Chapter : 5

Project Controlling
5.1 Project Scheduling
In real- life projects involve hundreds of activities, it is important to identify the group of critical
activity so that special care is taken to make sure they are not delayed. All these statements
are the basic objectives of the scheduling process, who is adds a time dimension to the planning
process. In other words, we can briefly state that:
Scheduling = Planning + Time
Scheduling is the determination of timing of the activities comprising the project to enable
managers to execute the project in a timely manner.
Project scheduling is the process of converting a general or outline plan for a project into a
time – based graphic presentation given information on available resources and time
constraints.
In other we can say that – project scheduling is the process of identifying and organizing the
tasks of a project into a sequence of events ensuring a harmonious completion of the venture.

5.2 Importance of Scheduling

Scheduling is the determination of timing of the activities comprising the project to enable
managers to execute the project in a timely manner. The project scheduling is used for:

 Knowing the activities timing and the project completion time.

 Having resources available on site in the correct time.
 Making correction actions if schedule shows that the plan will result in late completion.
 Assessing the value of penalties on project late completion.
 Determining the project cash flow.
 Evaluating the effect of change orders on the project completion time.
 Determining the value of project delay and the responsible parties.
5.3 Basic Principles of Project Scheduling
Project Scheduling is the process of converting a general or outline plan for a project into a time
– based graphic presentation given information on available resources and time constraints. A
number of basic principles guide software project schedule:
1. Compartmentalization: The project must be compartmentalized into a number of
manageable activities and tasks. To accomplish compartmentalization, both the product
and the process are refined.
 2. Interdependency: The interdependency of each compartmentalized activity or task
must be determined. Some tasks must occur in sequence, while others can occur in
parallel. Some activities can not commence until the work product produced by another
is available. Other activity can occur independently.
3. Time allocation: Each task to be schedule must be allocated some number of work unit
(e.g., person-of effort). In addition, each task must be assigned a star date and a
completion date that a function of the interdependencies and whether work will be
conducted on a full time basis.
4. Effort validation: Every project has a defined number of people on the software team.
As time allocation occurs, you must ensure that no more than the allocated number of
people has been scheduled at any given time.
5. Defined responsibilities: Every task that is scheduled should be assigned to a specific
team member.
6. Defined outcomes: Every task that is scheduled should have a defined outcome for
software project; the outcome is normally a work product or a part of a work product.
Work products are often combined in deliverables.
7. Defined milestones: Every tasks or a group of tasks should be associated with a project
milestones. A milestone is accomplished when one or more work products has been
reviewed for quality and has been approved.

5.4 Scheduling Terminology

Project scheduling is the process of identifying and organizing the tasks of a project into a
sequence of events ensuring a harmonious completion of the venture. Some basic
terminology related to scheduling is given below:
1. Activity: Activity is a specific task or set of tasks that are required by the project,
use up resources, and take time to complete.
2. Event: Even is the result of completing one or more activities. An identifiable end
state that occurs at a particular time. Events use no resources.
3. Network: Network is the arrangement of all activities in a project arrayed in their
logical sequence and represented by arcs and nodes. This arrangement defines the
project and the activity precedence relationships. Networks are usually drawn
starting on the left and proceeding to the right.
Arrowheads placed on the arcs are used to indicate the direction of flow- that is, to show the
proper precedence.
Before an event can be realized-that is, achieved-all activities that immediately precede it must
be completed. These are called its predecessors. Thus, an event represents an instant in time
when each and every predecessor activity has been finished.

 Path: Path is the series of connected activities between any two events in a network.
 Critical Activities, events, or paths which, if delayed, will delay the completion of the
project. A project's critical path is understand to mean that sequence of critical
activities that connects the project's start event to its finish event and which cannot to
be delayed without delaying the project.
 To transform a project plan into a network, one must know what activities comprise the
project and, for each activity, what its predecessors are. An activity can be in any of
these condition: (1) it may have a successor(s) but no predecessor(s); (2) it may have a
predecessor(s); and (3) it may have both predecessor(s) and successor(s).
 The first of these is an activity that starts a network.
 The second ends a network.
 The third is in the middle.

5.5 Terminologies in Project Management

1. Activity: An individual operation which has an end and a beginning and which utilizes
resources is called activity. An arrow is used to represent an activity with it's head
indicating the direction of progress in project.

