“THEOREM 1 ‘The process of finding i recall that use of the three-step rule for Section 3, frequently involves a lengthy certain simple expressions and comt repeatedly, it pays to be uble to. c establish some theorems tic ete eis we do not always have to use the three-step rule ff constant is zera.) We prove this by the three-step rule. Since f has the value c for: we have Step: f(x+h)—f() =e-e= 0 hy fl) 0 step, SAH y=f) =o. Step3: lim0=0. so ‘That is, f'() =0-Sept: Af= (x+y — 2". At this point we make use of the binomial theorem which states tt an= 1) © eth exten 242 AD oye +P and so we find by subtracting x" from both sides Bamana y MON 2), SW a Note that every term on the right side ofthe above equation has h as afactor. Step 2: Fenn MOD aay, mr 24 0 Now we observe that every term on the Tight exce; Si ‘ s ‘pt the first has h in it. Since ihe leit O€& Rumis Ue sum of he lini, we take the linis of even ot the term on the right as h-+0 and add the Tesult. However, each term on the right, except the first, tends to zero, The aot i nlfiecied ae aonb ee ea term nx"~? is completely utStep 3: g(x) = lim eAL ioe H we The justification for Step 3 comes is the product of the limits, Theorems 2 and 3 can be combi such as 4x7, —2x5, and so forth, We ki the derivative 7x® and therefore, from Tx) = 28x6. Similarly, the derivative If f(x) and g(x) have derivatives and F(x) =F + 8's). (The derivative of the sum is the sum of We use the three-step rule, Step 1s AF = F(x+h)—F(x) =f(x +h) + a(x +h) —f(x) a =Af+ Ag. ‘ AF _ Af | Ag Step2: >= 5-45 Since the limit of a sum is the sum ofthe limits, we see that the right side tends * to f'(x) + g(x). Therefore, Step3: Fix)=f'd +8): : o f two functions, the same While Theorem 4 was proved for the sum of two f roof works for the sum of any (finite) number of functions. Theorems 2, 3, ue 4 combine to enable us to differentiate any polynomial,derivative ofthe product of two functions is the frst times the the second times the derivative of the first.) Proof We use the three-step rule, as usual. Bien: | Asm fle) —LO) = wlx +h) o(x + h) — u(x) 02). __ At this point we use a trick of a type we have used before, We ‘quantity f(x +A) in a more complicated way, as follows: I (+h) = [ulx) + th + hi) — w(x) - [otx) + v(x + h) — (x). With the symbols Aw and Ap this becomes i L(x th)=(u4 Au)(v + Av) a te Therefore ye APH f(z +A) f(x) =(u+ Au)(v + Av) — ue. | Multiplying out the right side, we obtain if Af = ube + vAu+ Au- Av et : Step 2: Fee aa, a We now examine each term on the right side of he equation as h tends (0 zero. The first term tends to u(x)0'(x), since se Av RM) as ho, The second term tends to (x)u'(x). The last term has two parts, Ao/h and A= 66+ 81 = 147, SQ) =(4—6+ 212+ 8-6) + (8+ 8— 124-3) =0+4=4, If u(x) and v(x) are any two functions which have a derivative and ¥ ul) v(x) [=a with v(x) #0, then (The derivative of a quotient of two functions is the denominator times the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator times the derivative of the denominator, all divided by the square of the denominator.) Proof We proceed by the three-step rule. uic+h) — u(x) Steph: Af= fle -SO)= ay oa)(eis pide OF 90°28 _ 3 eee te +9) OF? ‘The last step was mercly an algebraic simplification andy § not a part of the differentiation process. y ‘We have seen that for n a positive integer, the