in the short to medium term.
Generally speaking, the use of sand as fill for land
development continues to increase due to the predominant
types of urban development in Perth and Peel - largely low
density fringe development. The use of hard rock as
aggregate is also increasing. As Perth continues to grow,
demand for limestone is increasing to facilitate road
To not build a city sequentially and with good redevelopment

3.4 Sequential Land Use processes leads to economic inefficiencies due to a waste of
Sequential land use is both a tool for achieving sustainability capital and excessive traffic, social inefficiencies due to a
through closing the loop on basic raw materials, and is a lack of services and environmental inefficiencies due to a loss
policy that is a necessary part of any sensible planning of land and excessive use of fuel for the extra traffic. Without
system around the world. It is also a recognition of what most sequential planning the city will be less sustainable – Perth
cities have tried to do for centuries. The policy intention of and Peel will have a more degraded environment as land is
SPP 2.4 is to ensure that basic raw materials like sand, not rehabilitated, the city sprawls further than it should with
limestone, gravel and clay, that are essential for building greater transport and health impacts and an increased amount
houses, roads and other elements of the built environment, of inert waste dumping.
are not prevented from being made available to the city by
SPP 2.4 is one of the ways to enable Directions 2031 to be
building over the land where they are found, before being
delivered. SPP 2.4 is a very significant part of the strategic
extracted. It is also designed to encourage land to be turned
planning framework in Western Australia. The WAPC has
into productive use once the basic raw material quarries are
strong powers to enable good planning in WA, especially in
depleted by enabling them to be rehabilitated.
Perth and Peel. Policies like SPP 2.4 and 2.5 must have
SPP 2.4 has at its heart the notion of sequential land use: regulations or delivery mechanisms that can enable the policy
to work. Strategic planning must be delivered through
6.5 Sequential Land Use
statutory planning that ultimately controls how urban
6.5.1 In order to facilitate the exploitation of basic raw development proceeds.
materials whilst supporting future long-term development for
In order for sequential land use to work in urban
urban and other purposes, sequential land use planning
development, statutory mechanisms or regulations must be in
should be a requirement whereby extraction and
place that:
rehabilitation can take place on a programmed basis in
advance of longer term use and development  Enable basic raw material resources to be recognised and
approved for extraction
Sustainability is the broad conceptual framework that sets the
agenda for nations, states, companies, and cities. It requires  Facilitate the reuse of land taken by quarries to ensure
application through policies such as closed loop planning and they are rehabilitated and brought back into the built
this requires delivery policies such as sequential land use. environment as a productive land use
Thus sequential land use is a policy that enables closed loop
Both of these activities are central to implementing planning
planning which enables us to create a more sustainable
policy and are at the heart of closed loop planning and
future, i.e. one where environmental protection, social
sustainability in cities.
advancement and economic prosperity are achieved
simultaneously for this and future generations. It is recognised that there are currently significant challenges
in reusing quarry sites for anything other than landfill. A long
term plan for individual quarries that addresses trade offs
between 100% extraction and the ability to develop
remaining land may be one way to address these challenges.
Approval incentives could be provided to extractive
industries if they demonstrate the ability to provide a viable
land use/land form following quarying activity. There are
examples such as Joondalup Resort to demonstrate that old
quarries can be returned to productive urban land.
Arup & CUSP Built Form Research: Analysis and Results
 required quantity of BRM to construct the average

4.0 Analysis and Results dwelling
This section examines Perth’s metabolism using two key Greenfields

foci:  greater than 20 km from the CBD
 How urban form changes urban metabolism; and  average lot size 420 m2
 How Technology and Construction Innovation (TCI)  BRM requirement 663 T per dwelling*
changes the metabolism.
City metabolism traditionally considers energy, water, land Greyfields
and waste. Our analysis has included important parameters of  5 - 20 km from the CBD
basic raw materials (BRM).
 average lot size 150 m2
4.1 Scenarios  BRM requirement 398 T per dwelling*
The data sets and graphics on subsequent pages provide a
comparison between the three main urban form types: outer Greenfields
new area developments (greenfields), middle redevelopment  less than 5 km from the CBD
areas (greyfields), and inner redevelopment areas
(brownfields).  average lot size 80 m2
 BRM requirement 265 T per dwelling*
The major factors differentiating greenfields, greyfields and
brownfields include: * See tables and assumptions for further information
 proximity to CBD/ activity centres
 available space and lot areas
The following graphics show a summary of the urban metabolism model developed for the Perth and Peel context that includes
BRM. Note the BAU approach is compared with the alternative approach (considered ‘better’ practice) that is outlined in the
later part of this section. These graphics provide an overview of the differences between the three main types of urban form.
More detail is provided in tables 1, 2, 3 and 4.
The data on BRM are more expressly demonstrated by the following (note – values are per person):
The data highlight that massive reductions in demand for BRM are possible by increasing the amount of redevelopment in the
urban development process and increasing the use of technology and construction innovation in all building types.
The following graphic shows the percentage reduction between BAU and an alternative approach potentially achieved in the
urban metabolism flows for different styles of development. We can clearly see that brownfield redevelopments have the
potential to use significantly less BRM and produce less greenhouse gasses.
demand. Thus the food needed per person is estimated to not
4.2 Effects of urban form vary between the different urban forms, though there is
evidence of greater obesity in outer areas as people exercise
4.2.1 Energy, Greenhouse Gas & Waste less due to their car dependence.
Heat
The household waste has mainly decreased between
There is a noticeable drop in energy input (combination of greenfields and brownfields due to reduction in available land
fuel, power and gas consumption) from the outermost
for landscaping/gardens. Waste from this type of land use
suburbs (greenfields) to the innermost urban redevelopments
accounts for 21% of total household waste.
closest to the CBD (brownfields) (refer to page 17).
Transport fuel is less in brownfields areas due to a reduced The Urban Footprint is calculated from the combined energy,
need to travel and a reduced need to rely on private vehicles. food, water, and urban land based on various approaches
This is due to shorter distances to travel and the availability taken in the Ecological Footprint literature that translates
of public transport. Household energy requirements are these various types of human activity into hectares consumed.
reduced in the inner redevelopments due to the reduced floor Greenfields is 22% higher than brownfields.
area and external building envelope in higher density
redevelopments. Decreases in the size of the dwelling itself 4.2.4 Basic Raw Materials
also results in reduced power loads from appliances and The BRM data have been estimated from industry and
fixtures (such as lighting). government figures for the amount of sand, limestone, gravel
A reduction in energy input also serves to explain the and clay required to build each kind of housing type. The
decrease in correlating energy outputs of waste heat data provided do not include the BRM (mostly sand and
generation and greenhouse gas emission. The waste heat limestone) required to fill any urban development sites. This
generation figures presented have been based on the 2nd law means that BRM data provided are highly conservative as in
of thermodynamics, which in this case indicates that the some cases BRM for fill has been estimated at around 150%
amount of waste heat generated as an output is equal to the more than the BRM for construction; this is expanded in the
amount of energy introduced as an input. Like waste heat, a Case Studies below.
reduction in the amount of energy input correlates with a The BRM for construction data shows a marked reduction in
reduction in the total tonnage of greenhouse gas produced. the BRM input between greenfields and brownfields. This
can be attributed to a reduction in available land space
4.2.2 Water & Sewage required for the smaller building footprint and less materials
The amount of land available to each type of urban form required per house in the denser dwellings due to shared
directly impacts the water consumption through the use of walls and more efficient building techniques at higher
water for gardens, which is around 40% of the total used. densities. There is a decrease in the average number of
occupants per dwelling between greenfields (2.3), greyfields
Although the water input varied between the three Urban (2.1) and brownfields (1.8). This reduction results in less
Form types it was assumed that the principal Output sewage
BRM required to construct living spaces such as bedrooms.
did not change per person as it was representative of the
average yearly output of the individual and hence not effected
by location, size or demand.
4.2.3 Land, Food, Household Waste and

Urban Footprint
The land input figures provided show a decrease in urban
land space used from greenfields to brownfields. This reflects
an increase in density between the outer and inner suburbs as
buildings are developed more tightly together on less space.
The initial figure of block size has then been multiplied by 3
to account for the surrounding infrastructure such as roads
and utilities relating to each new dwelling. The food input
value was representative of the average yearly input of food
per person and was again unaffected by location, size or
INPUT
Greenfields Greyfields Brownfields
(Per Person Per Year)
Resources
Fuel in Megajoules (MJ)1 50 000 35 000 20 000
2
Power in Megajoules (MJ) 9 240 9 240 9 240
2
Gas in Megajoules (MJ) 4 900 2 940 2 940
Total Energy in Gigajoules (GJ)2 64.14 47.18 32.18
Water in Kilolitres (Kl)2 70 42 35
Food in Kilograms (kg)3 451 451 451
Land in Metres Squared (m2)4 547 214 133
Urban Footprint in Hectares (ha)5 2.29 1.97 1.78
Basic Raw Materials (BRM) for New Building Types Per Person 6
BRM 1) Sand in Tonnes (T) 111 73 57
BRM 2) Limestone in Tonnes (T) 67 44 34
BRM 3) Clay in Tonnes (T) 44 29 23
BRM 4) Rock in Tonnes (T) 66 43 33
Total BRM in Tonnes (T) 288 189 147
Table 1 – Input variations between urban form types (see page 23 for assumption)
OUTPUT
Waste
Greenhouse Gas (Fuel, Power & Gas) in Tonnes (T)1 8.01 5.89 4.03
2
Waste Heat in Gigajoules (GJ) 64.14 47.18 32.18
Sewage (incl. storm water) in Kilolitres (KL)3 80 80 80
Construction & Demolition (C&D) Waste in Tonnes (T) 4 0.96 0.57 0.38
Household Waste in Tonnes (T)5 0.63 0.56 0.49
Table 2 – Output variations between urban form types (see page 24 for assumption)
allowing for further implementation of alternative building
4.3 Effects of Technology & Construction techniques (e.g. stump construction and limestone retaining
Innovation (TCI) walls in areas with groundwater and flooding constraints).
Innovation is necessary if organisations, regardless of sector,
The BRM required in all TCI developments are considerably
are to survive in a competitive marketplace. TCI will
reduced due to the greater precision in construction,
constitute the use of off-site construction as a model for especially in higher density developments. The analysis
better construction practices, much of which can already be
shows that through TCI, the BRM required per dwelling
demonstrated. TCI is not currently being applied consistently
would considerably reduce. We can see that the BRM
to Perth’s urban development. It compares favourably with required in Greenfields, Greyfields and Brownfields has
cottage building techniques due to reduced delays, waste and
reduced by 50%, 70% and 90% respectively. This percentage
errors. Off-site construction would include different and less
decrease has been calculated using % decrease formula on
carbon intensive prefabricated elements, precision-driven BAU and TCI for BRM. This happens because high-rise
techniques along with techniques like BIM (Building
construction such as apartments and flats need less basic raw
Information Modelling) and assessment tools like eTool. The
materials and products due to density-oriented design and
integrated use of all of these techniques will help the construction. As previously discussed, off-site construction is
construction industry to effectively manage important
more effective at higher densities. There is less need for
parameters like time, cost, quality, BRM and carbon to
materials and much less is lost in the construction process
improve its overall productivity. A simpler reduction in due to its precision. There is thus a reduction in Construction
demolition waste can happen by deconstructing a building
and Demolition Waste as well, estimated at 24% in greyfields
and re-using it in a new building as demonstrated on Josh
and a further 18% in brownfields.
Byrne’s House (www.joshshouse.com.au) where a simple
cottage was repackaged for rebuilding rather than demolition. The reductions in BRM are quite dramatic when TCI is
included along with redevelopment. In greenfields the BRM
4.3.1 Energy, Greenhouse Gas & Waste can be reduced by 50% (288 to 145T per person) using TCI
Heat however if redevelopment is combined with TCI then a
greyfields site will reduce BRM by 5 times (288 to 57T per
There are large reductions in Energy input, waste heat output person) and a brownfields site will reduce it by nearly 30
and greenhouse gas output comparing all the non-TCI with times (288 to 15T per person).
TCI approaches. There is a much larger reduction in the
greyfields areas and more in the brownfields as compared to Any BRM strategy will need to take seriously the need to
the greenfields, because greyfields and brownfields have redevelop rather than push further out into the urban fringe,
higher densities and TCI works more effectively when multi- and will need to use as much TCI as is economically feasible
storey developments are involved. Multi storey buildings for any developer to use.
enable a much greater scale of off-site construction for each
building as once designed it can be split into multiple
modules. Economies-of-scale and mass customization are
more effective in multi-storeyed buildings due to repetitive
operations. The low energy/low carbon precision of TCI
flows through in the reduction of heating and cooling.
Therefore, there would be less demand for energy, and the
greenhouse gas released into the atmosphere would be
reduced at the same time than a BAU scenario. This also
impacts on Urban Footprint.
4.3.2 Basic Raw Materials

Housing development in Perth and Peel regions generally
consists of the use of limestone retaining walls, flat building
sites (sand pads) and building designs that promote concrete
slabs along with double brick and tile construction regardless
of site conditions. The literature review undertaken as part of
this research suggests the adoption of planning conditions
INPUT
Resourcing
Fuel in Megajoules (MJ)1 50000 35000 20000
Power in Megajoules (MJ)2 4620 3696 2772
Gas in Megajoules (MJ)2 2450 1176 882
Total Energy in Gigajoules (GJ)2 57.07 39.90 23.67
Water in Kilolitres (Kl)2 70 42 35
3
Food in Kilograms (kg) 451 451 451
4
Land in Metres Squared (m2) 547 214 133
Urban Footprint in Hectares (ha)5 2.22 1.90 1.70
Basic Raw Materials (BRM) for New Building Types Per Person6
BRM 1) Sand in Tonnes (T) 56 22 5.7
BRM 2) Limestone in Tonnes (T) 34 13.2 3.4
BRM 3) Clay in Tonnes (T) 22 8.7 2.3
BRM 4) Rock in Tonnes (T) 33 13 3.3
Total BRM in Tonnes (T) 145 57 15
Table 3 – Input variations between urban form types due to technology and construction innovation (see page 23 for
assumptions)
OUTPUT
Waste
Greenhouse Gas (Fuel, Power & Gas) in Tonnes (T)1 7.13 4.98 2.95
2
Waste Heat in Gigajoules (GJ) 57.07 39.90 23.65
3
Sewage (incl. storm water) in Kilolitres (KL) 80 80 80
Construction & Demolition (C&D) Waste in Tonnes (T) 4 0.29 0.22 0.18
Household Waste in Tonnes (T)5 0.63 0.56 0.49
Table 4 – Input variations between urban form types due to technology and construction innovation (see page 24 for
assumptions)
Assumptions – Table 1 & 3
1) Fuel per capita by suburb is provided by Chandra (2006) and the predictive model by Trubka et al (2010)
confirms the general variation from inner to outer.
2) Power Gas and Water were provided by Perth’s utilities. The power variations with Urban Form are not clear
so were left the same between types. Gas is used mostly for heating and was put at 60% for multiunit/smaller
dwellings. Gas use will decrease in greyfields and brownfields due to reduced heating requirements for
multi/smaller dwellings. The assumed reduction is 60% for both greyfields and brownfields. Water varies with
size of garden and is considered to reduce to 60% in small blocks and to 50% with multistorey buildings.
3) Food consumption per person per year is calculated from National Nutrition Survey Foods Eaten Australia
1995 Compiled by the Australian Bureau of Statistics and the Department of Health and Aged Care. Figures for
select foods (meat including fish, cereal including cereal dishes, fruit and veg and milk products) added for 25-
44 age categories. Foods separated into meat and non-meat categories. Total values attained then divided by
1000 to get daily kg intake. This is in turn multiplied by 365 to get yearly kg intake per person. The rounded
figures are 70kg per person per year intake of meat and 381kg per person per year intake of selected non meat
products. This added together gives a total figure of 451kg per person per year food intake. It was assumed that
the amount of food consumed by the individual on a yearly basis will not change between urban form types.
4) Land Size was acquired from an Urban Development Institute of Australia (UDIA) Blog (See
http://blog.udiawa.com.au/article/increased-appetite-for-smaller-lots (accessed May 7th)), which identified the
median lot size as being 419m2 as of June 2012. This figure was multiplied by 3 to include other urban land like
roads & commercial space associated with each dwelling. Lot sizes will become increasingly diminished for
Middle and Inner redevelopment areas so lot sizes of 150m2 and 80m2 (x3) where chosen as suitably
representative samples.
5) Urban footprint calculated using following factors obtained from (Wackernagel & Rees, 1996).
a) Energy: 100 GJ produced per ha
b) Water: 233 KL produced per hectare
c) Land: ha of urban land as in 4 above
d) Food: Used Canadian per Person yearly requirement 1.30ha/capita.
The urban footprint is then calculated by dividing the three urban forms energy, water, landscape and food input
values by their equivalent factors and then adding the results together.
6) Original BRM Figures obtained from (CCI 2007), Table 10, adjusted due to occupancy levels of outer 2.3,
middle 2.1 and inner 1.8. The data provided was for single detached dwellings and multiunit dwellings. (60%
less). The anticipated inner development is reduced to 40% due to smaller units. Thus assumed consumption of
materials was 60% for Middle and 40% for inner.
Assumptions – Table 2 & 4
1) Energy (Fuel, Power & Gas) conversion into Greenhouse Gases (GHG) defined as being by a factor of 0.125
Tonnes (T) of CO2 per Gigajoule (GJ) of Energy.
2) Waste Heat output has been calculated as being equal to total energy input.
3) Sewage Discharge Per person per year figure of 80KL derived from NSW government document, (See
http://www.dlg.nsw.gov.au/dlg/dlghome/documents/information/section5.pdf ((accessed 7th May) which
provided daily per person average of between 150-300 litres. Figure rounded to 200 litres per person then
multiplied by 365 (no days in year) and then divided by 1000 (converting litres to kilolitres). 73KL figure
obtained then rounded to 80KL to give rounded even figure.
4) Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste combined and sourced from the W.A. Governments Feb 2003
Summary Report of Waste to Landfill Perth Metro Region (See
http://www.wasteauthority.wa.gov.au/media/files/documents/wastelfsummary.pdf. (accessed May 7th)) Used
Total Waste Stream for Building and Demolition figure for 2000/2001 period of 1,243,584 Tonnes (T) and
divided it by 2001 ABS Census Population figure of 1, 302, 126 (See
http://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/4A775DD1B80BEB3CCA256C6000033701/$File/203
05_2001.pdf (accessed May 7th)), for Perth-Mandurah region. Middle and Inner suburbs where reduced
according to estimations of reduced expected C&D waste generation.
5) Household waste was calculated in the same way but due to expected reductions in garden waste between
three Urban Forms (Outer most & Inner Least). The Summary report indicated on page 21 that 20.9% of
Household (termed municipal in doc), waste is garden waste, so middle and inner suburbs where reduced
accordingly. This reduction was impacted by the difference in average occupancy between greenfields (2.3),
greyfields (2.1) and brownfields (1.8).
Arup & CUSP Built Form Research: Discussion
difficult to develop cheaply, as is the remit of the

