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Chapt08 Lecture Anim PDF
Chapt08 Lecture Anim PDF
Lecture and
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Chapter 8-Nervous System
Functions
1. Sensory input:
sensory receptors respond to stimuli
2. Integration:
brain and spinal cord process stimuli
3. Control of muscles and glands
4. Mental activity:
brain
5. Homeostasis
3
Main Divisions of Nervous System
1. Central Nervous System (CNS):
brain and spinal cord
4
Neuron Characteristics
• Nerve cells
5
Neuron Structures
• Dendrite:
receives stimulus from other neurons or sensory
receptors
• Cell body:
- processes stimulus
- contains a nucleus
• Axon:
transmits stimulus to a gland, muscle, organ, or
other neuron
6
Myelin Sheath
• What is it?
- fatty, protective wrapping around axons
- excellent insulator
• Nodes of Ranvier:
gaps in myelin sheath where action potentials
develop
• Saltatory conduction:
jumping of action potentials 8
• Myelinated axons conduct action potentials
more quickly (3-15 meters/sec) than
unmyelinated due to Nodes of Ranvier.
• Multiple sclerosis:
disease of myelin sheath that causes loss of
muscle function
9
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Action potential conduction
Outside of membrane
becomes negative.
Depolarization
Inside of membrane
becomes positive.
+ + – – + + + + + + + +
1 An action potential (orange part of – – + + – – – – – – – –
the membrane) generates local
currents that depolarize the
membrane immediately adjacent to – – + + – – – – – – – –
the action potential.
+ + – – + + + + + + + +
+ + + + – – + + + + + +
2 When depolarization caused by the – – – – + + – – – – – –
local currents reaches threshold, a
new action potential is produced
adjacent to where the original – – – – + + – – – – – –
action potential occurred. + + + + – – + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + – – + + +
3 The action potential is conducted – – – – – – – + + – – –
along the axon cell membrane.
– – – – – – – + + – – –
+ + + + + + + – – + + +
13
Types of Neurons
• Multipolar:
- many dendrites and a single axon
- Ex. CNS and most motor neurons
• Bipolar:
- one dendrite and one axon
- Ex. Eye and nasal cavity
• Pseudo-unipolar:
- one axon and no dendrites
- Ex. Sensory neurons 14
Neuroglia Characteristics
• Supporting cells for neurons
• 5 types
16
Types of Neuroglia
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Cilia
Foot
processes
Ependymal
cells
Astrocyte (b)
Capillary
(a)
• Astrocytes:
- star-shaped
- most abundant
- form blood-brain barrier
• Ependymal Cells:
produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 17
Types of Neuroglia
• Microglia:
help remove bacteria and cell debris from CNS
• Oligodendrocytes:
produce myelin sheath in CNS
18
Types of Neuroglia
• Schwann cells:
produce myelin
sheath in PNS
19
20
Organization of Nervous Tissue
• Gray matter:
collection of dendrites and cell bodies
• White matter:
collection of axons and their myelin sheath
21
CNS PNS
Oligodendrocytes Schwann cells
Produce myelin sheath
Nuclei Ganglion
Collection of cell bodies
22
Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways
Resting Membrane Potential
• Outside of cell is more + (Na+)
• Inside of cell is more – (K+)
• Leak ion channels:
- always open
- K+ channels
• Gated ion channels:
- closed until opened by specific signal
- Na+ channels 23
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Na+
K+
• Local Current:
movement of Na+ which causes inside of cell to be
more positive (depolarize)
25
• If enough Na+ enters then threshold is reached
and more Na+ channels open
26
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K+
Na+ Depolarization
Na+ Na+ channels +20
K+ K+
Time (ms)
K+channels Na+ channels
open. close.
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Action potential
+20
0
Depolarization Repolarization
(mV)
Threshold
Hyperpolarization
Local
–70 potential
Time (ms)
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29
Synapse
• What is it?
- where an axon attaches to a muscle, gland,
organ, or other neuron
- involved with release of neurotransmitters
- Ex. Neuromuscular junction
30
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31
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Action potential
Axon
Ca2+
1
Presynaptic
terminal
Synaptic
vesicle
Voltage-gated
Ca2+ channel
2 Synapticc left
Postsynaptic
membrane
Neurotransmitter
Na+
Neurotransmitter bound
to receptor site opens
a chemically-gated 4
Na+ channel.