function derivative g(x) = nx*-1. We now prove that this formula holds negative integer. Ifn is a positive integer and f(x) = xo", with x £0, then 'A negative exponent simply means that we may write f(x) in the form 1 f= Be We can apply Theorem 6: Let u(x) =! and v(x) =x. Then He) Cy From. Theorem 1, w'(x)=0 and, from Theorem 2, v(x) = nx""!, We sub- stitute in the formula of Theorem 6 to get - x20 —1+nx" f=33 Let u be differentiable, and let f(x) = [ued] result of Problem 32 19 show that f(x) = 3{a(xH) 4 Given that find a formula for /°(x). (Hint: Apply Theor Using this formala, find the derivative ofCHAPTER? holds: see 38 Let PC) mag tae PH by Xs ton Hee dyldx. Tepe Bayote Find formula fo oe be a poly- maa fe oe TE le oh 3» emia ot dense bent by PU te - Ae Prove that P43) = 0. and ware sired ite hat f(x) =efn)es) and 3) 40, 37 Suppose Sia) ot) we fw by eP), aod mila for f"(2) Sh oe acs oa smiley for & and f. Ce eee ee = THE CHAIN RULE, APPLICATIONS. THE POWER FUNCTION i d useful tools in di “hain Rule is one of the most important an oe The poo of the theorem estabishing this rule somewhat Bice tan ite fucied carefully, the reader will achieve q soderstanding of iretiation, which will make the effort well worth The examples should be gone over thoroughly, as a means of studying applications of this rule value u so that F'(u) exists. We define the function ee) yy h#0, G(h) = i 0, ifh=0 0, and (b) the formula THEOREM 6 (Fundamental Lemma of Differentiation) Su, ippose that F has a derivative at Then (a) G is continuous at h Flut-h)— F(u) = (F(u) + G(h) Ja holds. pects et tS). Frool From the definition of derivative we know that F lim Ft) — Py ari ©, equivalently, Flu+h)— Pay) ] pale So —F(u) | =0, Hence G(A) +0 ash. 0 Therefore G is c, "i ous Ids. To deft ME observe that for hs the formule 1 ae a finition of GF a formula (1) is a restatement of the °F h=0, Both sides of 1) are zero, ostep “fete +e Step 3: Since Au/h—+ u(x) as h G(Au) -0 as Au» 0, we conclude obs pe ‘This is exactly the formula given in the statement of the Before illustrating the Chain Rule by examples, we © most important special cases. COROLLARY = If f(x) = [u(x) "and m is an integer, then S03) = nu) WO). proot tn the Chain Rule we take g{u) =u, Then f= g{u(x)] means that f(a) = [u(x)]". We obtain £4) = 8 (u(x) = mW’). hae We can also write schematically : f(x) = (expression in x)", 3 f(x) = aexpression in x)"~ \(derivative of expression in x). Remark, If we write y=f(x) then, in Theorem 9, y is a function of «in the‘of x which is expressed as oa Ty symbol 2 may be used {0°80 antig CHAPTER > ‘Also, «82 function ‘pe used for fe. the simple form ; < differentials) a ? ds, du, and dy (calle a individual symbols 4% recise Meaning to cag, recall that the indivi ‘4 we shall give a P each ed been df he above formula is obtained by dividing Of hese quantities, am and multiplying by du 14 3x-2) BAAMMLE 1 Find f(x), given that f(x) = (27 + 3 sion in x being x* + 3x ~2. we th n=4 and the expression Solution From the Corollary, wit is. 2) «(2x + 3) f(x) = 42 + 3x — “(2x + 3), since the derivative of x? + 3x ~2 is 2 EXAMPLE 2 Find dy/dx, given that YS eax —6x+4 Solution We write y=(x? + 3x?