5.0 Discussion Department of Housing – most options will face
significant BRM issues.
5.1 Case studies The Keralup case study is not alone as the majority of
Perth’s future greenfields sites are in this corridor and are
5.1.1 Greenfields, e.g. Keralup going to face the same issues. It will be important to find
Perth’s growth outwards has a huge momentum due to some alternative development models for the future of
land banking, expectations of the community and planners, Perth as the easy, cheap urban fringe sites are mostly gone
lack of financial support for innovative developments from and the BRM issues facing greenfields are real and
major Australian banks and the reality that redevelopment substantial.
at higher densities in Perth does not provide enough
opportunities yet for affordable housing options. These 5.1.2 Greyfields, e.g. Innaloo
pressures dictate that it is likely there will continue to be The redevelopment model for most greyfields sites are
greenfields development, though it needs to be a reducing primarily in-fill sites in battle-axe (backyard units down a
proportion as other models are demonstrated as set out laneway) subdivisions. These are replacing homes where
below. the value of the house is such that the land is the main
One of the sites being developed by the State value remaining. Middle suburbs were usually developed
Government’s Department of Housing is Keralup in the in the first era of car dependent housing but are still well
City of Rockingham/Shire of Murray. This is a very large located within easy proximity to jobs and amenities.
site of ~1000 ha with plans for a population of ~100,000 The middle ring within 20 km of the CBD includes the
by 2050. The site is split by the Serpentine River. The first City of Stirling, City of Belmont, City of Fremantle, City
stage of this Keralup development is on the western side of of South Perth, City of Victoria Park and City of Canning;
the river and is largely on high enough ground to not all have substantial greyfields sites where the task of
require extensive fill. However the next stages called suburban redevelopment is already underway. The present
Keralup South East and Keralup North East are presenting Town Planning Schemes and development models are
real challenges for BRM requirements. leading to small house in-fill. There is a good market for
As discussed above, the southern suburbs areas designated such places as many people in their retirement want to
in the next phase of urban development (i.e. undeveloped down size from their large suburban blocks and remain in
areas south of the river) are mostly low lying and will need the area that they know. A typical in-fill housing area is
extensive fill to raise them above flood plain levels or to Innaloo.
raise them above the ground water level. In winter much of
the designated land for development is inundated by water. “Greyfield residential precincts are
Estimates of between 1 metre and 2 metres of fill are defined as under-utilised property assets
suggested for undeveloped southern suburbs by local located in the middle suburbs of large
municipal engineers. Australian cities, where residential building
stock is failing (physically, technologically
The estimated requirement for construction sand in the
Southern suburbs is 65 million cubic meters based on the
and environmentally) and energy, water and
CCI (2007) report Basic Raw Materials Access and communications infrastructure is in need of
Availability 1996 - 2008 and for land being considered as regeneration. Greyfields are usually
development potential. However, this would need to be occupied and privately owned sites typical
increased by a further 95 million cubic meters to enable of urban development undertaken from the
the land to be filled adequately. About one quarter of this 1950s to the 1970s.”
sand will be needed for Keralup, i.e. 25 million cubic
- Peter Newton
meters (14m3 in the SE and 11m3 in the NE) based on 2 m
of fill requirement across the site.
Australian Housing and Urban Research
Institute
This challenge could be met by alternative approaches
such as creating canals, though this will be difficult with
the acid sulphate soils that would be intersected as well as The in-fill housing that is being built has significantly less
the nutrient and mosquito issues. This land would be BRM involved as the houses are smaller and denser.
However the main issues with the in-fill development is
that the results are largely sub-optimal in terms of the The major issue with the redevelopment sites in the central
potential of the area to take more housing and to create areas of Perth is that they are no longer affordable. High
innovative solutions for the urban metabolism of the city, rise has largely been built for the top-end of the market in
especially BRM. Perth since the 1970’s. This means that those with fewer
means have to live further away from the jobs and
The population of Innaloo has largely remained static
amenities of the central area and necessarily drive more.
during the redevelopment process as small homes with
fewer people in them replace large homes on large blocks. The BRM and metabolism issues in Perth highlight the
A new redevelopment process is needed where whole value of redevelopment in these central areas as well as the
precincts can be replanned and significantly more housing huge potential for TCI to assist with both cost reductions
yield can be obtained. This will enable more medium and BRM reductions.
density housing to be built along with amenity
The Activity Centres in Perth are largely opportunities for
improvements such as underground power, water sensitive
high density redevelopment like the central city. These
design, better provision of public transport, and more TCI
places all offer considerable potential to be close to jobs
enabling reductions in energy and BRM.
and amenity. Like Riverside they can be dense and mixed
The potential for greyfield redevelopments to improve the in use and in all cases – Stirling City, Cockburn Central,
urban metabolism and BRM issues in Perth is largely un- Fremantle, Midland, Armidale, Cannington City, Murdoch
realised. It is time to revalue the planning system’s ability – the chance to significantly assist with reducing the
to enable large precinct redevelopment and enable a much metabolism and especially BRM is considerable.
more optimal set of outcomes in the middle suburbs.
The Strategic Plan for Perth and Peel will need to ensure
that there is an increased proportion of high density
5.1.3 Brownfields, e.g. Riverside housing in central areas and activity centres which has an
The redevelopment of the inner and central area of Perth increasing proportion of TCI in its mix.
has been accelerating over recent years. Starting in older
heritage suburbs like Fremantle in the 1970’s it spread 5.2 The economics of better BRM
across the suburbs within 5 km of Perth’s CBD. As so management
many of the jobs and amenities of Perth are within a short
There are serious economic issues emerging in relation to
distance these areas have high value. Model
the urban form of Perth and in particular the issue of BRM.
redevelopments at East Perth and Subiaco in the late
1980’s by the Metropolitan Redevelopment Authority Urban Form
demonstrated that higher densities (3-5 storeys) could be
A detailed assessment of the potential for redevelopment
done attractively.
in Perth has been done by Hendrigan and Newman (2013).
Since then redevelopment within this 5km circle around The research looked at the use of activity centres. The
the CBD of Perth has been largely at 10 storeys or more concept was based around the potential to live and work
and the market for this has continued to grow with many around present and potential rail lines in Perth. Detailed
younger people wishing to live in these more urban areas designs were drawn up that illustrated housing and work
as well as the ‘empty nesters’. The next phase includes spaces with no more than ten storey buildings. The results
substantial redevelopment projects being planned at the are set out below along with estimates on the potential
Perth City Link (between Northbridge and the CBD) and economic savings involved.
Riverside, where a small 40 ha area near the Causeway is
Cost savings in redevelopment around rail stations in Perth
being prepared by the MRA for a further 7000 residents
over the next 30 years. Source: Hendrigan and Newman,
and 6000 workers.
2013.
The Riverside development is low lying and requires sand
 Save $3.9b in residential infrastructure costs.
fill, however, on a 40 Ha high density site the costs are
minimal. The development incorporates a number of  Save 1.14b T of greenhouse gases per year (50% less
innovative design elements including water sensitive urban per household).
design. The difference between 2 m of fill over 40 Ha for
 Save $2.6b in transport costs for new residents over 50
13,000 residents and workers and 2 m of fill over 1000 Ha years.
for 20,000 residents at Keralup is stark.
 Save health costs and improve worker productivity by
$403m per year.
As shown in the data there is potential to take the next 30 framework to assess an extractive industry proposal
years of urban development in activity centres, leaving the against conflicting land use claims and no formal process
majority of suburban Perth untouched and the need for that assesses the potential benefit of any BRM on a
greenfields developments reduced to zero. The economics proposed development site.
of this are very favourable as the reductions in greenfields
A network of sites in the Perth and Peel regions can be
infrastructure costs are substantial ($3.9 billion), the
readily identified as being essential to the supply of BRM.
reductions in transport costs are huge ($2.6 billion) and the
It will be useful to consider sites with significance to this
external costs including the energy/greenhouse and health
network and prevent any further sterilisation due to
are substantial (over $0.5 billion).
incompatible development and land uses both on the
The Housing We’d Choose (2013) shows a clear identified site and within critical distances of the site. The
preference for housing in the Inner Central region of Perth, importance of such sites may be determined using the
however, the majority of people with this aspiration possible long term prospects of the deposit, quality,
currently perceive it to be financially out of reach. People location relative to proposed developments or the
in Perth showed that they are prepared to make housing cumulative effect of several sites in close proximity.
type and number of bedroom trade-offs to access a
A centralised and consolidated approach to BRM will
preferred location. The report highlights that there needs to
allow decision makers to distinguish between regional
be an increase in the proportion of semi-detached
sources of significance and others, potentially reducing
dwellings being supplied to the market to allow
development costs per lot on a subdivision scale and
households to make location, house type, bedroom and
therefore addressing the broader issue of housing
affordability trade-offs.
affordability in Perth and Peel.
5.3 Establishing a BRM database and a Addressing sterilisation sits well with the previously
network of supply discussed sequential land use planning principles,
particularly given that many urban areas will be cleared to
The Department of Mines and Petroleum (DMP) maintain
arrive at their final land use. Any excess BRM removed
a database (MINEDEX) that includes BRM deposits held
on Crown Land. The database is funded using the levy on from the site under a sequential use arrangement reduces
BRM from Crown Land. DMP has the potential to extend land clearing required to supply the growing Perth market.
this offering to BRM found on private land, however, Further, removing excess BRM generally provides a more
alternate funding mechanisms would need to be explored. suitable land form for precinct development.
This database should aid the addition of BRM sites, When considering the overall value of a BRM site, due
removal of BRM sites and identification of resources that consideration should be given to:
may not be in the best interest of Perth’s future
 Potential to rehabilitate site through sequential land
development.
use principles
More importantly, a database would be an important step  Environmental implications of allowing extraction to
in assessing the availability of sufficient resource volumes commence or continue in light of potential future land
in different regions of Perth and Peel.
uses
Schedules of resource data should be collated annually and  Importance and proximity of deposit to existing and
the effectiveness of the resource protection strategy potential urban developments
reviewed regularly.
 Compatibility of operation with surrounding land uses
This database could be used to identify policy responses
for BRM and inform decisions about BRM prioritisation.  Opportunity cost of withholding site from other forms
of urban development over the short to medium term
5.4 Sterilisation of BRM and land use  Opportunity to stage extraction to avoid conflict with
priorities other land uses in the area
As with many urban areas, a large portion of the currently
identified BRM resources in the Perth and Peel region are
considered unavailable following the application of
relevant policies and through the sterilisation of resources
by urban development. There remains no evaluation
Arup & CUSP Built Form Research: Recommendations
courses on how to do a BRM Report as part of urban

6.0 Recommendations development applications.
7. Develop tools and strategies that demonstrate and
In light of the research presented in this paper and based allow consumers to interrogate the true costs (ongoing
on a stakeholder engagement process undertaken in May costs) of housing design and location – a shift towards
2013, recommendations are presented in the following consideration of longer term affordability. Such tools
focus areas. The recommendations aim to begin the shift to should include digital design, assessment and
a more holistic view of planning for basic raw materials visualisation that can enable communities to examine
extraction and use (including sequential land use development and redevelopment options.
considerations) and stimulate the development of leading
practice construction innovation. 8. Consider an education program that allows state and
local government to address the implications of BRM
BRM Policy supply and demand at a city scale.
1. Establish a centralised database (using MINEDEX as 9. Ensure that appropriate skills exist in the public sector
a starting point) in order to understand BRM supply, to achieve a robust assessment of the proposed
demand and availability. environmental impact of BRM extraction applications.
2. Develop a consolidated spatial planning tool that 10. The Department of Housing, Landcorp, MRA and the
allows planners to further understand the implications Department of Planning should continue to actively
of BRM supply, demand and availability as it relates display innovations in urban development through
to future development scenarios in Perth and Peel and demonstration projects and the support of emerging
can feed directly into local structure plans. ‘green’ developers and constructors.
3. Create a clear requirement in all town planning 11. Develop and make publicly available maps (or a web
schemes where BRM is an issue for a BRM Report as based spatial tool) that demonstrate not only resource
part of the development approvals and structure locations, but the relationship between environment,
planning process on any development above a future development and BRM more clearly. This will
particular size. These reports should provide an initial be key to more efficient assessment of the impact of
estimate of BRM fill requirements and identify the extraction applications and could house information
sources of the materials in addition to demonstrating from the aforementioned ‘BRM Reports’.
how BRM is being minimised through better
construction techniques and new technology. This Regulation and Incentivisation
would allow decision makers to make an informed 12. Use improvement plans and special control area to
decision in relation to the BRM implications of a identify the best redevelopment areas in middle
proposed development. suburbs to assist with establishing a more optimal
4. Following the current review, ensure implementation redevelopment process.
of SPP 2.4 and the (updated) transparent process by 13. Identify the most significant BRM sites in the Perth
which conflicts are managed between BRM extraction Peel area and assign improvement plans and special
and environmental protection. control areas to protect these strategic BRM sites.
5. Identify and prioritise BRM sites still available for 14. Provide all quarry licences in the metropolitan area
extraction in the metropolitan area, including approvals to mine for the life of the resource where
consideration of closed quarries that may be re- appropriate, thus ensuring financial certainty and
opened. security of supply for builders.
Education & Facilitation 15. Establish a royalty on all freehold quarries similar to
those on Crown Land, which can be hypothecated to
6. Establish a clear direction and strategy to facilitate assist with rehabilitation of old quarries that are no
cultural change in the building, construction and longer active but are requiring to be brought back into
development industries that will result in further use.
innovation and the required diversity of housing stock.
This could be managed by Professional Development
Arup & CUSP Built Form Research: Recommendations
Governance
16. Ensure local planning strategies prepared by local
authorities in the Perth and Peel metropolitan region
include an assessment of the basic raw material
resources required for development scenarios.
17. Increase the role of the MRA in the future
development of middle suburbs, facilitating a precinct
based approach to middle suburb redevelopment.
18. Build in encouragement of alternative low BRM
construction technologies and materials into all
aspects of the town planning system and prevent local
TPS's from banning such options.
19. Include BRM in the suite of considerations for
Development Assessment Panels (DAPs).
20. The WAPC could adopt an urban metabolism
framework as part of their strategic reporting on the
Perth and Peel regions.
These recommendations represent the best precinct scale

options for reducing the materials and resource intensity of
the current built form in Perth and Peel. The
recommendations presented respond to the analysis and
discussion contained in this research. Of course, further
changes will need to be considered at the building scale
and in each individual development area.
Many of the recommendations relate to further
understanding of the issues surrounding BRM, suggesting
that this is one of the key elements to addressing the
materials and resource intensity of the built form in Perth
and Peel. There is a requirement for a deeper
understanding in both planning, governance and the
development industry of the BRM issues Perth and Peel
faces.
Cover illustration 1305/PER
© Arup
For further information please contact:
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836 Wellington Street
West Perth, WA 6005,
Australia
+61 8 9327 8300
perth@arup.com
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(greater than $200m) category and
finalist best West Australian Business 1963 | 2013
Appendix A: Literature Review
Basic Raw Materials – Urban Metabolism – Urban Planning – Construction Innovation
SEWPaC
Perth and Peel Built Form
Research
Literature Review
Issue | 5 April 2013
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SEWPaC Perth and Peel Built Form Research
Literature Review
Contents
Page
1 Introduction 1
2 Urban Metabolism 5
2.1 Summary of Information 5
2.2 Key Documents 8
3 Sustainable Urban Planning 14