Fig:1

a) Predecessor activity: Activities that must be completed immediately prior to the start of
another activity are called as Predecessor Activity.
b) Successor activity: Activities which that cannot be started until one or more of other
activities are completed, but immediately succeed them are called Successor Activity.
c) Concurrent activity: Activities which can be accomplished concurrently are known as
concurrent activities.
d) Dummy activity: In mist projects many activities can be performed concurrently or
simultaneously. It is possible that two activities could be drawn by the same beginning
 and end events. In such situation when two or more activities can be performed
concurrently, the concept of dummy activity is introduced to resolve this problem. Thus,
can activity which does not consume any kind of resource but merely depicts the
technological dependence is termed as dummy activity.
Dummy Activities is inserted in the network to clarify the activity pattern in the
following two situation:
 To make activities with common starting and finishing points distinguishable.
 To identify and maintain proper precedence relationship between activities
those are not connected by events.
Example: Consider a situation where A and B are concurrent activities C is dependent
on A and D is dependent on both A and B. Such a situation can be handled using a dummy
activity as follows:

Fig:2 : Example of Dummy Activity

2. Event: An event is an instant of time at which an activity starts and finishes. An event is
represented by circle (O) in a network which is known as node or connector. The event
can be classified into 3 categories ;
a) Merge event: When more than one activity comes and joins an event such an
event is known as merge event.
b) Burst event: when more than one activity leaves an event, such event is known
as burst event.
c) Merge and Burst event: An activity may be a merge and burst event at the same
time with respect to some activities it may be a burst event.
 Fig. 3: Types of Event

5.6 Difference between activity and event:

Event is the pert of activity. Activity is an object type having database agent, step, event and
email generation. An activity is triggered in “ Event” section by using business rules. Activity can
activate and deactivate in event section.
3. Network: Network is arrangement of all activities in a project arrayed in their logical
sequence and represented by arcs and nodes. This arrangement ( network) defines the
project and the activity precedence relationship. Networks are usually drawn starting on
the left and proceeding to right. Arrowheads placed on the arcs are used to indicate the
direction of flow-that is, to show the proper precedence.
Before an event can be realized-that is, achieved – all activities that immediately precede it
must be completed. These are called is predecessors. Thus, an event represent an instant in
time when each and every predecessor activity has been finished.
4. Float: Float can be described as the free time associated with an event. Hence, float or
slack is that time by which an activity can be delayed without delaying the entire
project. Activities which do not have any float or slack time are the activities which
cannot be delayed without delaying the project. These activities are called the critical
activities. Hence allow the critical path the float or slack is zero, types of float-

a) Total float: The amount of time by which the completion of an activity could be
delayed beyond the earliest expected completion time without affecting the overall
project duration time. This float is concerned with overall project duration.

Total float (i-j) = LOT ( i-) – EOT (i) -d (i-j)

b) Free float: The amount of time by which the completion of an activity could be
delayed beyond the earliest expected completion time without affecting the earliest
start of a succeeding activity. This float is concern with the commencement of the
succeeding activity.

Free float ( i-j) = EOT (i) – LOT (i) – d (i-j)

 c) Independent float: The amount of time by which the start of an activity can be
delayed without affecting the earliest start time of any immediately following
activities, assuming that the preceding activity has finished at its latest finished
time. The float is concern with prior and subsequent activities.

Independent float (i-j) = EOT (i) – EOT (i) -d (i-j)

5. Path: Path is the series of connected activities between any two events in a network. By
the term path we mean a sequence of activities such that it begins at the starting event
and end at the final event. The length of a path is the sum of the individual time of the
activities lying on a path.

Critical Path: Critical path can be defined as “ the sequence of critical activities in a network
“. Critical path is the sequence of critical activities, which decide the total project duration.
A critical path consumes maximum resource. It is the longest path and consumes maximum
time. It is the one, which connects the events having zero minimum float.

OR

The critical path is the longest path in the network from starting event to ending event and
defines the minimum time required to complete the project.