— 6x +4)"! and apply the Corollary with n= Seo ifx) 4 34? = 6x +.4)-2-(3x? + 6x — 6) ax =3(a? + 2-2) eee) Qo eater a We note that this example could . en worked by using the formula for the derivative of a quotient EXAMPLE 3 Find dyidx, given that Solution This req that he Corollary, we see‘Substituting in the formula for f(x), we S'() = (0? + 2x — 3)8826(2x 4 5) “i +(2x + 5)!932(2 + 2x—3)"*e + 1) Bi = (3? + 2x —3)!9(2x + 5)!2[26(a? + 2x — 3) £322 + The function Sy =x, where n is some number, is called the power function. That is, xis raised to a exponent called the power. If n is an even positive integer, the graph of function appears as in Fig. 1, If mis an odd positive integer the curve is belo the x axis for negative values of x, as shown in Fig, 2. ‘ y n, even positive integer 1, odd positive integer FIGURE 1 AGURE 2Begins amar expone! ‘or negative plore: a horizontal asym Fig. even negative integer yy anis is vertical asymptote; x axis is horizontal asymptote (a) ncn 3 If mis of the form 1/g, where q is function has a completely different ch isnot even defined for negative values of x, In fact, i function is defined only for x positive or zero. On that because the odd root of a nega =2), the function is defi 33 are shown in Fig. 4 We follow th ats, the y axis isa vertical asymptote ang The general behavior of these functions ja tty s vn ned for all same rule for the d he exp € exponent ———— l odd negative integer x axis is horizontal asymptote, y axis is vertical asymptote (o) positive integer, the graph of acter. For example, the funeioga fi s any cven number, the her h. is odd, we know ad (for example, The graphs of gxwhere p and q ate integers. By the £2) = pty and so, by Theorem 10, Fx) = plain Lio g YA00) =[ulx)Y and + is rational, then f'a)= rly a) Proof This ig an immediate consequence of Corollary | and the Chain. EXAMPLE 5 Given that f(t)= Y/° £3¢+1, find f(t), Solution We write f(t) =(* + 3¢4 1)?" and use Corollary 2; Pat os -29(322 4 2) = F() = He +34 1) GBP +3) @y3s7 EXAMPLE 6 Given that f(x) =(x+ 1)(2x ~1)*®, find f(x). Solution We use the rule for differentiating a product, setting u(x) =(x +1)? and: v(x) = (2x = 1)43, so that f(x) = u(x)v(x). Then $49) = (+ 1?0(x) + (2x = 1)*8W9, By the Chain Rule for powers we have u(x) =3(x+1? +1 and o(x) =402x—1)8-2,(st? +1 —sh(s? = D023) manure rl, ae 2 Ng , be simplified in several ways. One e ee Tough both the numerator and the denomina ‘This gives (s?7— 1) =s%(s? - 1) asi "Since (5? = 1)" = 1, we get In each of Problems 1 through 36, find the derivative, 6 OE! 3 = 513» 248 1 Qr43) 26 4x3 eg ae 3 (2~5x)¢ A (844x27-34-99 ee teee 7 is x0 ee S(2x+f-* 6 (2 =3e43)79 BYES Se 3x8? BA 4 gtd 3 TOPs 3t YW xtt Seo ty) BBM HH 4 oy (oe 4 308 9 (8 + IP? — 27 pedbneet 2S (x 42x +98 . 19 (0942-08 <4 4 57 OOS 5) 2 Pax 4 a Se Sah a ee He + I(x? + 2x 6) oe 2B (x* + 2x7 + 1)-7 29 MP + Ix + 2 ~ + : : 9 reat 1S tt437 : : rey45 through 48, find the equations of the tangent jormal linc to the curve y= f(x), at the point having t given yaluc of x. 1 Con aeae F x=h 48 f(xyaxYI—-%, x=1 ‘Suppose that vis a function of x so that v= ox), that wis a function ofp, and that g is a function of u where uc, and g ‘ute diflerentiable. Writing /(x) = g{ufo(x)]}, show that f(=guc or, in differential notation with y=f(x, establish the set oe co umerator” ia the dy dy du dv dx du do dx eae fea -3)", x=2 f= IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION (ferentiation, we shall introduce addi i implicit i ; Before discussing impl tly