3.2 Key Documents 19
4 Basic Raw Materials Planning 35

5 Offsite Construction and New Materials 43

| Issue | 5 April 2013 | Arup

Literature Review
(b) What different types of urban form are required to support the use of
1 Introduction alternative building methods and materials with a lower environmental
footprint?
Arup and Curtin University Sustainability Policy (CUSP) institute are
addressing the research question: The Service Provider should consider building types and urban forms
At the scale of a precinct or subdivision, what are the best practicable options which reduce land take and other resource consumption, as well as
for reducing the materials and resource intensity of the current built form for delivering other planning objectives such as community development,
the Perth and Peel regions? alternative housing options, affordable living and provision of
multifunctional green spaces. This must include considering how urban
form, building methods and materials can combine to assist with the
The secondary questions beneath this are: application of energy and water saving design and technologies, such as
renewable energy; Smart Grid development; water management,
(a) What alternative building methods are able to reduce or avoid the use of recycling and re-use (including land availability); and
Basic Raw Materials (BRM) and what substitutes are available with a lower closed water cycles. The opportunities to conserve and recycle water
environmental footprint? locally should be considered along with any implications for land use
and potential health impacts for residents.
The Service Provider must identify alternative building methods and
materials applicable to the Perth and Peel regions. In considering these The Service Provider must focus on building type and urban form
alternatives, the Service Provider should consider life cycle costs, options relevant to Western Australian circumstances in general, and
including energy, carbon and water implications (embodied and Perth and Peel regions in particular. The focus should be on
ongoing). The avoidance of waste and use of recycled materials are Greenfields development, while considering possible implications and
also important factors in considering the foot print of materials and opportunities for infill redevelopment.
alternative building methods. All of these factors should be considered
within the context of Perth circumstances. (c) What are the barriers to, and opportunities for, achieving the identified
options for alternative building methods, materials and built form, and how
Of particularly interest is the reduced use of BRM, particularly sand as can these be addressed?
fill, limestone for construction and cementing manufacture and possible
alternatives to using or minimising the use of these resources. The The feasibility of alternatives should be considered in the context of
Service Provider should investigate if the use of “S” class lots, as an Perth and Peel regions circumstances, including planning and
alternative to the more common “A” class lots, reduces overall demand development processes, availability and location of materials, and
for BRM once increased footing requirements are included. financial and political factors. This will include the use of case studies
| Issue | 5 April 2013 | Arup Page 1

Literature Review
in the Perth and Peel regions, to consider alternative approaches and The documents that have been reviewed are shown as they relate to the
determine how they can best be implemented. Case studies will be themes below.
selected to best illustrate the range of issues relevant to the strategic
assessment, and agreed with relevant State agencies and the
Urban Metabolism
Department.
 Plan for the Metropolitan Region Perth and Fremantle, Western
The Service Provider should determine strategies and mechanisms for Australia
improving the uptake of feasible alternatives, including options for
regulation, incentives, policy, demonstration projects, and marketing  National Urban Policy
requirements and the target audience, including the relevant elements  Perth Metropolitan Transport Strategy 1995-2029
of the building and development industry.
 Public Transport for Perth in 2031
A literature review has been undertaken as the first step to a consistent  Human Settlements. In: Australian State of the Environment Report
understanding of the current issues and opportunities. The outputs from
this literature review will be used as the basis for discussions with key  Sustainability and cities: extending the metabolism model
stakeholders to determine any gaps and opportunities from the  Modeling the Urban Ecosystem: A Conceptual Framework
perspective of specific and associated industries.
 Cities as Sustainable Ecosystems: Principles and Practices
The literature review covers four broad themes related to the research  The Metabolism of Cities
focus:
 The Changing Metabolism of Cities
 Urban metabolism
 The Study of Urban Metabolism and its applications to Urban
 Sustainable urban planning (urban form and environment) Planning and Design
 Basic raw materials planning (construction resources and waste)  Estimating the Urban Metabolism of Canadian Cities: Greater
 Offsite construction and new materials Toronto Area Case Study
 A Study on the Metabolism of Cities
 The Metabolism of a City: The Case of Hong Kong
 The Metabolism of the Industrial City: The Case of Pittsburgh
 Metabolism of Neighborhoods
 The Direct Material Inputs into Singapore’s Development
 Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact on the Earth

Literature Review
 The Energy and Mass Balance of Los Angeles County  Gnangara Groundwater Protection Policy (SPP 2.2)
 Spatial Distribution of Urban Building Energy Consumption by End  Jandakot Groundwater Protection Policy (SPP 2.3)
User  Agricultural and Rural Land Use Planning (SPP 2.5)
 State Coastal Planning Policy (SPP 2.6)
Sustainable Urban Planning
 Public Drinking Water Source Policy (SPP 2.7)
 Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence
 Bushland Policy for Perth Metropolitan Region (SPP 2.8)
 Resilient Cities: Responding to Peak Oil and Climate Change
 Water Resources (SPP 2.9)
 Green Urbanism in Asia: The Emerging Green Tigers
 Swan-Canning Rive System (SPP 2.10)
 Human Health and Human Mobility
 Statement of Planning Policy No.3 (SPP 3) Urban Growth and
 Review of public health and productivity benefits from different Settlement
urban transport and related land use options in Australia, The 5th
Healthy Cities: Working Together to Achieve Liveable Cities  Residential Design Codes (R-Codes) Version1 (SPP 3.1)
Conference, Geelong, 6 – 8, June 2012  Development Contributions for Infrastructure (SPP 3.6)
 Plan for the Metropolitan Region Perth and Fremantle, Western  Activity Centres for Perth and Peel (SPP 4.2)
Australia
 Land use Planning in the Vicinity of Perth Airport (SPP 5.1)
 State Planning Strategy DRAFT 2012
 Land use Planning in the Vicinity of Jandakot Airport (SPP 5.3)
 Statement of Planning Policy No.1 (SPP 1) State Planning
Framework Variation 2  Road and Rail Transport Noise and Freight Considerations in Land
Use Planning (SPP 5.4)
 Directions 2031 and Beyond
 State Industrial Buffer (Amended) SPP 4.1) DRAFT
 Central Metropolitan Perth Sub-regional Strategy DRAFT
 Metropolitan Region Scheme
 Outer Metropolitan Perth and Peel Sub-regional Strategy DRAFT
 Peel Region Scheme
 Public Transport for Perth in 2031
 Liveable Neighbourhoods Policy
 Perth Metropolitan Transport Strategy 1995-2029
 Development Control Policy 1.6: Planning to support transit use
 Statement of Planning Policy No.2 (SPP 2) Environmental and and transit oriented development
Natural Resource Policy
 Perth Central Business District Transport Plan 2012
 Peel and Harvey Coastal Plain Catchment Policy (SPP 2.1)

Literature Review
 Perth Parking Policy 2012  The Development of Western Australia Houses 1829-1980
 Western Australian Bicycle Network Plan 2012-2021  Building Register, Fremantle City Council
 Perth Airport Transport Master Plan  Taming the Great South Land: A History of Conquest of Nature in
 Disability Access and Inclusion Plan (2012-2017) Australia
 Green Concrete Stacks Up
Basic Raw Materials Planning  The Influence of Non-structural Components on the Serviceability
Performance of High-rise Buildings
 Sense of Place
 The Engineering of 'Engineering a City'
 Basic Raw Materials (BRM) (SPP 2.4)
 Land of Vision and Mirage
 Basic Raw Materials Applicants’ Manual: A step-by-step guide for
establishing extractive industries in Western Australia
 Western Australia Big on Building and Construction
Offsite Construction and New Materials
 Century Flashback: housing designs over the years: part 1  Benefits of offsite manufacture
 Fact Sheet: Asbestos Containing Materials in the Home  Offsite fabrication reduces waste from retail fit out
 The Building Code of Australia  Unitised Building (UB) Waste Not (Corporate Capability)
 Perth's Architecture  Report on Offsite Manufacture in Australia – Case Studies
 A Survey of Building Materials Used in House Construction in
Western Australia 1983  Waste Reduction through the use of Volumetric Construction at
NATO Headquarters, Northwood
 Fremantle Maritime Museum - WA, Australasia
 Housing Supply Responses To Change in Affordability (Final
 Infrastructure Partnerships Australia Case Studies Report – June 2012)
 Swan River Landscapes
 A Survey of Building Materials 1969
 Building Material File
 A Pictorial Guide to Identifying Australian Architecture
 Timber Houses Manual

Literature Review
2 Urban Metabolism
2.1 Summary of Information
Urban metabolism can be understood as all of the technical and socio-economic processes that occur in a city. The concept enables all of the system
dynamics within a city and its surrounding biosphere such as the inputs and outputs of energy, materials and information flows to be modelled. The idea
came to the forefront of urban research and planning in the 1970s and then wanned until about the 1990s. It has since gained much traction, with the recent
literature emphasising the growing trend of modelling cities as living organisms that have a metabolism requiring inputs of land, energy, water, information
and materials and creating outputs of waste, energy, materials, information and pollution. Urban metabolism is a biological systems way of looking at the
resource inputs and waste outputs of settlements.
Australia will require better management of the consumption of resources and production of waste to reduce its impact on the environment. This is now
becoming overwhelmingly obvious. A sustainable city requires a reduction in the use of natural resources and in the production of wastes while
simultaneously improving liveability. Cities are major consumers of resources (i.e. water, land, materials, energy and food) and major producers of waste and
greenhouse gases (see Figure 1). Increasingly the ecological footprints of cities are extending far beyond their boundaries. To be sustainable, consumption of
resources and the generation of wastes need to be reduced to better fit within the capacities of the local, regional and global ecosystems. However, to be truly
sustainable this reduction needs to be accompanied with improvements in liveability. This is referred to an extended metabolism model. which enables a
holistic perspective, or ‘systems’ perspective, of the inputs and outputs of a city and also enables a recognition of the links between cities and ecosystems,
allowing the interactions between the city and the environment to be more apparent (see Figure 2).

Literature Review
Figure 1
An urban metabolism understanding also importantly enables the dynamics and drivers of change within a city to be studied. For example, it enables
understanding of the impact of policies to reduce energy use. The development and management of our cities affects national prosperity and the wellbeing of
all Australians, no matter where they live.
One major omission in the urban metabolism literature is that very rarely is information included about how basic raw materials (for example sand) are used
within the system.

Literature Review
Figure 2

Literature Review
2.2 Key Documents

Author/ Date Of
Title Summary Link to full document
Organisation Publication
Gordon
Plan for the Metropolitan
Stephenson, B. Describes in detail the building types, population demographics, work force and
Region Perth and Fremantle, 1955 NOT ACCESSIBLE ONLINE
Arch and J.A. land use. Does not specify building materials.
Western Australia
Hepburn
Australian The pattern in which cities grow to sustain future challenges in terms of
http://www.infrastructure.government.au/inf
government liveability (health, income, housing, education), productivity (human capital,
rastructure/mcu/files/Our_Cities_National_
National Urban Policy Department of 2011 regional development), sustainability (water, energy, land usage, waste
Urban_Policy_Paper_2011_1_Introduction.
Infrastructure production) is a critical factor ensuring a long-term and consistent economic
pdf
and Transport growth without impacting the environment.
The Metropolitan Transport Strategy is to direct policies to deal with low

occupancy car use by offering a more balanced and robust transport system
which will be economically and environmentally sustainable. Some of the key
Department of https://www.transport.wa.government.au/me
Perth Metropolitan Transport elements of this strategy include:
Transport 1995 diaFiles/AT_TS_P_PerthMetroTransportStu
Strategy 1995-2029 promoting cycling and walking for the economic development of the local area,
(Perth) dy.pdf
road use efficiency and community safety;
increasing and improving co-ordination between transport and land uses;
improving efficiency for transport infrastructure and services.
Creation of balance between public transport and social amenities is important;

it can be achieved when state transport agencies engage and collaborate with
Department of
Public Transport for Perth in local government. Furthermore, this has to be supported by mixed use http://www.transport.wa.government.au/med
Transport 2011
2031 development, master planning, transport integration and financial options by iaFiles/ABOUT_P_PT_Plan2031.pdf
(Perth)
taking into consideration the expected growth and structure of the Perth and Peel
regions.

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Peter Newman,
R Birrell, D
Holmes, C
Mathers, P
Newton, G
Oakley, A
O’Connor, B The authors study the urban metabolism of Sydney, expanding the metabolism
Human Settlements. In:
Walker, A model to include liveability and quality of life indices such as health, education, http://www.environment.government.au/soe/1
Australian State of the 1996
Spessa and D housing and community activities. This report has been extremely influential 996/publications/report/pubs/chap03.pdf
Environment Report
Tait; and has been used as the model for Australian cities ever since.
Department of
Environment,
Sport and
Territories
(Australian
government)
The use of the metabolism concept is expanded to include aspects of liveability.

Sustainability and cities:
This is applied to cities to demonstrate the practical meaning of sustainability. http://www.esf.edu/cue/documents/Newman_
extending the metabolism Peter Newman 1999
Its application in industrial ecology, urban ecology, urban demonstration metab.pdf
model
projects, business plans and city comparisons are used to illustrate its potential.
Modeling the Urban M. Alberti, 2008 Author develops into an urban ecological model (UEM): a conceptual
Ecosystem: A Conceptual Urban framework for modeling the urban ecosystem called combining operational
Framework Ecology, 623- urban models and ecological processes. The UEM simulates the resulting
646 environmental pressures caused by human activities for various scenarios. The
objectives of the UEM are: quantify the major sources of human-induced http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-
environmental stresses; determine the spatial and temporal variability of human 0-387-73412-5_41
stressors in relation to changes in the biophysical structure; relate the
biophysical impacts of these stressors to the variability and spatial heterogeneity
in land uses, human activities, and management practices; and predict the
changes in stressors in relation to changes in human factors.

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Cities as Sustainable Peter Newman 2008 Newman and Jennings demonstrate how cities can be reintegrated with the
Ecosystems: Principles and and Isabella natural environment and particularly with their surrounding biosphere. Based
Practices Jennings, around the Ten Melbourne Principles for Sustainable Cities (UNEP/IETC 2001),
http://islandpress.org/ip/books/book/islandpres
Island Press. the authors explain how cities can model their flows of energy, materials and
s/C/bo8000727.html
information on natural ecosystems in order to reduce the city's use of natural
resources and production of wastes while simultaneously improving its
liveability.
Abel Wolman,
Scientific Pioneer paper developing the concept of an urban metabolism. This is done
The Metabolism of Cities American, 1965 through quantifying the inputs and outputs of a hypothetical US city of one NOT ACCESSIBLE ONLINE
213(3), 179- million people.
190
Using a meta-analysis of existing urban metabolism studies, Kennedy et al. look

at how the urban metabolism of cities would vary depending on the differing
C Kennedy, J
cultural, developmental and environmental/geographic factors of the city. The
Cuddihy and J
various cities studied primarily showed an increasing per capita metabolism for
Engel-Yan;
The Changing Metabolism of water, wastewater, energy and materials (except for one city showed increased http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1162/jie.
Journal of 2007
Cities efficiency) The results for solid waste and air pollutant emissions were mixed. 2007.1107/abstract
Industrial
The review highlights that the metabolic process of ground water levels, over
Ecology,
use of local materials, the accumulation of toxic materials, the increasing
11(2), 43-59
summer heat islands effects and the irregular accumulation of nutrients are the
biggest threats for cities.

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
C Kennedy, S
Pincetl and P The authors conduct a review of urban metabolism models and then propose
The Study of Urban
Bunje, four example applications of urban metabolism that would allow for simple
Metabolism and its http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/p
Environmental 2011 application by urban planners. These applications include defining sustainability
applications to Urban ii/S0269749110004781
Pollution, indicators, urban greenhouse gas emissions accounting, developing dynamic
Planning and Design
159(8-9), mathematical models for policy analysis and the creation of design tools.
1965-1973
Halla R
Sahely, Shauna
Dudding,
Estimating the Urban Christopher A The authors conduct the first urban metabolism for a Canadian urban region
Metabolism of Canadian Kennedy, using the Toronto region for 1987 and 1999 and compares this to other global http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1
2003
Cities: Greater Toronto Area Canadian examples. The authors find that the inputs for the region have generally 139/l02-105
Case Study Journal of increased at higher rates than outputs.
Civil
Engineering,
30(2), 468-483
T Hanya and Y
Ambe, Science
for a Better
A Study on the Metabolism
Environment, 1976 Study analyses the urban metabolism of Tokyo in the 1970s. NOT ACCESSIBLE ONLINE
of Cities
HSEC Science
Council of
Japan, 228-233
Ken
Newcombe,
The Metabolism of a City: Jetse D. Kalma
1978 Analyses the urban metabolism of Hong Kong in the 1970s. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/4312330
The Case of Hong Kong and Alan R.
Aston, Ambio,
and, 3-15

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
J Tarr, Journal
The Metabolism of the Tarr attempts to use urban metabolism to develop the concept of metabolism in
of Urban
Industrial City: The Case of 2002 relationship to the environmental history. The author examines the urban http://juh.sagepub.com/content/28/5/511.short
History, 28,
Pittsburgh metabolism of Pittsburgh from 1800 to 2000 looking at water, air and land.
511-545
Natalia
Codoban
and Codoban and Kennedy analyse the flows of water, energy, food and waste for 4
Metabolism of Christopher A. representative neighbourhoods in Toronto using a Material Flow Analysis
Neighborhoods Kennedy, (MFA). MFA quantifies flows in terms of mass. The study determines that the http://ascelibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.1061/(ASCE)
2008
Journal of annual energy consumption for buildings is 57 to 107 GJ/capita and for transport 0733-9488(2008)134%3A1(21)
Urban is 0.5 to 9.2 GJ/capita. The annual consumption of food and water is found to be
Planning and 1,100 and 92,300 kg/capita.
Development.
134, 21-31.
Schulz examines the urban metabolism of Singapore using a Material Flow

Schulz, Journal Analysis (MFA) method. This study uses a 41-year annual time series of direct
The Direct Material Inputs
of Industrial material flows. The results illustrate that the economic growth of Singapore was
into Singapore’s 2007 NOT ACCESSIBLE ONLINE
Ecology, associated with increased domestic material consumption. Domestic material
Development
11(2), 117-131 consumption increased from ~ 4 tonnes per capita annually in 1962 to ~ 50
tonnes annually in 2000.
Develop the Ecological Footprint calculation method to determine the urban

M
metabolism. Ecological Footprints calculate the demand that the unit of measure
Our Ecological Footprint: Wackernagel
(i.e. cities, people, organisations, countries, etc..) put on the ecosystem and
Reducing Human Impact on and W.E. Rees, 1996 NOT ACCESSIBLE ONLINE
compared to the ability of the ecosystem to regenerate. The Ecological Footprint
the Earth New Society
method is now widely used by cities, countries and organisations around the
Publishers
world.