• Reflex arc:
path reflex travels
34
Components of Reflex Arc
1. Sensory receptors:
- pick up stimulus
- in skin
2. Sensory (afferent) neurons:
send stimulus to interneurons in spinal cord
5. Effector:
muscle, gland, or organ
36
Figure 8.13
Neuronal Pathways
• Converging:
- two or more neurons synapse same neuron
- allows info. to be transmitted in more than one
neuronal pathway to converge into a single
pathway
• Diverging:
- axon from one neuron divides and synapses with
more than one neuron
- allows info. to be transmitted in one neuronal
pathway to diverge into 2 or more pathways 38
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Cell body
Direction
of action
potential Presynaptic
axon
Presynaptic
axon
Direction
of action Postsynaptic Cell
potential axon body Postsynaptic
(a) axon
(b)
Central Nervous System
Consists of brain and spinal cord Spinal cord in vertebral
Brain in brain case: column:
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Spinal nerves
T1
Spinal cord
L1
Level of the
second lumbar Cauda equina
vertebra S1
Coccygeal
nerve
40
Spinal Cord
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Spinal nerves
• Protected by vertebral
T1
column
Spinal cord
Coccygeal
nerve
41
Gray and White Matter in Spinal Cord
• Gray Matter:
- center of spinal cord
- looks like letter H or a butterfly
• White Matter:
- outside of spinal cord
- contains myelinated fibers
42
White Matter in Spinal Cord
• Contains 3 columns dorsal, ventral, lateral
columns
• Ascending tracts:
axons that conduct action potentials toward
brain
• Descending tracts:
axons that conduct action potentials away from
brain 43
Gray Matter in Spinal Cord
• Posterior horns:
contain axons which synapse with interneurons
• Anterior horns:
contain somatic neurons
• Lateral horns:
contain autonomic neurons
• Central canal:
fluid filled space in center of cord
44
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Central canal
Spinal
nerve
Ventral
root
(a) Rootlets
Sensory neuron
Spinal nerve
Interneuron
Autonomic neuron
(b) Lateral horn Somatic motor neuron
Anterior horn Ventral root
Spinal Nerves
• Arise along spinal cord from union of dorsal
roots and ventral roots
• Contain axons sensory and somatic neurons
• Located between vertebra
• Categorized by region of vertebral column
from which it emerges (C for cervical)
• 31 pairs
• Organized in 3 plexuses
46
Cervical Plexus
• Spinal nerves C1-4
47
Brachial Plexus
• Originates from spinal nerves C5-T1
48
Lumbosacral Plexus
• Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4
49
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C1 Cervical
2 plexus
3 (C1–4)
Cervical 4
nerves 5
6 Brachial
7
8 plexus
T1 (C5–T1)
2
3
4
5
6
Thoracic
nerves 7
Dura mater
8
9
10
11
12
Cauda equina
L1
2 Lumbar
Lumbar plexus
nerves 3 (L1–4) Lumbo-
4 sacral
5 plexus
(L1–S4)
Sacral
S1 plexus
Sacral S2 (L4–S4)
nerves S3
S4
S5
Coccygeal
Coccygeal
Co plexus
nerves
(S5–Co)
Posterior view
51
Cerebrospinal Fluid
• Fluid that bathes the brain and spinal cord
52
Brainstem
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Cerebrum
Anterior Corpus
callosum
Thalamus
Diencephalon Posterior
Hypothalamus
Midbrain
Cerebellum
Brainstem Pons
Medulla
oblongata
Medial view
© Courtesy of Branislav Vidic
• Components:
– Medulla oblongata
– Pons
– Midbrain
53
Brainstem Components
• Medulla oblongata
– Location:
continuous with spinal cord
– Function:
regulates heart rate, blood vessel diameter, breathing,
swallowing, vomiting, hiccupping, coughing, sneezing,
balance
– Other:
pyramids: involved in conscious control of skeletal
muscle
54
• Pons
– Location:
above medulla, bridge between cerebrum and cerebellum
– Function:
breathing, chewing, salivation, swallowing
• Midbrain
– Location:
above pons
– Function:
coordinated eye movement, pupil diameter, turning head
toward noise
55
• Reticular Formation
- Location:
scattered throughout brainstem
- Function:
regulates cyclical motor function, respiration,
walking, chewing, arousing and maintaining
consciousness, regulates sleep-wake cycle
56
Diencephalon
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Cerebrum
Anterior Corpus
callosum
Thalamus
Diencephalon Posterior
Hypothalamus
Midbrain
Cerebellum
Brainstem Pons
Medulla
oblongata
Medial view
© Courtesy of Branislav Vidic
• Epithalamus:
- Location:
above thalamus
- Function:
emotional and visceral response to odors
58
• Hypothalamus
- Location:
below thalamus
- Characteristics:
controls pituitary gland and is connected to it by
infundibulum