helpful Suppose that fis «fonction symbolism which will be particulas x, such as f(y ext-2t43S, 2 ( I= afirx } ey "go we that $= 3,0S,, The funotions describing S, and S2 are ee on pod V4 See Figs, 6 and 7. e ha ertele of relations which may be defined by decomposition into ‘or more functions ar® tay +3)? ‘Note that all these expressions ae LO sion soos we say thet the functions if any, are de nif any” because the equation may not Jues of x and y whieh — Brey 4-0, 7-2-5 50 of the general form 0. “When this situa implicitly by the equation. We say tehne any function at all, For example, there are no v2 satisfy an equation such as por +9 = 0. We could easily compose other examples. Returning to the ‘equation xi+y?—4=0, for its domain we see that this consists of two functions, each function having .ss derivatives the interval -25x<2 Inside this interval the functions posse: which can readily be found by differentiating the expressions‘We now ask ourselves is both. If Assuming that yis a differentiable function defined implicitly by the y43y4at 520 z, find dy/dx in terms of x and y, Solution The derivative of y? is de ie : 3 The derivative of 3xy is 3x(dy/dx) + 3y. The derivative of x3 is derivative of —5 is-0. Therefore 24y dy ay? 4 3S ta ae Seq t By +3x' 0. ay We can now solve for > (ussuming 4 + x40): dx dy yb ‘ 2 EE a dx” Pex Remark, If it (urns out that the implicit relation js determined by several functions, then the answer gives the appropriate derivative according to which y(x) is put into the right side of the equation, ve of EXAMPLE 2. Find the deri 4x? +9)? = 36 implicitly, and check the result by solving for y and differentiating explicitly. Solution The implicit method gives | 8x+18yy'=0 and y'=«method, we find that 2-46, 4x CHAPTERS aoe ya 2-2 46-4") Fi | yoo= i (x) is the same expressiod preceded by # plus sign. ‘ fea the implicit method, , x ve nics ident with the explicit result; a similar result is obtained for which is ide exaMPlE3 Assuming that 1S 4 differentiable function, find the derivative ss | yeep = 7-8 =0. whether we shall use the explicitgy nice as 10 fon In this problem we have no choice @ re inal possible to solve for y in terms of x oF forges the implicit method, since it ist ' in terms of y. We obtain ay 4 : sy" yoy? + 3y8 2x — 42x9 =O, Pr gaara | : and solving for dy/dx we fi : y dx” 5 49x 3._ PROBLEMS In cack of Problems| through (2, ind yin te ntintion, snvuming ‘hat ‘ satisfy the equation r45-0 Ka y-9=0 9 8 x'+ 12) 22 x3 xy 1 : = . oe ee yds : In Problems 24 the : xy) +t 6 then solve for yin teres of not empl llfeentiatio ’ Passing thr pau the partic 0 : brough the given po particular function this tnction tng Ee% POU. Find the general form for (OE 23, find dy ees es differen ik im tris of x and » by 26 Rae SF = 2h ee for yin terms of x, and show gus) 27 3 ; how 2 3y2_ > 10 3-1) Y= 3 %(1,¢values of 8 except 8 =0. Since 8 meaningless expression. Ne “4 F all start aia a ii typical value of &. We draw an are IP of am the perpendiculars: Poh soeY F hi ). Therefore, the area of a sector [OP = O(4r7), 0 Since |01| =|OP|=1, we have area 4 IOP area sector [OP = $6r?THEOREM 11 COROLLARY Proof reversing the direction, (Reca d.a 1/b) 4 as the effect of ve numbers an ; this bs ‘Now we take reciprocals; {his that if'a and bare any posit conclude that . ‘p> te 5 cos 0. _+ 1, Since sin 0/0 is always betwee know that cos 0 1, Since sin X er . ine to 1, we know from the Sandwich Theorem that it re. st approach 11as approaches 2e70. 