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
The authors analysed the per capita inputs and outputs of energy, water, food,
solid waste and greenhouse gas emissions in Los Angeles County between 1990
and 2000. They determined that inputs of resources and outputs of pollutants
N Ngo and D
The Energy and Mass generally declined on a per capita basis, except for food imports and wastewater
Pataki, Urban http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11252
Balance of Los Angeles 2008 outputs. They conclude that these reductions were bought about from changes in
Ecosystems, -008-0051-1
County public policy, improvements technology and public infrastructure and increases
27(2), 181-203
in density. Despite some improvements in the urban metabolism, the area had
relatively high resource consumption per capita (particularly in water and
transport energy) when compared to other areas.
Spatial Distribution of Urban B Howard et Howard et al. used multiple linear regression methods to determine the annual
Building Energy al, Energy and 2012 end-use energy consumption of buildings in New York City modelling 8 NOT ACCESSIBLE ONLINE
Consumption by End User Building, 45 different building types.

Literature Review
3 Sustainable Urban Planning

The last two centuries have witnessed a variety of attempts at articulating city archetypes stemming from differing and largely mechanistic worldviews –
Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City, the City Beautiful movement, Frank Lloyd Wright’s Broadacre City, Le Corbusier’s Radiant City – all represent a
conception of what a city should look like, how it should be arranged and how it should function. The most recent efforts have included today’s Sustainable
City and Resilient City – part of the broad movement towards environmentalism in reaction to industrialisation and post Second World War aspirations for
material affluence. Just as earlier attempts at creating beautiful and equitable urban environments were a reaction to the grimy and unpleasant nature of cities
of the time, so the Sustainable City and Resilient City concepts are a reaction to the high social and natural resource consumption of the modern city.
Alternative types of city development, such as concentrations of residential housing and commercial activity in centres supported by quality public transport
– transit oriented development – offer the potential to supply more housing in locations that are accessible to the key building blocks of the city. And in the
process to stop the urban sprawl that threatens many environmental values as well as enabling a reduction in the urban metabolism of the city due to less
need for resources and more opportunities to manage waste. The literature on this is extensive globally, nationally and locally.
The Australian government report on cities highlights these issues. It suggests that the challenges that we face in Australian cities are broadly categorised by:
 the need to improve productivity growth
 provide affordable and accessible housing
 create safe community spaces
 meet the needs of a growing and ageing population; ensure an inclusive and cohesive society
 address the implications of climate change.
Housing constitutes the foundation upon which communities are formed and maintained. The nature of residential development in cities is also fundamental
to their urban structure and form, which together influence liveability, productivity and sustainability. In April 2009, COAG – noting that the housing market
faces significant pressures from strong demand, driven by population growth and a robust economy – endorsed a housing supply and affordability reform
agenda to remove barriers to supply and ensure efficient use of Australia’s existing housing stock.
The patterns of urban development that characterised Australian cities for the latter half of the twentieth century – of expanding low density ‘greenfield’
suburbs of detached houses accessed mostly by car – are no longer considered environmentally sustainable, do not meet the needs and preferences of all
Australian households, and economically are not the best use of scarce resources such as land and water.

Literature Review
In the following table these issues have been quantified to demonstrate the differences in economic, environmental and social factors involving inner area
redevelopment compared to outer area greenfields development. This is sourced from Trubka Newman and Bilsborough, 2010 and expanded in Matan,
Trubka, Newman, and Vardaloukis (2012).
Per person per year High Walkability Urban Environment (HWUE) Low Walkability Urban Environment (LWUE) Difference
Transport and Land use Characteristics

NOTE: Typical characteristics for an Australian City.
VKT per person per day 3-13 km 20-35 km
Car trips per person per day 2.32 3.39
Transit trips per person per day 0.56 0.165
Transit accessibility more than 80% w >15min service less than 15% w >15min service
Walk/Cycle trips per person per day 2.115 0.945
Distance to CBD less than 10 km more than 40 km
GhG per capita daily (CO2 -e) 0 to 4 Kg 8 up to 10 Kg
Activity density > 35 < 20
Infrastructure Costs
Roads $5,086.56 $30,378.88 $25,292.32
Water and Sewerage $14,747.62 $22,377.46 $7,629.84
Telecommunications $2,576.11 $3,711.85 $1,135.74
Electricity $4,082.12 $9,696.51 $5,614.39
Gas $3,690.84 $3,690.84
Fire and Ambulance $302.51 $302.51
Police $388.42 $388.42
Education $3,895.46 $33,147.27 $29,251.81
Health (Hospitals, etc..) $20,114.87 $32,347.33 $12,232.46

Literature Review
Total Infrastructure $50,502.74 $136,041.07 $85,538.33

Transport Costs
Transport and Travel Time $206,542.06 $342,598.10 $136,056.04
Roads and Parking $46,937.54 $154,826.10 $107,888.56
Externalities $2,219.88 $9,705.38 $7,485.50
Total Transport $255,699.48 $507,129.58 $251,430.10
Greenhouse Gas Emissions Cost
Offset Cost ($25/t) $2,500.00 $5,400.00 $2,900.00
Social Cost ($215/t) $21,500.00 $46,440.00 $24,940.00
(NB. not included in total)
Total Greenhouse $2,500.00 $5,400.00 $2,900.00
Physical Activity Costs
Inactivity costs $4,229.95 $4,229.95
Productivity Loss $34,454.90 $34,454.90
Total Activity Costs $38,684.85 $38,684.85
Total (excluding social cost) $308,702.22 $687,255.50 $378,553.28
Includes social costs and direct and indirect costs and obesity costs.
Chart 1 – Comparison between a high walkability urban environment and a low walkability urban environment in Australia (costs in $AUS).
The vision underpinning Sustainable Urban Planning is one of reduced consumption of fossil fuels and water; reduced generation of waste; and an easing in
the loss of biodiversity, all achieved whilst maintaining or improving liveability (Newman and Kenworthy, 1999). There is a lot of literature showing how
this is now happening across the world: Newman et al 2009, Newman and Matan, 2013. The one element conspicuous by its absence is the reduction in basic
raw materials as a central part of reducing the urban footprint in these cities.
The Sustainable City has developed two separate identities: one advanced by the private sector based on efficiencies and reductions that yield economic
benefit and the second that aspires to the UN idealism characterised by the provision of a safe and healthy living environment, shelter, clean water,
electricity, an education and a job. These paradigms have resulted in useful concepts, including mixed-use high-density neighbourhoods, transit oriented
development, high-density living and integrated planning. Sustainability principles have been interpreted to establish a blueprint that encourages the creation

Literature Review
of the new from the old. Prominent examples of this line of thought are New Urbanism and Green Urbanism, which directed the development of new
Sustainable Cities around the world and precincts in the Perth Metropolitan area.
Over the last decade there has been increased residential development in and around CBDs, coinciding with growth in outer metropolitan areas. The trend to
inner-city living reflects changing preferences for dwellings and location and reflects state and local government planning frameworks that encourage infill
developments. As expected, we have seen a decrease in the average size of households and a trend towards a more diverse group of dwellings.
Urban infill needs to be accompanied by improved urban amenity.
Unless the construction of residential buildings incorporates universal design – features that enable them to adapt to the changing needs of the occupants
without expensive retrofitting – dwelling stock will become unsuitable as the population/area changes. Universal design features have been incorporated into
Australian Standards but are not yet a requirement for general housing. The Australian government now requires that new dwellings funded through the
social housing initiative meet universal design standards.
Australia’s peri-urban areas face competing pressures and decision makers are required to balance competing priorities as residential or other forms of land
use encroach on valuable land. Whilst urban development may be seen as a more valuable higher-order land use, the economic, social and environmental
implications of business as usual are largely agreed to be significant.
Residential and commercial buildings are responsible for approximately 20% of Australia’s total energy consumption (Prime Minister’s Task Group on
Energy Efficiency, 2010). The energy used by households in particular is closely linked to built form. Flows of people and freight between our cities are
growing and rapidly placing pressure on the capacity of air, road and rail infrastructure. Western Australia has a suite of policies focussed on the integration
of public transport with land use planning. The implementation of Directions 2031 and Beyond provides more opportunities to reinforce this integrated
approach. In response to population growth and long-term changing climatic conditions, the urban water industry has recently made unprecedented
investment in infrastructure to provide our cities and towns with a more diversified and secure portfolio of water supply sources.
As centres develop, land values rise. The cost to provide parking coupled with finite road capacity, means that the provision of quality public transport is
essential.
Urban issues have emerged as key features of national policy agendas. The policy platform for sustainable urban planning in Australian cities is
demonstrated in the diagram produced by the Australian government and shown below (Figure 3):

Literature Review
Figure 3

Literature Review
3.2 Key Documents

Author/ Date Of
Sustainability and Cities: First book to set out how the concept of sustainability could be applied to cities.
Newman P and
Overcoming Automobile 1999 It shows how transport priorities shape the form of cities and how that can be NOT ACCESSIBLE ONLINE
Kenworthy J
Dependence used to create more sustainable urban form.
Shows how cities through the centuries have responded to big challenges and
Resilient Cities: Responding Newman P,
how a positive approach to managing peak oil and climate change may indeed
to Peak Oil and Climate Beatley T and 2009 NOT ACCESSIBLE ONLINE
tip the world to solving these issues. Many case studies are presented to show
Change Boyer H
how the first signs of this are emerging through 7 city types.

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Assesses whether Asian cities are using their growth in the Asian Century to
Green Urbanism in Asia: The Newman P and
2013 demonstrate innovations in the new green economy. After examining the 7 city NOT ACCESSIBLE ONLINE
Emerging Green Tigers Matan A
types set out in Resilient Cities it suggests the answer is yes.
Newman, P.,
and A. Matan,
Human Health and Human Current
Mobility Shows how human health is linked to urban form through transport priorities,
Opinion in 2012 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2012.08.005
especially the level of car dependence.
Environmental
Sustainability,
4(4): 420–426,

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Review of public health and

productivity benefits from
different urban transport and Matan, A.,
related land use options in Trubka, R., Provides a table comparing inner redevelopment to outer area greenfields http://healthycities.com.au/BOP/PR.pdf
Australia, The 5th Healthy Newman, P., 2012 development showing the transport, energy, greenhouse, costs and health
Cities: Working Together to and S. outcomes of these planning priorities.
Achieve Liveable Cities Vardoulakis
Conference, Geelong, 6 – 8,
June 2012
Gordon Describes in detail building types, population demographics, work force and
Plan for the Metropolitan
Stephenson, B. land use. Provided the structure for Perth’s growth in the past 50 years.
Region Perth and Fremantle, 1955 NOT ACCESSIBLE ONLINE
Arch and J.A. Does not specify building materials.
Western Australia
Hepburn

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Top level overarching strategy (still in development).

Will be lead strategic planning document within the WA government.
Government of
Designed to provide a sound basis to integrate and coordinate strategic planning
Western
across state, regional and local jurisdictions.
Australia
To outline the overarching planning Vision (a diverse, liveable, connected and
Department of
collaborative city), Principles (community, economy, environment, http://www.planning.wa.government.au/public
State Planning Strategy Planning
2012 infrastructure, regional development and governance), Strategic Goals and ations/6561.asp
DRAFT 2012 and
Strategic Directions (see page 6 of the Strategy) for the state.
Western
Guideline of requirements to be taken into consideration by Regional and local
Australian
government planners.
Planning
Support provided by range of regional and local planning and infrastructure
Commission
frameworks and sectorial policies covering planning issues such as transport,
regional/local governance, water and energy.
Government of
Western
Australia
Current means of uniting existing state and regional policies, strategies and
Department of
Statement of Planning Policy guidelines within a central framework. http://www.planning.wa.government.au/public
Planning
No. 1 (SPP 1) State Planning 38749 Key principles policies of environment, community, economy, infrastructure and ations/1160.asp
and
Framework (Variation no.2) regional development.
Western
Provides WA plan decision-making context.
Australian
Planning
Commission

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
High level spatial framework and strategic plan.

Establishes a vision for future growth of the metropolitan Perth and Peel region.
2.2 million Population Target by 2031.
Provides framework to guide detailed planning and delivery of housing,
infrastructure and services.
Accommodate various growth scenarios.
Looks at following Urban Form aspects...

Government of 1) Potential future evolution of City;
Western 2) A scenario for a connected city;
Directions 2031 and beyond Australia 3) Infill and greenfield housing targets;
metropolitan planning Department of 4) Sub-regional planning areas; http://www.planning.wa.government.au/public
beyond the horizon (Current Planning 5) Population distribution; ations/826.asp
40391
Strategic Metropolitan Plan and 6) Dwelling distribution; and
and Spatial Framework for Western 7) Employment distribution.
Perth and Peel regions) Australian Includes brief assessment of Peel Region (see pg 89 (part 2c)
Planning
Commission Vision 'By 2031, Perth and Peel people will have created a world class liveable
city; green, vibrant, more compact and accessible with a unique sense of place.'
Vision Promoted through five key themes...
1) Liveability;
2) Prosperity;
3) Accessibility;
4) Sustainability; and
5) Responsibility.
Accompanying Theme Objectives and Strategies provided (See pg 22-23)

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
The supply of basic raw materials in the metropolitan region is currently at risk.
Existing sites that provide basic raw materials are in conflict with, and at risk
from urban encroachment and are constrained by the presence of remnant
Government of
vegetation. At the same time, excessive amounts of raw material are required to
Western
fill low lying areas of land that have been zoned for development. The
Australia
Department of Planning will review State Planning Policy 2.4 Basic Raw
Department of
Materials and prepare a basic raw materials strategy to address these issues. P.51
Planning http://www.planning.wa.government.au/dop_p
Directions 2031 p. 51 Part 3 40391
and ub_pdf/plan_directions2031_Part3.pdf
"the city cannot grow without access to basic raw materials for construction and
Western
production of goods. Directions 2031 will continue to protect these important
Australian
assets. Directions 2031 supports the development of contemporary policy
Planning
responses to deal with the protection of important natural resources that are
Commission
fundamental to supporting our local economy. In particular, urban development
needs to be carefully considered where it may adversely impact on priority
agricultural activity and essential basic raw materials." p.51
Government of
Western
Details planned urban growth, infrastructure network planning and governance.
Australia
Applies to four themes (objectives and strategies outlined in Directions 2031
Central Metropolitan Perth Department of
Framework. http://www.planning.wa.government.au/public
sub-regional strategy Planning
40391 Applies to area encompassing the inner and middle sectors of metropolitan Perth ations/762.asp
(strategic follow on from and
(central sub-region)
Directions 2031) DRAFT Western
Aims to achieve higher average density in greenfield areas and promote housing
Australian
affordability.
Planning
Commission

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Government of
Western
Details planned urban growth, infrastructure network planning and governance.
Australia
Outer Metropolitan Perth and Applies to four themes (objectives and strategies outlined in Directions 2031
Department of
Peel Sub-regional strategy Framework. http://www.planning.wa.government.au/public
Planning
(strategic follow 40391 Applies to area encompassing the five outer sub-regions of north-west, north- ations/990.asp
and
on from Directions 2031) east, south-east, south-west of metropolitan Perth and Peel
Western
DRAFT Aims to achieve higher average density in greenfield areas and promote housing
Australian
affordability.
Planning
Commission
Perth Metropolitan Transport Department of 1995 The Metropolitan Transport Strategy is to direct policies to deal with low
Strategy 1995-2029 Transport occupancy car use by offering a more balanced and robust transport system
(Perth) which will be economically and environmentally sustainable. Some of the key
elements of this strategy include: https://www.transport.wa.government.au/medi
promoting cycling and walking for the economic development of the local area, aFiles/AT_TS_P_PerthMetroTransportStudy.p
road use efficiency and community safety; df
increasing and improving co-ordination between transport and land uses;
improving efficiency for transport infrastructure and services.
Public Transport for Perth in Department of 2011 Creation of balance between public transport and social amenities is important;
2031 Transport it can be achieved when state transport agencies engage and collaborate with
(Perth) local government. Furthermore, this has to be supported by mixed use
development, master planning, transport integration and financial options by
taking into consideration the expected growth and structure of the Perth and Peel http://www.transport.wa.government.au/media
regions. Files/ABOUT_P_PT_Plan2031.pdf