5.7 Bounding Schedules:

Scheduling of non critical activities can be done by two schedules:
1. Early start schedule
2. Late start schedule

The early start schedule: Early start schedule refers to the schedule in which all activities start
as early as possible. In this schedule
 Are event rear at their earliest because all activities start at their earliest starting
time and finish at their earliest finishing time.
  There may be time legs between the completion of certain activities and the
occurrence of events which these activities lead to and
 All activities emanating from an event at the same time.
It suggest a cautious attitude towards the project and a desire to minimize the possibility of
delay. It provides a greater measure of protection against uncertainties and adverse
circumstances. Such a schedule however, calls for an earlier application of resources. A model
for early start schedule is given below:

The early start schedule

The late start schedule: It refers to the schedule arrived at when all activities are started as late
as possible. In this schedule,
 All events occur at their latest because all activities start at their latest
starting time and finish at their latest finishing time.
 Some activities may start after a time lag subsequent to the occurrence of
the proceeding events.
 All activities to an event are completed at the same time.
The late start schedule reflects a desire to commit resources late as late a possible. However,
such a schedule provides no elbow room in the wake of adverse developments. Any
unanticipated delay results in increased project duration. A modal for late start schedule is
given below:
 The latest start schedule

5.8 Scheduling Technique

Project scheduling is the process of converting a general or outline plan for a project into a
time – based graphic presentation given information on available resources and time
constrains. Scheduling techniques can be broadly divided into two main categories:
5.8.1 Network diagram: PERT and CPM.
5.8.2 Bar chart: Milestone chart and Gantt chart.
1. Network diagram: Network diagrams play a very important rol in the project scheduling. This
is one of the most important scheduling techniques applied in various fields of project
development.
Network analysis/diagrams entails a group of techniques for presenting information relating
time and resources so as to assist in the planning, scheduling and controlling of projects.
The information usually represented by a network includes the sequences, interdependences,
interrelationship and criticality of various activities of the project.
2.Bar chart: Planning is one of the main secrets to successful project implementation, as
anyone who has been involved in relocation or major project knows.
The key to good planning is simply to get the team talking and thinking about what needs to be
dine, and then use charts to communicate that to others.
Two simple planning techniques are useful to project Team; Milestone plans and Bar to Gantt
charts shown below.
  Milestone Plans focus mainly on the end-dates by which something needs to be
complete or by which certain objectives need to be achieved.
 Gantt Chart focus more on the activities to be carried out to complete the project.

Both are invaluable in forcing a Project Team to think through the detail of what needs to be
done, what the priorities and linkages are, and then as a mean of communicating intentions to
others in a diagram or picture.

5.9 Objectives of Network Analysis

The information, usually represented by a network, includes the sequences,
interdependencies, interrelationship, and criticality of various activities of the project. A
network analysis has following objectives.
1. Powerful tool of planning, scheduling and control.
2. Shows the inter-relationships of the activities of a project or a program.
3. Minimizes total cost where the cost of delays and cost of resources required to
carry out the tasks can be measured.
4. Minimizes total time where required e.g. in maintenance of production – line
machinery in a factory.
5. Minimization of idle resources.
6. Minimizes production delays.
7. To provide systematic approach in planning and scheduling.

5.10 Applications of Network Analysis

Network is a powerful tool for planning and controlling a project. Network analysis nowadays
can be used in scheduling the projects of almost every field. Some of its applications are
mentioned as follow:
1. It is a consistent framework for planning, scheduling, monitoring, and controlling the
project.
2. It illustrates the interdependence of all tasks, work packages, and work elements.
3. It denotes the times when specific individuals and resources must be available for work
on a given task.
4. It aids in ensuring that the proper communications take place between departments
and functions.
5. It determines an expected project completion date.
6. It defines so – called critical activities that, if delayed, will delay the project completion
time.
7. It also identifies activities with slack that can be delayed for specified periods without
penalty, or from which resources may be temporarily borrowed without harm.
8. It determines the dates on which tasks may be started – or must be started if the project
is to stay on schedule.
9. It illustrates which tasks must be coordinated to avoid resource or timing conflict acts.
10. It also illustrates which tasks may be run, or must be run, in parallel to achieve the
predetermined project completion date.
11. It relieves some interpersonal conflict by clearly showing task dependencies.
12. It may, depending on the information used, allow an estimate of the probability of
project completion by various dates, or the date corresponding to a particular a priority
probability.