1 the proof we considered 0 posit but now we note that sin € SO=—| is an even function of 6. That is, if we replace @ by —0, we have sin(—6) _—sin@ sin @ esas -—— =S(8). S-9 = a= S10) In general, a function f(x) is said to be even if f(—x) = f(x) for all =5tts to be odd if f(—x) = —f(x) for all x. Therefore, as @— 0 through megative values, the resull must be identical with the one obtained when @ > O through positive values. The above development gives the following result, If 8 is measured in radians, then We have This result may be obtained fr rem nt result jained from Theorem 1 by using the id 1 sing the identityFind the value of 2 measured in degrees Solution The functions sin 22 a in degrees. We have 1d sin (na/180) have the same values, with a Example 2 exhibits one of the Feasons radian measure is used t] zt calculus. The limit of sin 0/0 is throughout is | if @ is measured in radians and m8 Gis measured in degrees, In the neat section we shall see why the first is highly preferable to the second.NOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 4 in the preceding seston, We ca find timits obtained Tr rctions. We shall suppose thea pot ae ee ric all the (8 jn radians. obtai with the bel ary derivatives that ail angles ar€ rs P(x) = O08 X ive apply the dreesep rule Proof hy —sin x Supt: seth) FO) =e © Step: sin(x + #) - sinx h int that we m ger We first use thefach nploy ingenuity : nt that we must emp! xsin hand write fixth)-f0) _ ‘Step 2: a 3s usual, it isat this pol : dia sin(x +h) =sin xcos h+ cos sinh — sin x x C08 h +0) fx+-f0) sin sin © ! = 00s x0 + sin x Then, taking the limit ash, we use Theorer and its Corollary 16 perform Step 3 and conclude that f(x +h) —f(x) f F(a) lim ; a The simplicity of the result —that the derivative of sin x is cos x Ig the use of radians. If, for example used, then limy..o (sin AJM) would be 1/180, and all the derivat for rometric functions would have an extra, inconvenient fac lor in them. Later Similar situation occurs in th hall see that @ fe study of logarithm: Suppose that w is a function of x. that Chain Rule, we easily (x). Then, by using the find the formul, a If we write ja for the EXAMPLE 1 Find the derivative of y = sin (3x? Solution Taking u= 3,2_ we Ng Ue Byte 6s me 1, we obtain from the fe and the Chain mula for Jerivative of the Rule dy de 7 8(3x2 et NG 6) = 6(x 6x +1).EXAMPLE 2 Solution With the help of the derivatives of the sine and cosine functi the derivatives of the remaining trigonometric functions. The example shows the method. Find the derivative of y = tan x, Since tan x = sin x/eos x, we write ‘yates cos x and use the formula for the derivative of a quotient. We have This yields 5 “The formulas for differentiating trigonometric functions are suramarized in the following table (in each case w is a function of x):The general rules for differentiating polynomials and rational together with the formulas for products and quotients, open y Possibilities for differentiating complicated expressions. The next show some of the ramifications. p i EXAMPLE 3 Given that f(x) = sin? x, find f’(x), Solution f(x) =(sin x), and setting u = sin x we have by the Chain Rule fd =u*. f(x) = 3u?u'(x), % Since w(x) = cos x, we obtain f'(x) =3 sin? x cos x. J dy ‘! EXAMPLE 4 Given that y = tan*(2x + 1), find i : aan Solution We use the Chain Rule twice, We first set u = tan (2x + 1), Then Byte Ghat Rule, 3 dy du peut and gy yew and = tut di - To find — we use the Chain Rule again. Setting v= 2x + 1,.we have 9) ax ry a a dv ae w=tanv an 7 = sec? p— dx dx. We casily see that dv/dx = 2, and therefore = 4[tan(2x + 1) sec? (2x + 1) +2 =8 tan? (2x + 1) sec?