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Defines principles and considerations that represent good and responsible
Government of
planning in terms of environment and natural resource issues within framework
Western
of the State Planning Strategy.
Australia
Supplemented by more specific planning policies on particular natural resource
Department of
Statement of Planning Policy issues requiring further information and guidance.
Planning http://www.planning.wa.government.au/public
No. 2 (SPP 2) Environment 37773 The main objectives of this policy are...
and ations/1161.asp
and Natural Resource Policy 1) Integration of environmental and natural resource management with broader
Western
land use planning and decision-making;
Australian
2) Protect, conserve and enhance the natural environment;
Planning
3) Promote and assist in wise and sustainable land and natural resource
Commission
management.
Government of
Peel-Harvey Costal Plain Western
Feb 1992
Catchment policy (SPP 2.1) Australia Main function of these three policies…
and
and Department of ‘To ensure that land use changes within the given policy area that are likely
http://www.planning.wa.government.au/5132.a
Gnangara Groundwater Planning cause detrimental effects to local water/groundwater supplies are brought under
Aug 2005 sp
Protection (SPP 2.2) and planning control and prevented or managed.’
and
and Western Encompasses water supplies of Peel Harvey estuarine catchment, Gnangara and
Jandakot Groundwater Australian Jandakot groundwater supplies.
June 1998
protection Policy (SPP 2.3) Planning
Commission
Agricultural and Rural Land
Government of Mar-00
Use Planning (SPP 2.5) Planning policies for development and protection of Agricultural/Rural land,
Western and
and coastline, Native Bush and land adj/impact Swan-Canning River.
Australia
State Coastal Planning Policy Common themes include…
Department of Jun-03
(SPP 2.6) 1) Local environmental management and conservation; http://www.planning.wa.government.au/5132.a
Planning and
and 2) Careful consideration and planning for human activity and development sp
and
Bushland Policy for Perth impacts;
Western Jun-10
metro region (SPP 2.8) 3) Integration of land use/development plans to improve efficiency and reduce
Australian and
and use conflicts; and
Planning
Swan-Canning River System 4) Est of legal process and protection checks.
Commission Dec-06
(SPP 2.10)

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Government of Policy's protect and conserve water res.

Western SPP 2.7 Protect sensitive water sources from incompatible land development
Australia and pollution.
Public Drinking Water
Department of Jun-03 SPP 2.9 Guide for planners reg water res.
Source Policy (SPP 2.7) http://www.planning.wa.government.au/5132.a
Planning and Key considerations in either case:
and sp
and 1) Protection of key water resources with significant economic, social, cultural,
Water Resources
Western Dec-06 environment value;
(SPP 2.9)
Australian 2) Plan to assist and not hinder ensurance of avail supply, and meet stated plan
Planning area requirements; and
Commission 3) Effective res management and sustainable use.
Sets principles and considerations.

Government of
Objectives are:
Western
1) Promote sustainable/well-planned settlements with suitable land to provide
Australia
variety of housing, employment, rec and open space;
Department of
Statement of Planning Policy 2) Existing communities: enhance economy, infrastructure/service provide and http://www.planning.wa.government.au/5132.a
Planning
No. 3 (SPP 3) Urban Growth quality of life; sp
and
and Settlement 3) Community Social/economic growth management and recognition of climate
Western
environment heritage and community values;
Australian
4) Utility and travel efficient design and equality (service, infrastructure,
Planning
employment etc.); and
Commission
5) Efficient, economic and timely provision.

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Provide a comprehensive basis for control of residential development through
WA.
Outline rules applying to residential development intended to minimise need for
additional local government planning policies.
Government of DOES NOT address the physical construction requirements of or internal
Western arrangements of buildings - these are dealt with by Building Code of Australia
Australia (BCA).
Department of Objectives for Planning Process are:
Residential Design Codes (R- http://www.planning.wa.government.au/637.as
Planning 1) Provide local government with full range of housing type/design choices, to
Codes) Version 1 39567 p
and meet their community’s needs;
(SPP 3.1)
Western 2) Provide for uniformity of residential development standards for each dwelling
Australian type, consistent with community needs;
Planning 3) Provide clear and understandable siting and design standards for each
Commission dwelling type;
4) Minimise cost and delay in the process of preparing, assessing and
determining development applications; and
5) Provide for neighbour consultation and discretionary decisions by councils
where acceptable development provide are not met.
Outlines infrastructure developers must commit to provide when development
land under local/state jurisdiction and/or ownership.
Based on understanding of limited government capacity to provide additional
Government of
infrastructure and facilities to accommodate future growth.
Western
Examples might include car parking, community/sport centres, sporting
Australia
facilities, libraries and child care centres etc..
Department of
Objectives of policy are therefore... http://www.planning.wa.government.au/public
Development Contributions Planning
40118 1) Promote efficient and effective provision of public infrastructure and facilities ations/1028.asp
for Infrastructure (SPP 3.6) and
to meet growth and development demands;
Western
2) Ensure developer contributions are necessary and relevant to proposed
Australian
development and that equitable charges are imposed;
Planning
3) Ensure consistency and transparency in system for apportioning, collecting
Commission
and spending developer contributions; and
4) Ensure social well-being of communities arising from or affected by each
development.

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Specifies broad planning requirements for the planning and development of new
activity centres and the renewal and redevelopment of existing centres within the
Perth and Peel regions.
Mainly focuses on distribution, function, broad land use and urban design
criteria.
Government of
Aims to co-ordinate land use and infrastructure planning (e.g. coordination with
Western
public transport networks.
Australia
Section 5.4 Urban form considerations...
Department of
1) Well-formed structure typically consisting of small, walkable blocks http://www.planning.wa.government.au/public
Activity Centres for Perth Planning
improving access to a centre space; ations/1178.asp
and Peel (SPP 4.2) and
2) Suitable public space and street provision to promote vitality and natural
Western
surveillance;
Australian
3) A mix of uses along street frontages and arrangement of key retail and other
Planning
attractors maximising pedestrian flow along streets;
Commission
4) Should include sleeving of large scale retail developments and associated
infrastructure (e.g. car parks), along with more externally orientated building
frontages and less blank walls; and
5) Attractive looking and well located town squares, public and civic spaces and
parks to provide a quality and integrated community meeting place.
Government of
Western Focus on aircraft noise and development impact.
Land use Planning in the Australia Designed to prev neg or prejudicial impacts on reports of airport performance,
Vicinity of Perth Airport Department of resulting from addition of noise sensitive developments exposed to aircraft
Feb-04
(SPP 5.1) Planning activity. http://www.planning.wa.government.au/5132.a
and
and and Also designed to ensure aircraft noise doesn't adversely affect developing sp
Mar-06
Jandakot Airport Vicinity Western communities by placing zoning and other building restrictions on areas within a
(SPP 5.3) Australian specified range of noise exposure (see ANEF contour plans for Perth/Jandakot
Planning airports).
Commission

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Government of
Western Promotes mutually compatible sustainable land and transport planning.
Australia Policy Objectives
Road and Rail Transport Department of 1) Standardise noise impact criteria;
Noise and Freight Planning 2) Protect transport/freight corridors from incompatible urban encroachment; http://www.planning.wa.government.au/public
40057
Considerations in Land Use and 3) Best practice design and construction standards for new development ations/1182.asp
Planning (SPP 5.4) Western proposals and redeveloped transport infrastructure;
Australian 4) Facilitated development and operation of an efficient freight network; and
Planning 5) Facilitate strategic co-location of freight handling facilities.
Commission
Applies state wide to planning, decision-making and proposals, which provide
for new industrial areas and uses, essential infrastructure and sensitive land use
Government of
in proximity to existing industrial areas.
Western
Objectives are…
Australia
1) Avoid conflict btw industry and/or essential infrastructure and sense land
Department of
State Industrial Buffer uses; http://www.planning.wa.government.au/public
Planning
(Amended) DRAFT 39995 2) Protect industry and/or essential infrastructure from encroachment by land ations/1177.asp
and
(SPP 4.1) uses sensitive to their generated impacts;
Western
3) Provide for the development of industry and/or provide of essential
Australian
infrastructure in a way that maximises amenity, minimises environment and
Planning
health impacts and takes account of risk.
Commission
4) Promotes compatible uses of land affected by off-site industrial/essential
infrastructure.
Government of
Western
Australia Statutory mechanism to assist strategic planning, coordination of major
Nov-07
Department of infrastructure and setting aside of open spaces and other community land.
Metropolitan Region Scheme http://www.planning.wa.government.au/639.as
Planning Sets out way land is to be used and development.
and and p
and Classify areas of land use (into zones) and including provide to coordinate
Peel Region Scheme
Western infrastructure and urban/commercial/industrial development within a specific
Jun-12
Australian locality.
Planning
Commission

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Operational policy for the design and assessment of structure plans (regional,
district and local) and subdivision for new urban areas in the metropolitan and
country regions, on greenfield and large urban infill sites.
Development control policy/code to help facilitate development of sustainable
communities.
Government of Has following principal aims...
Western 1) Provide urban structure for walkable neighbourhoods, mixed use and reduced
Australia cars;
Department of 2) Equal access to services and facilities;
http://www.planning.wa.government.au/650.as
Liveable Neighbourhoods Planning 3) Foster community and individual sense of place;
39814 p
Policy and 4) Provide interconnected access networks;
Western 5) Active street-land use interfaces;
Australian 6) Facilitate public transport favouring development;
Planning 7) Adaptable mixed use urban development;
Commission 8) Diff housing sizes for varied social needs;
9) Avoid key environment areas and incorporate significant cultural and
environment features into urban design;
10) Integrate open space and urban water management;
11) Cost/resource efficient development promoting affordable housing; and
12) Maximum land efficiency where possible
"Urban structure is the foundation of a transit supportive environment. Effective
Development Control Policy transit is fostered by a more compact urban form,
1.6: Planning to support mixed uses, higher development densities and activity levels, and especially by http://www.planning.wa.government.au/public
WAPC 38718
transit use and transit spatial ations/798.asp
oriented development patterns of development that make it easier to plan and efficiently operate transit
services, and for users to access those services once they are in place."p.5

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Development of an integrated and more balanced transport system in the Perth
metropolitan area based on the following principles:
Provision of a 'road function hierarchy' by allocating specific modal and network
purposes to specific streets;
Efficient public transport system to attain improved service levels;
Perth Central Business Department of Converting one-way streets to two-way streets to reduce the traffic speeds at http://www.transport.wa.government.au/media
District Transport 2012 pedestrian areas; Files/ABOUT_P_PT_Report__perth_cbd_tran
Transport Plan 2012 (Perth) To connect city cores and major pedestrian areas, with emphasis placed on well- sport_plan_online.pdf
connected transport systems;
A demand for road spaces for sustainable modes of transport in particular
walking, cycling and public transport;
Proposal to expand CAT services to increase demand on reliance on public
transport systems in central Perth.
Creation of a sustainable transport system through improved management of

parking in following ways:
Improving the air quality and confining the growth of harmful and toxic gases;
Reducing the vehicular traffic in the cities through efficient parking facilities
Western and improving accessibility from and to the central city which at the same time http://www.transport.wa.government.au/media
Australia will ensure economic and social vitality of central Perth. Principles in the Perth Files/DOT_R_ParkPol.pdf
Perth Parking Policy 2012 41191
Government Parking Management Area (PPMA) include:
Gazette A wide array of parking options by taking into consideration the availability of
public transport, traffic flow, land use and environmental conditions;
Short term public parking giving priority to pedestrians;
Ample on-site vehicle bays; and
Designated and convenient Parking facilitates for disabled people and cyclists.

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Key aspects of this plan:
Providing six links in a pattern similar to road construction with sizeable lengths
to augment the economies of scale and minimise overall costs as it will provide
better and longer connected network;
End-of-the-trip facilities within the Perth CBD which include secure bike
storage, showers and lockers;
More contribution for Perth Bicycle Network development;
Working with schools to bring in a behavioural change by taking into confidence
the teachers, parents and students about taking-up cycling as transport option for
Department of
Western Australian Bicycle short trips; http://www.transport.wa.government.au/media
Transport 2012
Network Plan 2012-2021 Pilot study within 3 km radius of train stations to encourage more sustainable Files/AT_CYC_P_WABN_Plan.pdf
(Perth)
solutions, while developing and maintain low-cost and low-carbon infrastructure
and facilities;
Reviewing the traffic management on the local roads to reduce traffic
congestions caused by motorised traffic, while resolving safety issues and
conflict bases on road sharing;
Reviewing the Local Bicycle Routes to analyse the required level of
connectivity and meet the expectations of the cyclists;
Provision of an online journey planner to help the cyclists to look for travel
options and availability of storage and other facilities to encourage cycling.

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
The master plan intends to reduce the traffic congestion by performing the
following actions:
Addressing the need for public transport services to the airport and business
areas;
Addressing the needs of the metropolitan freight task to and from Perth's
Primary Freight Hub;
Department of Enabling the use of rail for freight movements;
Transport - Expanding and enhancing the road network that directly serves the airport and http://www.transport.wa.government.au/media
Perth Airport Transport
Government of 31121 freight terminals.
Master Plan Files/DOT_P_PATMPprelim.pdf
Western
Australia In addition the master plan is supported by three master plans given below:
Design and development of a transport plan for Perth Airport along with the
Metropolitan Public transport Plan;
A primary freight plan;
A strategy to improve the present road infrastructure to provide a wider road link
catering to Perth's regional travel needs and improving access to Perth Airport
and the Primary Freight Hub stretched throughout the region.
Disability Access and Inclusion Plan (2012-2017) for people with disabilities,
their families and carers.
Same opportunities for the people with disabilities to access services as other
people, to become a part of events organised by DoT and also participate in any
Disability Access and Department of public consultation; http://www.transport.wa.government.au/media
2012
Inclusion Plan (2012-2017) Transport Files/DoT_P_DAIP.pdf
Equal Opportunities for disabled people to access the buildings and other
facilities of DoT;
Offering same level of quality and up-to-date information to people with
disabilities as other people.

Literature Review
4 Basic Raw Materials Planning

As outlined above basic raw materials have not been a major focus of the literature on sustainable urbanism or on urban metabolism. A key tool for
achieving sustainability in cities is ‘closed loop’ planning – where waste materials become inputs to the next phase of urban development. In order to achieve
closed loop planning a city must have in place policies that encourage this behaviour. Thus policies are needed for the efficient use and re-use of any
materials necessary for the city’s development and the efficient use of land in relation to the supply of raw materials and disposal of inert waste. In Perth one
such policy is State Planning Policy 10 (SPP10) on `Basic Raw Materials’ that sets out land use planning policies for raw materials used in construction and
the disposal of construction waste through ‘sequential land use’.
Cumbersome administrative processes and ‘red tape’ can slow down the planning, release and development of land, infrastructure and vital services. This
represents significant cost to businesses, government and the community. Efficient and effective assessment and approval processes for development is in
everybody’s interests. The focus should be on minimising time and costs for proponents and government administrative bodies, but this needs to be balanced
with appropriate consideration for, and input from, stakeholders and communities.
Perth’s planning has always depended on an adequate supply of basic raw materials such as sand, clay, gravel and limestone. Early books like Sense of Place
by George Seddon (1972) are able to recognise that sites for these are indeed limited and that future planning must take into account how best to ensure these
non-renewable resources are used wisely.

Literature Review
4.2 Key Documents

Author/ Date Of
Part 3
Perth/Fremantle based
Limestone buildings were first, then gave way to brick buildings
1850 (Thomson Bay) Roof- crude thatch to begin with then she oak shingles or
timber planks sealed with lime concrete mixed with coconut oil
Sense of Place George Seddon 1972 1860s (and later) - Perth houses were built on the middle of each lot with the NOT ACCESSIBLE ONLINE
front of the building being 30 feet from the boundary of the lot on the street.
Imported timber was common for houses but would become riddled with ants
and warp in humidity
1830s Fremantle - Limestone buildings roofed with shingles split from the she
oak
Government of Sets required WAPC and Local Government considerations RE: Zoning,
Western Subdivision and Development within Extractive Industry planning applications.
Australia Policy Objectives are:
Department of 1) Identifying location and Extent of known BRM resources;
http://www.planning.wa.government.au/513
Basic Raw Materials (BRM) Planning 2) Prevent future incompatible (maximum resource exploitation) land
2000 2.asp
(SPP 2.4) and developments on identified priority resource locations and key extraction areas ;
Western 3) Prevent adverse environment/local amenity impacts resulting from BRM
Australian developments;
Planning 4) Provide consistent planning approval processes including requirements early
Commission consideration of sequential land uses.