- Function:
controls homeostasis, body temp, thirst,
hunger, fear, rage, sexual emotions
59
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Interthalamic Epithalamus
adhesion
Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Mammillary body
Cerebellum
Optic chiasm
Infundibulum
Pituitary gland
Thalamic nuclei
Diencephalon
Pons
Interthalamic
adhesion
61
Cerebrum Components
• Cerebral Cortex
- Location:
surface of cerebrum, composed of gray matter
- Function:
controls thinking, communicating,
remembering, understanding, and initiates
involuntary movements
62
• Gyri:
folds on cerebral cortex that increase surface
area
• Sulci:
shallow indentations
• Fissure:
deep indentations
63
• Left hemisphere:
- controls right side of body
- responsible for math, analytic, and speech
• Right hemisphere:
- controls left side of body
- responsible for music, art, abstract ideas
• Corpus callosum:
connection between 2 hemispheres
64
65
Lobes of Brain
• Frontal lobe
- Location: front
- Function: controls voluntary motor functions, aggression,
moods, smell
• Parietal lobe
- Location: top
- Function: evaluates sensory input such as touch, pain,
pressure, temp., taste
66
• Occipital lobe
- Location: back
- Function: vision
• Temporal lobe
- Location: sides
- Function: hearing, smell, memory
67
68
Cerebellum
• Location:
below cerebrum
• Characteristics:
- means little brain
- cortex is composed of
gyri, sulci, gray matter
• Functions: controls
balance, muscle tone,
coordination of fine
motor movement
69
Sensory Functions
• CNS constantly receives sensory input
70
Ascending Tracts
• What are they?
- pathways in brain and spinal cord
- transmit info. via action potentials from
periphery to brain
- each tract has limited type of sensory input
(temp, touch, pain, etc.)
- tracts are named that indicated origin and
termination
- made of 2-3 neurons in sequence 71
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Posterior (dorsal)
Dorsal columns
Posterior spinocerebellar tract
Anterior (ventral)
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Third neuron
Cerebrum in pathway
Thalamus
Midbrain
Pons
Second neuron
in pathway
Medulla oblongata
Dorsal column
Receptor
Spinal
First neuron cord
in pathway
Sensory Areas of Cerebral Cortex
• Primary sensory areas:
- where ascending tracts project
- where sensations are perceived
Lower limb
Central sulcus
Trunk Primary somatic
Primary motor sensory cortex
cortex
Upper Somatic sensory
Premotor association area
limb
area
Prefrontal Head
area Sensory speech area
(Wernicke area)
Motor speech area
(Broca area) Visual cortex
Visual
Primary association area
auditory cortex
Taste area
Auditory (beneath surface
association area in insula)
Lateral view
Descending Tracts
• Project from upper motor neurons in cerebral
cortex to lower motor neurons in spinal cord
and brainstem
77
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Posterior (dorsal)
Lateral corticospinal
Rubrospinal
Anterior corticospinal
Reticulospinal
Vestibulospinal
Tectospinal
Anterior (ventral)
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Cerebrum
Midbrain
Upper
motor
neuron
Pons
Pyramid
Medulla oblongata
Lateral
corticospinal
tract
Interneuron
Neuromuscular
junction Spinal cord
Lower
motor neuron
Basal Nuclei
• Group of functionally related nuclei
• Plan, organize, coordinate motor movements and
posture
• Corpus striatum:
deep in cerebrum
• Substantia nigra:
in midbrain
80
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Corpus
striatum
Thalamus
Basal
nuclei
Substantia nigra
in midbrain)
Lateral view
Speech
• Mainly in left hemisphere
• Electroencephalogram (EEG):
electrodes plated on scalp to record brain’s
electrical activity
• Alpha waves:
person is awake in quiet state
83
• Beta waves:
intense mental activity
• Delta waves:
deep sleep
• Theta waves:
in children
84
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Alpha waves
Beta waves
Theta waves
Delta waves
(a) (b)
© Deep Light Productions/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Memory
• Encoding:
- brief retention of sensory input received by
brain while something is scanned, evaluated,
and acted up
- also called sensory memory
- in temporal lobe
- lasts less than a second
86
• Consolidated:
- data that has been encoded
- temporal lobe
- short term memory
• Storage:
- long term memory
- few minutes or permanently (depends on
retrieval)
• Retrieval:
how often info. is used
87
Types of Memory
• Short-term memory:
- info. is retained for a few seconds or min.