(2x + 1) EXAMPLE 5 Given that f(x) = x? sec? x, find f(x). aufSolution 421 1 Gitano RONDE RAGE OO [215 X'Usec(8) 1. We see that this fs in the form of a produst, and waite we x? o= [sec(3x)}, Then fid= We have = 4x? and to obtain : ‘we use the Chain Rule, Setting w= 3x we s ax have Re dw. t= [sec wP Z 2 sec weec w tan woe Thus we find f(x) = x? + 6 sec? (3x) tan (3x) + sce? (3x) ° 3x7 4x? sec? 3x(2e tan 3x-+ I). PROBLEMS & be tin SM fis) = sects") 22 oe) = sin? 3t y : 24 g(x) «sin 2x ~4(sin? 2x) y as 2 2 26 h(u) =u sin w+ cos u 28 hi) = sec! 21 tan? 2 an 30x) = (tan! dx)/3 +tan dx 31 f(x) = Mace at aoe 22 fix) 33. f(x) «(sin 2u)/x M fix) = (si 3S. f(x) ={c08? Sx) +x) “0 4 f 4 43 ’ : hrce-step rule, that 0 f(x) see tan xTHartERD oa etax+sin2h FoF G oe stan xt 4 50.1 f(x) = sin dx, show that HRM FED =O: ‘ae By ee In each Potems5 houph 6 id anion +54 pa seeds tangent to the given curve al the given anes ® om Sl yada = mn ! i 55 yosin xen 3 0" 5 x Xo 6 SI pecosds, XO" gy eae ee CHAPTER 3 REVIEW PROBLEMS fix) = gu ~ 22) a 2 In Probie {hough 10 find 2 LO aah 24 Letuande be differentiable functions of x, We fay tee = p(2u+ 1) + h(3e — 2), find fC). (Aint: Let be ae io -2 Then use the Chain Riley) 3 pate bea Ist + 2x9) i Sy ast 1439 ty 4 yale ae = Sea ee +3) In Problems 25 through 32 find (- xitx-1 +7xo3 5 y=5 eye ae oa ee 2 x? -2y°47=0 7 yatets 1d B ya(xt~2x7 + 3-5) arse sty! aaa og OE =2ee MO $x FS +6 10 ya Sx? +6x—2) F ax+8 In Problems 11 through 22 find the derivative of the given Problems 34 through 44 find the derivative: (x) =(02 +208 a) 34 Fix) sin 3x— 2 cos dx 5 “ os F(x) stan % f(t) sin" 2 ) 18 K(x PMN Gs iG, 38 g(x) tan (3x 70 vit} 39 hx) ma 0 Fi 4 Gf 2 Kis 4B f(x) tiable functions of x. Given that 44 (1) = 2t cos lara eae stsin {e+ tan? 2p122 Fil Cuarter $0 UF f(x} sin i, show that [4b #7! mv ofthe ine , ei Jes $4 through Sb find the esuatton OF ELIAS « 5g the given value of Xe angent to the given curve at ‘CHAPTER 3 REVIEW PROBLEMS 20), find f'(). (Hint: Use the Chait Re Problems 1 through 10 find | ¥ . Sa lc functions of x. Given tha 24 Let wand # be differe : fly Ty+A(30 — 2), find f(x). (Hint: Let = Que taag se the Chain Rule.) In Problems 25 through 32 find : 2 sig 0. At what point 4 : en the graph. F(x Al diy a4 2 Kise 4 : be dillerentiable functions ofyee, xen0 yaCe+ G24, 7+]02=1) x+3 P: oar :THEOREM 1 contains one endpoint bu! his sect ine Theorem) terval [a,b], thete is (Extreme If fisa continuous function defined on the closed one point ina, by ¢cald it x, ) where F has @ and there is (at least) one point (call ie x) where f has a at s fairly clear intuitively if we think of @ continuous ‘ith no breaks of gaps. As we move along the curve from the g to x= ato the point corresponding to x — where the curve has a high point (called the maxim lace where it has a low point (called 'y of the situati , there must mi value) and the minimum & from the intuitive point of 125