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
The objectives of this policy: identify the location and extent of known basic
raw material resources;
Protect Priority Resource Locations, Key Extraction Areas and Extraction Areas
from
being developed for incompatible land uses which could limit future
Statement of Planning Policy exploitation; http://www.planning.wa.government.au/publ
WAPC 2000
2.4 : Basic Raw Materials Ensure that the use and development of land for the extraction of basic raw ications/1166.asp
materials
does not adversely affect the environment or amenity in the locality of the
operation during or after extraction;
Provide a consistent planning approval process for extractive industry proposals
including the early consideration of sequential land uses.
Government of
Western
A guideline for establishing extractive industries in Western Australia
Australia
Basic Raw Materials:
Department of
Sand (including silica sand)
Basic Raw Materials- Planning http://www.planning.wa.government.au/dop
2009 Clay
Applicant's Manual and _pub_pdf/brm_text.pdf
Hard Rock
Western
Limestone (including metallurgical limestone)
Australian
Gravel
Planning
Commission
Basic Raw "demonstrate the relationships between local government, the Department for
Materials Planning and Infrastructure (DPI), the Department of Mines and Petroleum
Applicants’ Manual: A step- (DMP- formerly Department of Industry and Resources, DoIR), and the http://www.planning.wa.government.au/dop
WAPC 2009
by-step guide for establishing Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC) in the current approvals _pub_pdf/brm_text.pdf
extractive industries in processes." p. 1 The most stringent rules appear to be those by DEC regarding
Western Australia land clearing p. 18
Government of http://www.dsd.wa.government.au/thinkbig/
Western Australia Big on
Western 2011 Building and construction industry of Western Australia facts/statistics _documents/ThinkBig-
Building and Construction
Australia Building_and_Construction.pdf

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Government of
Housing designs history.
Western http://www.dhw.wa.government.au/Housing
Century Flashback: housing 1912- majority of houses were built from timber or brick
Australia 2012 Documents/Centenary_housing_designs_ov
designs over the years: part 1 1949- the first prefabricated home built in Western Australia- pre-cut, pre-
Department of er_the_years_part_one.pdf
fabricated timber framed dwellings with asbestos outside
Housing
Asbestos- A naturally occurring fibrous crystalline mineral found in rock
Government of
formations. Was commonly used in building materials due to its durability, fire http://www.dhw.wa.government.au/currentte
Fact Sheet: Asbestos Western
resistance and insulation properties. (Includes a list of products that previously nants/governmentemployeehousing/housing
Containing Materials in the Australia 2011
contained asbestos fibres) maintenance/Documents/Asbestos%20Mater
Home Department of
Asbestos cement products were commonly manufactured in WA from 1921- ial%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf
Housing
1987. Manufacturing of all asbestos products ceased in 1987
Australian
Building
Codes Board
"The goal of the BCA is to enable the achievement of nationally consistent,
(ABCB)
minimum necessary standards of relevant safety (including structural safety and
2012 Current
safety from fire), health, amenity and sustainability objectives efficiently. http://www.abcb.government.au/about-the-
on behalf of
The Building Code of national-construction-code/the-building-
the 2013 Edition
Australia The BCA contains technical provisions for the design and construction of code-of-australia
Due out in
buildings and other structures, covering such matters as structure, fire resistance,
Australian May 2013.
access and egress, services and equipment, and energy efficiency as well as
government
certain aspects of health and amenity." (Direct Quotes from Website)
and State and
Territory
Governments
Building Materials used 1829 - 1920's.
Mainly Limestone was used as basic raw material for construction;
For some types of buildings such as theatres, concrete and steel were used;
Stone and Granite were also used in some types of building but rather at the
Australia for
niche level such as hotels, cathedrals, etc..; http://www.australiaforeveryone.com.au/Per
Perth's Architecture Everyone Undated
Rendered Brick and steel frame were used by wealthy people and for buildings th/perth_architecture.htm
Website
to be built at prominent down town locations in Perth;
Terracotta tiles and slates were used on the roof;
Zincalume made of steel was used for roofing in some buildings (for example:
Council Chambers, Municipal Chambers and Town Hall).

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Building Materials used between 1950's - 1970's.
Forests
Concrete dominated as construction material in both metropolitan and country
A Survey of Building Department of
areas mainly for footings;
Materials Used in House Western Forests Department of Western Australia
1984 Brick was the major construction material, followed by asbestos for outer wall
Construction in Western Australia (J. (Technical Paper No. 8)
cladding;
Australia 1983 Glass and P.
Combination of both metal and timber was used for outer and inner door frames,
Shedley)
and window frames.
Brookfield MULTIPLEX After 1990's.
Example 1: Fremantle Example 1: Maritime Museum, Victoria Quay, Fremantle.
Precast concrete used on a major scale in place of in-situ; http://www.brookfieldmultiplex.com/projects/
Maritime Museum - WA, Brookfield
Undated Aluminium panels and laminated timber portals used; australasia/wa/engineering_and_infrastructure/
Australasia (available on MULTIPLEX
Zinc claddings used for portal curves; infrastructure/completed/fremantle_maritime_
Brookfield MULTIPLEX
museum/
website) Ply and plasterboard ceilings used within the main galleries.
After 1990's
Infrastructure Partnerships
Infrastructure Example 2: Perth's Convention and exhibition centre. www.infrastructure.org.au/DisplayFile.aspx
Australia Example 2:
Partnerships Undated ?FileID=16
Infrastructure Partnerships Reinforced Concrete was used for pile foundation reclaimed on an old river bed;
Australia
Australia Case Studies Off-site components used to build complex structure;
Reinforced Concrete used for slab systems.
Example 3: Residential Project at Shenton Park.

The project set as an example of a contemporary sustainable home in a suburban
environment - it used recycled materials, plantation timbers, low toxic and
Australia for Everyone Australia for allergenic materials and finishes along with decreased use of Polyvinyl Chloride http://www.australiaforeveryone.com.au/Per
Example 3: Perth's Everyone Undated materials; th/perth_architecture.htm
Architecture Website Design: "This residence includes environmentally sensitive design elements
such as solar passive and dynamic design principles, photoelectric energy
generation technology, natural cross ventilation, rainwater harvesting and
recycling of grey water. "

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Based around the environmental/ecological landscape around the Swan River.
Great for pictures and detailed information of limestone.
-Limestone- indigenous vegetation, coastal limestone is typically used for
building- limitations as a building material because it is easy to cut and soft but
Swan River Landscapes George Seddon 1970 NOT ACCESSIBLE ONLINE
hardens on exposure and weathers quickly. Now, limestone veneers and concrete
blocks with a limestone tint are common
-Pioneer cottages- stone walls and iron roofs that rusted.
-Mid 19th century colonial brick was a soft colour
Provides a history of building materials (basically an evolutionary timeline). http://www.mileslewis.net/lectures/04-
A Survey of Building
Miles Lewis 1969 Provides pictures and year of use as well as the country of use. (Some are history-of-building/CM-abpl-90300-
Materials
lacking names of building materials). building-materials.pdf
A collection of news clippings and relevant information regarding building
materials and construction.
Varies Fremantle Library, Local History Section, File
Building Material File Compilation Main materials mentioned: timber, fencing materials (1990), brick, sand, stone,
(1800-2000) 690.1 - 698.9
bluestone (1984), wool insulation (1998), plaster glass (sheets for ceilings)
(1982), zincalume sheets for roofs (1998), sandstone (1903)
Focuses on architecture over time in Australia but it does mention building
material types. Ranges from 1788 to 1994. Provides a lot of pictures.
A Pictorial Guide to R. Apperly, R. Examples of material mentions: brick and stone wall, timber roof shingles and
Identifying Australian Irving, P. 1994 sheet-metal roof tiles, stone lintel and stone sill (1817-1825), corrugated-iron Fremantle Library, Local History Section
Architecture Reynolds roof covering, pilaster, stone or stucco (1848), weatherboard cladding over
timber frame, wall shingles, timber (1904), shingling and river stones (1915),
steel roofing (1952)
Elizabeth Manual compiled for the city of Fremantle for housing repairs and/or
Timber Houses Manual Street (City of 1996 restorations. Specific to timber framed houses and mentions materials used for Fremantle Library, Local History Section
Fremantle) foundation, sub-floor and flooring, walls, roofs etc..

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
1964 ad: ‘We’ll plan your solid brick and tile home … ‘
1941 receipt to Tom Newbold Furniture and Building Material, etc.. Salesman:
‘108 bricks… paid’
Local History file in Freo Local History file in Fremantle Library – 690 -
Buildings constructed by Crosby and Mayne Builders ‘A brick building in the
Library – 690 -699.9, N/A - varies Varies 699.9,
Frank Gibson Park…’ to ‘a brick and steel bakery for Fletcher and Sons…” “A
Section 690 Section 690
brick and steel extension on Stockdale Road Hilton Park”
2009 article Designer’s brief invests in function and style: cedar, Kimberley
sandstone, traditional brick, tile roof’
2 Dec 1955: Crittail steel windows
3 august 1955: Fibroceil plasterboard for ceilings and wall linings
1956: steel windows
Fremantle Library, Local History Section, File
1963: ‘biggest roof areas in Australia entirely covered with Lysaght Steel Sheet
Building Materials Compilation Varies 690 -699.9,
1956: building materials add ‘cement, plywood, asbestos…’
Section 691
1956: ramin mouldings, plywood, hardboards
2010 article: ‘building an addition to a Fremantle limestone cottage.’ ‘recycled
materials’
2002: Euro trend plastering – imitation limestone, acrylic textures, marble
Plastering Compilation Varies 690 -699.9,
venetian plaster
Section 693.6: Plastering
Architecture – Building
Compilation Varies 1996: Tamala Limestone information, a Geological survey of Western Australia 720.88 - 721.99,
Materials
Section 721: Architecture – Building Materials
Varies (1996
- 1998, 1992 Fremantle Library, Local History Section, File,
Timber Houses Compilation Information about timber houses projects in Western Australia
- 1995, 1989 728.3
-1991)
Varies 'Timber, stone, and brick houses, limestone. Locally made bricks, stone from
The Royal
(before 1936, Fremantle…' 'In 1851 a town ordinance was passed that banned building with Fremantle Library, Local History Section, File,
The Development of Western Australian
1951 -1981, rush, straw and bark in Perth and Fremantle because of fire risk' 728.3 Housing General (specific document
Australia Houses 1829-1980 Institute of
1982 -1987, 1885 -1919 materials: 'cast iron out of fashion, replaced by woodwork...' within a larger file compilation)
Architects
1990 -1990) 1939: 'materials unavailable due to war; bricks, tiles, pipes, cement, plaster...'

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
New Timber Houses, New Brick Residences (Weatherboard and Asbestos, Fremantle Library, Local History Section, File,
Building Register, Fremantle Fremantle City
1918-1966 Wood and Asbestos, Brick and Title, Brick and Stone, Brick Veneer, Cement 728.3 Housing General (specific document
City Council Council
Brick), New Timber Cottages within a larger file compilation)
http://books.google.com.au/books?hl=enand
University of
lr=andid=FlkA2rObWxcCandoi=fndandpg=
Taming the Great South California Australia's Prosperity to 1890 depended on the reckless exploitation of
PR10anddq=history+of+western+australiaan
Land: A History of Conquest Press 1991 untouched natural wealth … unbroken forests provided building materials and
dots=1rPdQbG21Uandsig=wJEd8RoV2xsG
of Nature in Australia Berkeley and fuel.'
E1mGerDNvKgd608#v=onepageandqandf=
Lost Angeles
false
Subjects: Reinforced concrete construction -- Australia; Sustainable buildings;
Building materials -- Australia ; Concrete -- Recycling ; Concrete -- Additives
Green Concrete Stacks Up 2011 NOT ACCESSIBLE ONLINE
Description: Melbourne's Pixel building was constructed using 'Pixelcrete', a
concrete substitute with a much smaller environmental footprint.
Is Part Of:
Australian
The Influence of Non- Journal of
structural Components on the Structural Tall buildings -- Design and construction ; Building materials -- Australia;
2009 NOT ACCESSIBLE ONLINE
Serviceability Performance Engineering, Structural analysis (Engineering) ; Structural frames -- Mathematical models
of High-rise Buildings 2009,
Vol.10(1),
p.53-62
Australian
Journal of
Multi-
The Engineering of Subjects: Engineering -- Australia -- History ; Infrastructure (Economics) --
disciplinary 2010 NOT ACCESSIBLE ONLINE
'Engineering a City' Australia ; Manufacturing industries -- Australia ; Reinforced concrete
Engineering,
construction -- Australia ; Building materials -- Australia
2010, Vol.8(1),
p.75-87

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Lauded historian Geoffrey Bolton vividly narrates this long-awaited short
Lauded history of Western Australia, covering the social, cultural, political and
historian economic development of the most geographically isolated area in the world. http://uwap.uwa.edu.au/books-and-
Land of Vision and Mirage
Geoffrey Land of Vision and Mirage delves into the moments, from 1826 through to the authors/book/land-of-vision-and-mirage/
Bolton present day, which changed Western Australia and led to its unprecedented
growth.
5 Offsite Construction and New Materials

The housing providers in Australia mostly use cottage industry techniques involving a lot of basic raw materials and are very wasteful on the site. New
offsite-construction methods offer much more sustainable products (low carbon, low water, innovative low embodied energy materials) with much greater
precision in their manufacture and hence considerable reductions in waste. This new offsite approach thus supports product and process innovation to deal
with the decline in housing affordability as well as sustainability.
Examples of innovative materials and methods used by some of the developers in Australia are still relatively rare, but they are promising enough to motivate
the government and the industry to take initiatives to adopt Off-site Manufacturing (OSM) and Modern Methods of construction (MMC) as the driving
forces, and further take the next big leap to streamline the construction processes for improving the productivity, predictability and consistency of the
construction industry as a whole. Case studies are being carried out and positive results are being demonstrated. Government organisations at state and
national levels, industries (small and big builders), suppliers, universities and research bodies have to come together to develop a model of practice which
will pave a solid future for affordable and sustainable dwellings using OSM and MMC. Below are some of the case studies in which different processes and
construction materials are used to improve the productivity and performance of construction industry.

Literature Review
5.2 Key Documents

Author/ Date Of
“Jocelyn Park is a housing development owned and managed by South
Somerset Homes Housing Association. There are 64 homes on site designed by
Calford Seadon, reaching EcoHomes ‘very good’, and intended for rent and
shared equity sale. Advanced Panel System (APS) manufactured the timber
frame. The construction of 37 dwellings using the APS semi closed panel timber
frame system was monitored for 13 weeks between December 2008 and March
2009.”
Materials and approaches used in this project include:
Panelised frame system using timber;
Frame walls also made with timber;
The panels included fix carpentry, vapour control system and insulation to
Wrap (Material reduce in-situ work. http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/APS%
Benefits of offsite change for a 20-%20FINAL.pdf
Undated Benefits:
manufacture better
environment) Minimisation of on-site waste;
Reduced defects;
Improved quality control as products were made in a factory with better
emphasis on perfection;
Improved level of thermal efficiency and air tightness achieved.

The figure below shows the resource comparisons of the innovative APS with
typical brick and mortar system. As we can see the maximum savings in terms
of time, materials and finance could be made at the superstructure stage of the
project by using APS.

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of

Panels are mainly made as perimeter boarding and back wall partitions;
Wrap (Material The backwalls and related brand wall were made in a factory to minimise waste;
Offsite fabrication reduces change for a Oak used for the Brand walls and combination of tiles and Oak used for http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/sainsb
Undated
waste from retail fit out better backwalls; urys%20two-page%20summary.pdf
environment)
“The system developed involves the use of ‘V’ jointed modular panels with
prefixed ‘split’ battens.’
UB utilises an innovative structural building technology which escalates the off-
site and on-site processes by up to 50%;
More usage of steel frames in place of concrete and mortar;
Unitised
Unitised Building (UB) Best manufacturing techniques adopted from automobile industries were used in http://www.hickory.com.au/docs/unitised-
Building – A
Waste Not (Corporate Undated a factory for better quality finishes, and reduce health and safety hazards at the building-capability_electronic.pdf
part of Hickory
Capability) same time;
Group
Less carbon intensive materials like CLTs (cross laminated timbers) used as
they perform as long-term carbon sink;
Modular units have preinstalled facades and balconies done in factory before
arriving to the site. It helps to reduce the site congestion and time taken to

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
complete a project.
The system is effective in taller structures and some of the features include:
“Structural monocoque system – stackable without secondary structure;
Cyclonic rated to Cat. 4 Region D;
Star Green star rating achievable;
Fully compliant to AS, NCC requirements.”
See the figure below for a comparison of a UB offsite system with a traditional
on-site construction. It clearly demonstrates the long-term benefits of using UB
off-site system.

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Case Study 1: Prep School Capital Works Project
Prep was a school project that was introduced by the Queensland State
government to provide approximately 400 new build classrooms and a same
number of refurbished classrooms along with smaller upgrades of pre-school
classrooms and small schools.
Internal walls were clad and had used varnished plywood;
Wood sheeting were used to provide a higher degree of flexibility to modules
during transportation;
Production line methods were used in the construction of roof sections to
improve efficiency;
Modules of the floor were bolted together before laying the basic skeleton.
Below is the picture of the completed classroom.
CRC
http://www.construction-
Report on Offsite Construction
innovation.info/images/pdfs/Research_library/
Manufacture in Australia – Innovation Undated
ResearchLibraryC/Case_studies/2005-004-
Case Studies (Building Our
C/OSM_Case_Studies.pdf
Future)
Case Study 2: Skilled Park Project

“Skilled Park stadium at Robina by Watpac for the Queensland Government’s
Major Sports Facilities Authority. The project has successfully utilised OSM
(Offsite Manufacturing) products throughout.”