- bits of info. (usually 7)
• Long-term memory:
can last for a few minutes or permanently
• Episodic memory:
places or events
• Learning:
utilizing past memories 88
Meninges
• What are they?
protective wrapping around brain and spinal
cord
• Meningitis:
infection of meninges (bacterial or viral)
89
Types of Meninges
• Dura Mater:
- superficial
- thickest layer
• Arachnoid mater:
2nd layer
• Pia mater:
- 3rd layer
- surface of brain
• Subarachnoid space:
where cerebrospinal fluid sits 90
• Epidural space:
- in vertebral column between dura and vertebra
- injection site for epidural anesthesia
91
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Dural venous sinus
Skull
Dura mater
Subdural space
Arachnoid mater
Subarachnoid space
Vessels in
subarachnoid space
Pia mater
Cerebrum
(a)
Posterior
Spinous process
Dura mater of vertebra
Transverse
Subdural space process of
Dorsal root
Arachnoid mater vertebra
Spinal cord
Subarachnoid
space Denticulate
Pia mater ligament Dorsal root
ganglion
Ventral root
Body of
vertebra
Pia mater
Dorsal root
ganglion
Spinal nerve Subarachnoid Periosteum
space
Ventral root Fat in
Arachnoid epidural
mater space
Subdural Dura
space mater
• Fourth ventricle:
- base of cerebellum
- continuous with central canal of spinal cord
93
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Lateral ventricle
(anterior horn)
Lateral ventricle
(posterior horn)
Third ventricle
Lateral ventricle
(inferior horn)
Cerebral aqueduct
Fourth ventricle
Central canal
of spinal cord
Lateral view
Cranial Nerves
• 12 pair of cranial nerves
95
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Anterior
Olfactory tract
Oculomotor nerve (III)
Trochlear nerve (IV)
Optic chiasm
Vestibulocochlear
nerve (VIII)
Glossopharyngeal
nerve (IX)
Inferior view
Peripheral Nervous System
• Consists of all neurons outside brain and
spinal cord
98
Divisions of Peripheral Nervous System
1. Afferent (Sensory):
collects input from periphery and sends it to
CNS
2. Efferent (Motor):
carries processed input from CNS to effector
99
Divisions of Efferent (Motor)
1. Autonomic:
- response is automatic (involuntary)
- controls smooth and cardiac muscles and glands
2. Somatic:
- response is voluntary
- controls skeletal muscles
100
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Spinal
nerve
Somatic
motor neuron Skeletal
(a) Spinal cord muscle
Spinal
nerve
Autonomic
ganglion
Preganglionic
neuron
(b) Spinal cord
Postganglionic
neuron
Effector organ
(e.g., smooth muscle
of colon)
Divisions of Autonomic
1. Sympathetic:
– activated during times of stress
– part of fight or flight response
– prepares you for physical activity by:
- ↑ HR
- ↑ BP
- ↑ BR
- sending more blood to skeletal muscles
- inhibiting digestive tract
102
2. Parasympathetic:
– “housekeeper”
– activated under normal conditions
– involved in digestion, urine production, and
dilation/constriction of pupils, etc.
103
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Preganglionic neuron
Postganglionic neuron
Lacrimal gland Ciliary ganglion
III
Eye
Nasal Pterygopalatine
mucosa ganglion
Sublingualand
submandibular Submandibular VII
glands ganglion
Parotid gland IX
Spinal Trachea
cord
T1
Lung
Celiac Heart
ganglion
Greater
splanchnic Liver
Superior
nerve
mesenteric
ganglion Stomach
Adrenal Spleen
Lesser gland
splanchnic
Pancreas
nerve
L2 Small
intestine
Lumbar Kidney
splanchnic Inferior
nerves mesenteric Large
ganglion intestine
S2
Sacral Pelvic nerve S3
splanchnic Hypogastric S4
nerves ganglion Large intestine
Sympathetic
chain
Urinary Preganglionic neuron
system
Postganglionic neuron
and genitalia
Sympathetic Parasympathetic