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
Building floors of the West stand building of the stadium were made by using
precast planks;
A fabric membrane manufactured in Germany and fabricated in Poland was used
for roof and wall cladding;
Experts like shop detailing companies were used for fabrication and erection
work;
“The Plats for this project are ‘T’ shaped and were moulded at 90 degrees to the
final orientation to reduce the amount of trowelling required. This gave the
maximum amount of off-mould surface, which results in a high quality seating
bowl surface finish – typically a class 1 or 2 surface”, the T shape was used to
surmount the problems with normally used L-shaped plats;
Quick-curing high strength concrete was used in combination with steam curing
to speed up the production process.
Case Study 3: Hollow Core Concrete Pty Ltd (Example – GPO Building in
Melbourne)
“Hollowcore slabs are precast prestressed concrete elements that are designed to
be used as floor slabs or industrial walling. The manufacturing process was
developed in Europe in the 1950’s and first used in Australia for industrial
walling in the 1960’s.”

Extruded hollow concrete plank were used to go with the undercover casting
beds;
The system mainly consisted on precast columns, precast beams and hollow core
floor slabs;
High strength grout was used to fill up the dowel tubes through the beams.
Case Study 4: Monarch Building Systems

Monarch Building Systems specialised in making modules and panelised
buildings by meeting client’s demands of better quality housing within stipulated
time.

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
The wall panels consist of proprietary roll formed steel frame with which light
weight concrete panel is attached eternally;
Cement-based panels are made out of light weight concrete of propriety
composition and water proof membrane;
Plumbing and wiring work were done using pre-stamped holes in the frame
system for routing;
Process oriented philosophy like Just-in-time supply chains were used for the
most effective delivery of products as per the project schedules and deliverables.
The pictures below show the construction done on-site and a completed house
Waste Reduction through the Wrap (Material

http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/Volu
use of Volumetric change for a
Undated metric%20Full%20case%20study%20FINAL1
Construction at NATO better
.pdf
Headquarters, Northwood environment)

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of

Literature Review
Author/ Date Of
In this project the “Volumetric construction reduced the waste generated in
building multi-occupancy buildings to 5.5 m3 per 100 m2 of construction: a
reduction of 48% compared to traditional construction.”
Steel volumetric units were produced and these volumes were used to create: “
Environmental Performance Indicators (EPIs) by dividing the volume by floor
Housing Supply Responses area constructed to give waste in m3 per 100m2 of floor space (roughly the area
http://www.nhsc.org.au/content/research/down
To Change in Affordability Urbis June 2012 of a small house); and Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) by dividing the
loads/housing_supply_responses.pdf
(Final Report – June 2012) volume by the project value to give waste in m3 per £100k project value”;
The roof covering is made of single skin profiled steel sheet fixed to a mono
pitch roof structure over the modules;
The modules were made from completely welded steel frames which reduced
the overall weight of the final product; Sasmox gypsum-bonded wood
particleboard (83% gypsum) was used in place of plaster board in the prison
modules.

Appendix B: Assessment Framework
Indicators matrix
Urban Form Assessment Framework
URBAN FORM #1 - OUTER GREENFIELD URBAN FORM #2 - MIDDLE GREYFIELDS URBAN FORM #3 - INNER BROWNFIELDS
3 x Urban Forms
2 x Development Scenarios
e.g. Keralup. Low density opportunities e.g. Nollamara & Hilton. Medium density opportunities e.g. Central Perth & East Perth, High density opportunities
Development Scenario #1 - Business as Usual, No TCI Development Scenario #2 - Alternative, Using TCI Development Scenario #1 - Business as Usual, No TCI Development Scenario #2 - Alternative, Using TCI Development Scenario #1 - Business as Usual, No TCI Development Scenario #2 - Alternative, Using TCI
Indicator Measure Analysis Assumption Data Source Measurement Analysis Assumption Data Source Measurement Analysis Assumption Data Source Measurement Analysis Assumption Data Source Measurement Analysis Assumption Data Source Measurement Analysis Assumption Data Source Measurement
INPUT
Energy
1) Chandra, L, 2006, Modeling the impact of urban form

1) Chandra, L, 2006, Modeling the impact of urban form 1) Chandra, L, 2006, Modeling the impact of urban form 1) Chandra, L, 2006, Modeling the impact of urban form
and transport provision on transport-related greenhouse gas 1) Chandra, L, 2006, Modeling the impact of urban form 1) Chandra, L, 2006, Modeling the impact of urban form
and transport provision on transport-related greenhouse gas and transport provision on transport-related greenhouse gas and transport provision on transport-related greenhouse gas
emissions, masters thesis, Murdoch University, Perth. and transport provision on transport-related greenhouse gas and transport provision on transport-related greenhouse gas
emissions, masters thesis, Murdoch University, Perth. emissions, masters thesis, Murdoch University, Perth. emissions, masters thesis, Murdoch University, Perth.
2) Newman, P and Kenworthy, J 1999, Sustainability and emissions, masters thesis, Murdoch University, Perth. emissions, masters thesis, Murdoch University, Perth.
2) Newman, P and Kenworthy, J 1999, Sustainability and 2) Newman, P and Kenworthy, J 1999, Sustainability and 2) Newman, P and Kenworthy, J 1999, Sustainability and
Data are an average for suburbs Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence, Island Press, 2) Newman, P and Kenworthy, J 1999, Sustainability and 2) Newman, P and Kenworthy, J 1999, Sustainability and An average of transport fuel for all
No change from BAU as the form of An average of transport fuel for all middle Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence, Island Press, No change from BAU as the form of Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence, Island Press, No change from BAU as the form of Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence, Island Press,
Total transport fuel consumed in GJ Per more than 20Km from the CBD with Washington DC. Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence, Island Press, Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence, Island Press, inner suburbs was taken based on
Fuel 50 the city is not change by TCI and 50 suburbs was taken based on those places Washington DC. 35 the city is not changed by TCI and 35 Washington DC. 20 the city is not changed by TCI and Washington DC. 20
Person Per Year associated densities and land use 3) Newman, P, and Kenworthy, J, 2006, ‘Urban Design Washington DC. Washington DC. those places within <5Km from the
hence transport fuel is the same. within 5 to 20KM from the CBD. 3) Newman, P, and Kenworthy, J, 2006, ‘Urban Design hence transport fuel is the same. 3) Newman, P, and Kenworthy, J, 2006, ‘Urban Design hence transport fuel is the same. 3) Newman, P, and Kenworthy, J, 2006, ‘Urban Design
mix. to Reduce Automobile Dependence’, Opolis, 2(1), pp 35-52. 3) Newman, P, and Kenworthy, J, 2006, ‘Urban Design 3) Newman, P, and Kenworthy, J, 2006, ‘Urban Design CBD
to Reduce Automobile Dependence’, Opolis, 2(1), pp 35-52. to Reduce Automobile Dependence’, Opolis, 2(1), pp 35-52. to Reduce Automobile Dependence’, Opolis, 2(1), pp 35-52.
4) Trubka R, Bilsborough D and Newman P (2010) The Costs of Sprawl, to Reduce Automobile Dependence’, Opolis, 2(1), pp 35-52. to Reduce Automobile Dependence’, Opolis, 2(1), pp 35-52.
4) Trubka R, Bilsborough D and Newman P (2010) The Costs of Sprawl, 4) Trubka R, Bilsborough D and Newman P (2010) The Costs of Sprawl, 4) Trubka R, Bilsborough D and Newman P (2010) The Costs of Sprawl,
Environment Design Guide, GEN84: 1-11 4) Trubka R, Bilsborough D and Newman P (2010) The Costs of Sprawl, 4) Trubka R, Bilsborough D and Newman P (2010) The Costs of Sprawl,
Environment Design Guide, GEN84: 1-11 Environment Design Guide, GEN84: 1-11 Environment Design Guide, GEN84: 1-11
Peter Newman Environment Design Guide, GEN84: 1-11 Environment Design Guide, GEN84: 1-11
Power variations with urban form

Power variations with urban form are Assume use of off-site construction Assume use of off-site construction
are controversial as heating and
Power is taken from an average Assume use of off-site construction controversial as heating and cooling are with a reduction of 60% due to with a reduction of 70% due to
cooling are reduced in higher
Total power required in GJ Per Person electricity consumption for Perth Perth utilities data provided for modelling purposes, see Ccap City with a reduction of 50% due to reduced in higher density but lighting for Perth utilities data provided for modelling purposes, see Ccap City design precision, energy efficient Perth utilities data provided for modelling purposes, see Ccap City design precision, energy efficient
Power 9.24 4.62 9.24 3.7 density but lighting for parking areas 9.24 2.77
Per Year households, which are dominated model, provided to P. Newman CUSP. design precision, energy efficient parking areas and power lifts are additional. model, provided to P. Newman CUSP. materials and control and efficiency model, provided to P. Newman CUSP. materials and control and efficiency
and power lifts are additional.
by the outer suburban housing form. materials and control Therefore power values are kept the same gained through high density/shared gained through high density/shared
Wong, F and Tang Y.T., Comparative Embodied Carbon Analysis of the Wong, F and Tang Y.T., Comparative Embodied Carbon Analysis of the Therefore power values are kept the Wong, F and Tang Y.T., Comparative Embodied Carbon Analysis of the
on a Per Capita basis. walls. walls.
Prefabrication Elements compared with In-situ Elements in Residential Prefabrication Elements compared with In-situ Elements in Residential same on a Per Capita basis. Prefabrication Elements compared with In-situ Elements in Residential
Building Development of Hong Kong , 2012, World Academy of Science Building Development of Hong Kong , 2012, World Academy of Science Building Development of Hong Kong , 2012, World Academy of Science
Assume use of off-site construction Assume use of off-site construction

Assume use of off-site construction with a reduction of 60% due to with a reduction of 70% due to
Gas used predominately for heating with a Gas used predominately for heating
Total gas required in GJ Per Person Per Perth utilities data provided for modelling purposes, see Ccap City with a reduction of 50% due to Green Building Council of Australia, (2009), Green Star Multi Unit design precision, energy efficient Green Building Council of Australia, (2009), Green Star Multi Unit design precision, energy efficient
Gas Gas used predominately for heating 4.9 2.45 factor of 0.6 due to greater multiunit and 2.59 1.2 with a factor of 0.6 due to greater 2.99 0.9
Year model, provided to P. Newman CUSP. design precision, energy efficient Residential V1 Green House Gas Emissions Guide materials and control and efficiency Residential V1 Green House Gas Emissions Guide materials and control and efficiency
Wong, F and Tang Y.T., Comparative Embodied Carbon Analysis of the smaller dwellings multiunit and smaller dwellings
materials and control. gained through high density/shared Wong, F and Tang Y.T., Comparative Embodied Carbon Analysis of the gained through high density/shared Wong, F and Tang Y.T., Comparative Embodied Carbon Analysis of the
Prefabrication Elements compared with In-situ Elements in Residential walls. Prefabrication Elements compared with In-situ Elements in Residential walls. Prefabrication Elements compared with In-situ Elements in Residential
Building Development of Hong Kong , 2012, World Academy of Science Building Development of Hong Kong , 2012, World Academy of Science Building Development of Hong Kong , 2012, World Academy of Science
Energy Sub-Total (GJ) 64.14 57.07 46.83 39.9 32.23 23.67
Resources
Water used for running household

Water used for running household including
Water in Kilolitres (KI) for running Water used for running household including kitchen, laundry,
Perth utilities data provided for modelling purposes, see Ccap City No change from BAU as TCI does not Perth utilities data provided for modelling purposes, see Ccap City kitchen, laundry, bathroom and garden use. No change from BAU as TCI does not Perth utilities data provided for modelling purposes, see Ccap City No change from BAU as TCI does not Perth utilities data provided for modelling purposes, see Ccap City
Water household including garden per person including kitchen, laundry, 70 70 Water Corporation, (2009), Perth Residential Water Use Study 42 42 bathroom and garden use. Assume a Water Corporation, (2009), Perth Residential Water Use Study 35 35
model, provided to P. Newman CUSP. effect model, provided to P. Newman CUSP. Assume a factor of 0.6 applied due to effect model, provided to P. Newman CUSP. effect model, provided to P. Newman CUSP.
per year bathroom and garden use. factor of 0.4 applied due to smaller
smaller gardens and multistorey buildings.
gardens and multistorey buildings.
Food consumption of meat (88kg) Food consumption of meat (88kg)

Food consumption of meat (88kg) and non-
Food consumed in kilograms (Kg) per and non-meat (427kg) categories for Australian Bureau of Statistics, Department of Health and Aged Care, No change from BAU as TCI does not Australian Bureau of Statistics, Department of Health and Aged Care, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Department of Health and Aged Care, No change from BAU as TCI does not Australian Bureau of Statistics, Department of Health and Aged Care, and non-meat (427kg) categories for Australian Bureau of Statistics, Department of Health and Aged Care, No change from BAU as TCI does not Australian Bureau of Statistics, Department of Health and Aged Care,
Food 515 515 meat (427kg) categories for 25-44 age group 515 515 515 515
person per year 25-44 age group per year food National Nutrition Survey Foods Eaten Australia , 1995 effect National Nutrition Survey Foods Eaten Australia , 1995 National Nutrition Survey Foods Eaten Australia , 1995 effect National Nutrition Survey Foods Eaten Australia , 1995 25-44 age group per year food National Nutrition Survey Foods Eaten Australia , 1995 effect National Nutrition Survey Foods Eaten Australia , 1995
per year food intake.
intake. intake.
Assume median lot size as being

Assume median lot size as being 150sqm
80sqm (representative area with the
Assume median lot size as being (representative area with the assumption
Connoley Tim, (2013), Increased Appetite for Smaller Lots, Published Connoley Tim, (2013), Increased Appetite for Smaller Lots, Published Connoley Tim, (2013), Increased Appetite for Smaller Lots, Published Connoley Tim, (2013), Increased Appetite for Smaller Lots, Published assumption that inner Connoley Tim, (2013), Increased Appetite for Smaller Lots, Published Connoley Tim, (2013), Increased Appetite for Smaller Lots, Published
419sqm and an occupancy of 2.3 that inner redevelopment areas will have a
Urban Land Area in square metres (sqm) online by the Urban Development Institute of Australia (UDIA) at online by the Urban Development Institute of Australia (UDIA) at online by the Urban Development Institute of Australia (UDIA) at online by the Urban Development Institute of Australia (UDIA) at redevelopment areas will have a online by the Urban Development Institute of Australia (UDIA) at online by the Urban Development Institute of Australia (UDIA) at
with a multiple of 3 to include other No change from BAU as TCI does not decreased lot size from 419sqm and an No change from BAU as TCI does not No change from BAU as TCI does not
Land per person required for residential http://blog.udiawa.com.au/article/increased-appetite-for-smaller-lots 547 http://blog.udiawa.com.au/article/increased-appetite-for-smaller-lots 547 http://blog.udiawa.com.au/article/increased-appetite-for-smaller-lots 214 http://blog.udiawa.com.au/article/increased-appetite-for-smaller-lots 214 decreased lot size from 419sqm and http://blog.udiawa.com.au/article/increased-appetite-for-smaller-lots 133 http://blog.udiawa.com.au/article/increased-appetite-for-smaller-lots 133
urban land such as roads and effect occupancy of 2.1) with a multiple of 3 to effect effect
dwelling (accessed 8th May 2013). (accessed 8th May 2013). (accessed 8th May 2013). (accessed 8th May 2013). an occupancy of 1.8) with a multiple (accessed 8th May 2013). (accessed 8th May 2013).
commerical space assocated with include other urban land such as roads and
of 3 to include other urban land
each dwelling. commerical space assocated with each
such as roads and commerical space
dwelling.
assocated with each dwelling.
Basic Raw Material
Chamber of Commerce and Industry, (2007), Basic Raw Material Access Chamber of Commerce and Industry, (2007), Basic Raw Material Access Chamber of Commerce and Industry, (2007), Basic Raw Material Access
and Availability 1996-2008 and Availability 1996-2008 and Availability 1996-2008
Assume use of off-site construction with reduction of 70% due to design BRM figures adjusted to occupany with reduction of 90% due to design
Mass of Basic Raw Material (BRM) of BRM figures adjusted to occupany
with reduction of 50% due to design Barrett,J, Wiedmann, T, A Comparative Carbon Footprint Analysis of On- BRM figures adjusted to occupany level of precision enabling exact amounts of Barrett,J, Wiedmann, T, A Comparative Carbon Footprint Analysis of On- level of 1.8 and ratio of single precision enabling exact amounts of Barrett,J, Wiedmann, T, A Comparative Carbon Footprint Analysis of On-
BRM - Sand Sand in tonnes (T) for New Building level of 2.3 as original values where Major Cities Unit, (2012), State of Australian Cities 2012, Department of 111 56 Major Cities Unit, (2012), State of Australian Cities 2012, Department of 73 22 Major Cities Unit, (2012), State of Australian Cities 2012, Department of 57 5.7
precision enabling exact amounts of site Construction and an Off-site manufactured house , 2007 2.1 and ratio of single detached dwellings materials and efficiencies gained site Construction and an Off-site manufactured house , 2007 detached dwellings and multi unit Infrastructure and Transport, Australian Government materials and efficiencies gained site Construction and an Off-site manufactured house , 2007
Types per person per household Infrastructure and Transport, Australian Government Infrastructure and Transport, Australian Government
materials and multi unit dwellings. Aniticpated ratio through higher density and shared dwellings. Aniticpated ratio of through higher density and shared
of dwelling types result to reduction of walls. dwelling types result to reduction of walls.
material of 60% material of 40%
BRM - Limestone Limestone in tonnes (T) for New Building level of 2.3 as original values where Major Cities Unit, (2012), State of Australian Cities 2012, Department of 67 34 Major Cities Unit, (2012), State of Australian Cities 2012, Department of 44 13.2 Major Cities Unit, (2012), State of Australian Cities 2012, Department of 34 3.4
precision enabling exact amounts of site Construction and an Off-site manufactured house , 2007 2.1 and ratio of single detached dwellings materials and efficiencies gained site Construction and an Off-site manufactured house , 2007 detached dwellings and multi unit Infrastructure and Transport, Australian Government materials and efficiencies gained site Construction and an Off-site manufactured house , 2008
Types per person per household Infrastructure and Transport, Australian Government Infrastructure and Transport, Australian Government
BRM - Clay Clay in tonnes (T) for New Building Types level of 2.3 as original values where Major Cities Unit, (2012), State of Australian Cities 2012, Department of 44 22 Major Cities Unit, (2012), State of Australian Cities 2012, Department of 29 8.7 Major Cities Unit, (2012), State of Australian Cities 2012, Department of 23 2.3
precision enabling exact amounts of site Construction and an Off-site manufactured house , 2007 2.1 and ratio of single detached dwellings materials and efficiencies gained site Construction and an Off-site manufactured house , 2007 detached dwellings and multi unit materials and efficiencies gained site Construction and an Off-site manufactured house , 2009
per person per household Infrastructure and Transport, Australian Government Infrastructure and Transport, Australian Government Infrastructure and Transport, Australian Government
BRM - Rock Rock in tonnes (T) for New Building level of 2.3 as original values where Major Cities Unit, (2012), State of Australian Cities 2012, Department of 66 33 2.1 and ratio of single detached dwellings Major Cities Unit, (2012), State of Australian Cities 2012, Department of 43 13 detached dwellings and multi unit Major Cities Unit, (2012), State of Australian Cities 2012, Department of 33 3.3
precision enabling exact amounts of site Construction and an Off-site manufactured house , 2007 materials and efficiencies gained site Construction and an Off-site manufactured house , 2007 materials and efficiencies gained site Construction and an Off-site manufactured house , 2010
Types per person per household Infrastructure and Transport, Australian Government Infrastructure and Transport, Australian Government Infrastructure and Transport, Australian Government
BRM Sub-Totals (Tonnes) 288 145 189 56.9 147 14.7
Output
Energy (Fuel, Power and Gas) Energy (Fuel, Power and Gas) Energy (Fuel, Power and Gas) converted Energy (Fuel, Power and Gas) Energy (Fuel, Power and Gas) Energy (Fuel, Power and Gas)
Volume of green house gases in tonnes converted into Greenhouse Gases converted into Greenhouse Gases into Greenhouse Gases (GHG) through converted into Greenhouse Gases converted into Greenhouse Gases converted into Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse Gas (Fuel, Power and Gas) Energy Data from Above 8.01 Energy Data from Above 7.13 Energy Data from Above 5.81 Energy Data from Above 4.98 Energy Data from Above 4.03 Energy Data from Above 2.95
(T) generated per resident per year (GHG) through factor of 0.125 (GHG) through factor of 0.125 factor of 0.125 Tonnes of CO2 per GJ of (GHG) through factor of 0.125 (GHG) through factor of 0.125 (GHG) through factor of 0.125
Tonnes of CO2 per GJ of energy. Tonnes of CO2 per GJ of energy. energy. Tonnes of CO2 per GJ of energy. Tonnes of CO2 per GJ of energy. Tonnes of CO2 per GJ of energy.
Heat energy loss in gigajoules (GJ) Waste heat output calculated as Waste heat output calculated as Waste heat output calculated as being Waste heat output calculated as Waste heat output calculated as Waste heat output calculated as
Heat Waste Energy Data from Above 64.14 Energy Data from Above 57.07 Energy Data from Above 46.83 Energy Data from Above 39.9 Energy Data from Above 32.23 Energy Data from Above 23.67
generated per resident per year being equal to total energy input being equal to total energy input equal to total energy input being equal to total energy input being equal to total energy input being equal to total energy input
New South Wales (NSW) Government, (1998), Environment & Health New South Wales (NSW) Government, (1998), Environment & Health New South Wales (NSW) Government, (1998), Environment & Health New South Wales (NSW) Government, (1998), Environment & Health New South Wales (NSW) Government, (1998), Environment & Health New South Wales (NSW) Government, (1998), Environment & Health
Sewage discharge using NSW Sewage discharge using NSW Sewage discharge using NSW Sewage discharge using NSW Sewage discharge using NSW
Protection Guidelines On-site Sewage Management for Single Protection Guidelines On-site Sewage Management for Single Sewage discharge using NSW government Protection Guidelines On-site Sewage Management for Single Protection Guidelines On-site Sewage Management for Single Protection Guidelines On-site Sewage Management for Single Protection Guidelines On-site Sewage Management for Single
government figure of 150 - 300 litres government figure of 150 - 300 litres government figure of 150 - 300 litres government figure of 150 - 300 litres government figure of 150 - 300 litres
Households: Section Five On-site Sewage Management System Options, Households: Section Five On-site Sewage Management System Options, figure of 150 - 300 litres per person daily. Households: Section Five On-site Sewage Management System Options, Households: Section Five On-site Sewage Management System Options, Households: Section Five On-site Sewage Management System Options, Households: Section Five On-site Sewage Management System Options,
Volume of waste in kilolitres (KIL per person daily. Average of 200 per person daily. Average of 200 per person daily. Average of 200 per person daily. Average of 200 per person daily. Average of 200
Sewage Published Online by the NSW Department of Local Government at 80 Published Online by the NSW Department of Local Government at 80 Average of 200 litres per person daily taken Published Online by the NSW Department of Local Government at 80 Published Online by the NSW Department of Local Government at 80 Published Online by the NSW Department of Local Government at 80 Published Online by the NSW Department of Local Government at 80
generated per resident per year litres per person daily taken and litres per person daily taken and litres per person daily taken and litres per person daily taken and litres per person daily taken and
http://www.dlg.nsw.gov.au/dlg/dlghome/documents/information/secti http://www.dlg.nsw.gov.au/dlg/dlghome/documents/information/sectio and extrapolated to get a rounded figure of http://www.dlg.nsw.gov.au/dlg/dlghome/documents/information/sectio http://www.dlg.nsw.gov.au/dlg/dlghome/documents/information/sectio http://www.dlg.nsw.gov.au/dlg/dlghome/documents/information/sectio http://www.dlg.nsw.gov.au/dlg/dlghome/documents/information/sectio
extrapolated to get a rounded figure extrapolated to get a rounded figure extrapolated to get a rounded figure extrapolated to get a rounded figure extrapolated to get a rounded figure
on5.pdf(accessed 8th May 2013). n5.pdf(accessed 8th May 2013). 80KL per person per year n5.pdf(accessed 8th May 2013). n5.pdf(accessed 8th May 2013). n5.pdf(accessed 8th May 2013). n5.pdf(accessed 8th May 2013).
of 80KL per person per year of 80KL per person per year of 80KL per person per year of 80KL per person per year of 80KL per person per year
Waste
C&D waste uses 'Total Waste Stream

C&D waste uses 'Total Waste Stream for Assumes use of off-site construction Assumes use of off-site construction
for Building and Demolition figure
C&D waste uses 'Total Waste Stream Government of Western Australia, Waste Management Board, Summary Assumes use of off-site construction Building and Demolition figure for reduces construction waste by 70% reduces construction waste by 70%
Government of Western Australia, Waste Management Board, Summary for 2001/2001' divided by 2001 ABS Government of Western Australia, Waste Management Board, Summary
Volume of construction and demolition for Building and Demolition figure Report of Waste to Landfill: Perth Metropolitan Region (1 july 1998 - 20 reduces construction waste by 70% 2001/2001' divided by 2001 ABS Census due to processes and ease of due to processes and ease of
Waste - Construction and Demolition Unitised Building Australia, (2013), Property Council of Australia Report of Waste to Landfill: Perth Metropolitan Region (1 july 1998 - 20 Unitised Building Australia, (2013), Property Council of Australia Census population figure for Perth- Report of Waste to Landfill: Perth Metropolitan Region (1 july 1998 - 20 Unitised Building Australia, (2013), Property Council of Australia
waste in tonnes (T) generated per for 2001/2001' divided by 2001 ABS June 2002) , Februrary 2003, pg 16. Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001 0.96 due to processes and ease of 0.29 population figure for Perth-Mandurah 0.57 recycling on-site factory. Assumes 0.22 0.38 recycling on-site factory. Assumes 0.13
(C&D) Conference on Density Wars, Presentation by Damien Crough June 2002) , Februrary 2003, pg 16. Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001 Conference on Density Wars, Presentation by Damien Crough Mandurah region. Reduction factor June 2002) , Februrary 2003, pg 16. Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001 Conference on Density Wars, Presentation by Damien Crough
resident per year Census population figure for Perth- Census of Population and Housing: Perth A Social Atla s, October 2002, pg recycling on-site factory. Assumes no region. Reduction factor was used according deconstructing or recycling rather deconstructing or recycling rather
Census of Population and Housing: Perth A Social Atla s, October 2002, pg 1 was used according to estimation of Census of Population and Housing: Perth A Social Atla s, October 2002, pg 1
Mandurah region 1 demolition in outer areas. to estimation of reduced expected C&D than demolition with a 50% than demolition with a 50%
reduced expected C&D waste
waste generation. reduction of demolition waste reduction of demolition waste
generation.
Household waste uses 'Total Waste Household waste uses 'Total Waste Household waste uses 'Total Waste Household waste uses 'Total Waste
Household waste uses 'Total Waste Stream
Stream for Landfill for Municipal Stream for Landfill for Municipal Stream for Landfill for Municipal Stream for Landfill for Municipal
Housewaste uses 'Total Waste Government of Western Australia, Waste Management Board, Summary for Landfill for Municipal figure for
figure for 2001/2001' divided by Government of Western Australia, Waste Management Board, Summary Government of Western Australia, Waste Management Board, Summary figure for 2001/2001' divided by Government of Western Australia, Waste Management Board, Summary figure for 2001/2001' divided by Government of Western Australia, Waste Management Board, Summary figure for 2001/2001' divided by Government of Western Australia, Waste Management Board, Summary
Stream for Landfill for Municipal Report of Waste to Landfill: Perth Metropolitan Region (1 july 1998 - 20 2001/2001' divided by 2001 ABS Census
Volume of household waste in tonnes (T) 2001 ABS Census population figure Report of Waste to Landfill: Perth Metropolitan Region (1 july 1998 - 20 Report of Waste to Landfill: Perth Metropolitan Region (1 july 1998 - 20 2001 ABS Census population figure Report of Waste to Landfill: Perth Metropolitan Region (1 july 1998 - 20 2001 ABS Census population figure Report of Waste to Landfill: Perth Metropolitan Region (1 july 1998 - 20 2001 ABS Census population figure Report of Waste to Landfill: Perth Metropolitan Region (1 july 1998 - 20
Household Waste figure for 2000/2001' divided by June 2002) , Februrary 2003, pg 16. Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001 0.63 0.63 population figure for Perth-Mandurah 0.56 0.56 0.49 0.49
generated per resident per year for Perth-Mandurah region. June 2002) , Februrary 2003, pg 16. Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001 June 2002) , Februrary 2003, pg 16. Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001 for Perth-Mandurah region. June 2002) , Februrary 2003, pg 16. Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001 for Perth-Mandurah region. June 2002) , Februrary 2003, pg 16. Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001 for Perth-Mandurah region. June 2002) , Februrary 2003, pg 16. Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001
2001 ABS Census population figure Census of Population and Housing: Perth A Social Atlas , October 2002, pg region. Reduction factor was used according
Reduction factor was used according Census of Population and Housing: Perth A Social Atlas , October 2002, pg 1 Census of Population and Housing: Perth A Social Atlas , October 2002, pg 1 Reduction factor was used according Census of Population and Housing: Perth A Social Atlas , October 2002, pg 1 Reduction factor was used according Census of Population and Housing: Perth A Social Atlas , October 2002, pg 1 Reduction factor was used according Census of Population and Housing: Perth A Social Atlas , October 2002, pg 1
for Perth-Mandurah region 1 to estimation of reduced expected
to estimation of reduced expected to estimation of reduced expected to estimation of reduced expected to estimation of reduced expected
household waste generation.
household waste generation. household waste generation. household waste generation. household waste generation.
Waste Sub-Totals (Tonnes) 1.59 0.92 1.13 0.78 0.87 0.62
Urban Footprint
Urban footprint uses energy, water, Urban footprint uses energy, water, Urban footprint uses energy, water, Urban footprint uses energy, water, Urban footprint uses energy, water,
Urban footprint uses energy, water, land
land and food scores with the land and food scores with the land and food scores with the land and food scores with the land and food scores with the
Wackermagel & Rees, (1996), Our Ecological Footprint Reducing Human Wackermagel & Rees, (1996), Our Ecological Footprint Reducing Human and food scores with the following factors: Wackermagel & Rees, (1996), Our Ecological Footprint Reducing Human Wackermagel & Rees, (1996), Our Ecological Footprint Reducing Human Wackermagel & Rees, (1996), Our Ecological Footprint Reducing Human Wackermagel & Rees, (1996), Our Ecological Footprint Reducing Human
Urban footprint in hectares (Ha) per following factors: Energy - 100Gj per following factors: Energy - 100Gj per following factors: Energy - 100Gj per following factors: Energy - 100Gj per following factors: Energy - 100Gj per
Urban Footprint Impact on the Earth, New Society Publishers, Canada. 2.29 Impact on the Earth, New Society Publishers, Canada. 2.22 Energy - 100Gj per ha, Water - 233Kj per ha, Impact on the Earth, New Society Publishers, Canada. 1.97 Impact on the Earth, New Society Publishers, Canada. 1.9 Impact on the Earth, New Society Publishers, Canada. 1.78 Impact on the Earth, New Society Publishers, Canada. 1.7
person ha, Water - 233Kj per ha, Land - ha ha, Water - 233Kj per ha, Land - ha ha, Water - 233Kj per ha, Land - ha ha, Water - 233Kj per ha, Land - ha ha, Water - 233Kj per ha, Land - ha
Land - ha of urban land, Food - 130ha/per
of urban land, Food - 130ha/per of urban land, Food - 130ha/per of urban land, Food - 130ha/per of urban land, Food - 130ha/per of urban land, Food - 130ha/per
person (Canadian figure)
person (Canadian figure) person (Canadian figure) person (Canadian figure) person (Canadian figure) person (Canadian figure)

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Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities

Reducing the materials and

Curtin University Sustainability Policy (CUSP) Institute

At the scale of a precinct or subdivision, what are

Contents The views and opinions expressed in this publication are

Hugh Gardner Prof. Peter Newman

Perth’s current population of circa

There are good reasons for BRM becoming a critical

Most of these redevelopment sites are also likely to be

1.3 Approach and key ideas 1.3.2 Urban metabolism

1.3.3 Sustainable urban planning Alternative types of city development, such as

The stakeholder group expressed their desire for this project

Current metropolitan strategy is based on the consolidation

construction and residential development earthworks.

To not build a city sequentially and with good redevelopment

 required quantity of BRM to construct the average

This section examines Perth’s metabolism using two key Greenfields

4.2.3 Land, Food, Household Waste and

4.3.2 Basic Raw Materials

difficult to develop cheaply, as is the remit of the

courses on how to do a BRM Report as part of urban

These recommendations represent the best precinct scale

For further information please contact:

Winner of Best Engineering Firm

Issue | 5 April 2013

This report takes into account the particular

Job number 229102

Prepared by Checked by Approved by

Prepared by Checked by Approved by

Issue Document Verification with Document 

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3 Sustainable Urban Planning 14

4 Basic Raw Materials Planning 35

5 Offsite Construction and New Materials 43

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2.2 Key Documents

The Metropolitan Transport Strategy is to direct policies to deal with low

Creation of balance between public transport and social amenities is important;

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The use of the metabolism concept is expanded to include aspects of liveability.

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Using a meta-analysis of existing urban metabolism studies, Kennedy et al. look

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Schulz examines the urban metabolism of Singapore using a Material Flow

Develop the Ecological Footprint calculation method to determine the urban

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3 Sustainable Urban Planning

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Transport and Land use Characteristics

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Total Infrastructure $50,502.74 $136,041.07 $85,538.33

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