|= > ED Radio Wave Propagation — ae 11,1, INTRODUCTION O far, we have been discussing the antennas and the process of radiation from them in which a high frequency currents in the antennas produce detachment of electromagnetic energy in the form of waves of thesame natureas light. This chapter is mainly concerned with the phenomena that occur in the media between a transmitter and a receiver. When a radio wave is radiated from the transmitting antenna, it spreads in all directions decreasing in amplitude with increasing distance because of spreading of the speaking electromagnetic energy through larger and larger surface areas. Electomagnetic wavein the frequency spectrum of 0.001 to 10’° Hertz are arbitrarily termed as radio waves, although broadly speaking by radio waves, in this chapter, mean that band of electromagnetic energy which covers the frequency range from few kHz (very low frequencies or very long waves) to a few MHz (super high frequencies or microwaves). In this chapter, for discussion purpose, the electromagnetic wave and radio wave have the same meaning and hence this chapter could have also been named as “Propagation of Electromagnetics waves” or simply wave pro- Pagation. Inan earth environment, the electromagnetic waves propapate | only depend ne own properties but are also dictated by the eavironment itself, Theactal avian which the radon are propagated may have obstacles, discontinuities. and propagation medium variations. Howeve' 2% environment of imponance for practical radio-wave Propagation is that of the earth and its im’ ot Sutroundings. Of course, inthe recent years, radio has invaded "out space" loo. dn ruany respec! Neo : a Pace far from the earth. Fi is the space which interfere wth he normal radiation and propagation of rio waves: In athas can roe space, 00 8 or gravitational fields or solid bodies or ionized particles are ascumed ia rater ‘The concept Of 2° propagetion simplifies the approach to wave propagation, SUM te CRUSE, (pe perThe power radiated from tran eravaitable at MOSLOF the recejyiy es Mer is ontin, | gmission 10Ss (ratio of radiated poy, : NN ig on nly Pi. wa tis He transmission Toss yy Oreccived noe a ve fal ‘ail bo une OFNOL. The on De wer any of the po: mode of Propagations n a He receiy, (a) Ground wave or surf The py ICC Way ‘ Proy (b) Sky wave or ionospheric Wopoat station (©) Space wave propagation, ms Ic may be noted that these mod, es of 5 esetly developed means of propagation beso te” Bey deny axmmunications. All these modes of Propagation wil espe Bes Propagation of radio waves are poy ll Be icussd inte ce Mer sacar anes jligence over short and long distance, brrqe 24 i radio wr inte . nce, but also in 1 COmmunication f gatanoe ele. Propagation phenomenon of electroma en "atio direction finding, core rs in wave. guides tc. but we shall restrict only to unpuidey sou? MPPCRNg nuded mon n addition to these, special propagation uided propagation nae : and all others will be omit. ! + Spe ie, wilte excouner in propagation like, MUF, critical frequency, shen, ie Bropgation, and sone es discussed. jency, skip distance fading and m \easurements will also be. 112, ELECTROMAGNETIC OR RADIO WAVES Electromagnetic waves are nothing but oscillaions which propagate with the velit of gt (pproximately,c = 3 x 10° m/s) in free space. Electromagnetic waves consist of moving fields of sletrie and magnetic forces. The lines of force in the electric and magnetic fields are at right angle and they buh are alright angle to the direction of propagation. As illustrated in Fig. 11.1, the direction of the ‘electric fied’, the magnetic field” and ‘propagation’ are mutually perpendicular in electromagnetic waves. The electomag- nelic waves are traverse in nature i.e. oscillations are perpendicular to the Girection of propagation of waves, A simple electromagnetic wave is shown in Figure 11.1 in which electric lines apap earth and magnetic lines horizontal. However, they can assume any orientation wt ear. ite raphe ee H ee Bic lines (Vertical) et Fine Het wd "sei ies (Horizonal) =a aeseronos x gna esnoe infest sgnetic wares cap parle the Fig, LL Simple dlecronat so towartls render. | fd 8 (ee te jymeans eee nc pola “slantaneous direction of fields for a wave | road po aie 5 ea The magnetic fields surround Une Wi agintion ion I ui : he i ™ %isot wire, Thig configuration is tue even after ives Huo pO of nem 7 x carl recreate W imestee ee 625), Mii Gefen on of Blecre field ered BY rhorizontil seoritt ‘ally polarized, The initial polarizah vertically eon, then it will produce spe as al, then ro zeD = Wave fronts Fes iS inepoantranfone Fig. ILA. Spherical wave front reg a Al ted in Fi 11,3 and actual wave front is also Pine 5 5 ustrat ig. actual 2 es Tre wave front is, thds, a ae wre also imagined which radiates from point so ey Fen i ‘convent! a roel where perpendicular to the plane of wave on = - i ion, diffraction larizations are ‘The optical phenomena of reflection, refraction. diff pol ha, ; ee E-SPACE PROPAGATION DAMENTAL EQUATION FOR FRE 1 GA * Fae evaof dined power 10 received power is called the radio transmission loss. The bast, ted in free space i.e. in a region of ail objers Same in estimating radio transmission loss is the loss expecte ; n of a hsorb or reflect radio energy. This concept is essentially the inverse square law in optics applied 1 ni uansinission. . For the fundamental equation for free space transmission or propagation, first consider = aeae power Wy assumed to be radiated equally inal directions (isotropically). Itis further assumed thet thisiso=e radiator is placed in free space, a homogeneous and non-absorbing medium of dielectric constant radiations will be spread out spherically as it travels away from the source so that distance r, the power easy in the wave, which is the power per unit area of wavefront, will be Wr 2 Pra W/m’ y 4nd a where 4 xd? is the surface area of ine sphere of radius d, centered on the source. ec Since all the practical antennas have directional characteristics i.e. radiate more power a 9 ccuon and less power in some other direction, therefore, lhe directivity gain is defined as the rsiof 82 Power density along the main axis of radiation of the antenna to that which would be produced by an some aptenna atthe same distance fed with the same input power. Let Gr = Maximum directivity gai itt gain of the transmitting antenna. Ther 1 “ 4 ‘en, power density along the maximum, tadiation is given by Gr = —Po (lest antenna ) * P, (isotropic antenna ) Po = Gr P, Pos Gr tr. a) Now a receivin and 18 antenna ~ . by thesnay e Positioned so that cottects maximum power from te ae sto the load (receiver) under matched condition. Whens? ! ie be the power delivered antenna can be consi Considered to have an effective Aperture Area (Ag) so that mien 8 (013)4 = Wavelength being radisted, Guus 1 Gr = Maximum directivity gain of the Tees we QL) Eqn 11.6 isthe fundamental equation forjr = : : ion jor fre space iransmistion oF propagation. This is also called FREE SPACE equation in SJ. units for antennas ina lossefree medium. Writing eqn. 11.6 in an a ALT (0) Wee We (34) ww MAT (0) x ver in Watts Gr = Maximam cirectivity _ se, Wau; Wa,> Received Pow rhe : ee Ge en “rarity gain of reeiving antenna Jom wavelength in a & i . smaller the wale of received power f/eandd = distance in me shail tanger dnominato groan the 69" = [Ae Tris appareat ft Xp and hence we may descibe sane - a aNSONTMON TOSSES =p ge isinet trom as Paty ask inet fo ‘se spatial attenuation whi SHE gs ws eopesitin gait ee pe gp 11,7 i tho FSS ees er aya mt aiid Sled, Poe wat date ats referral ih oa af ureter espe vee veer dein ae seen eee! : SE cake) oF WCE). Now Ses, ifwe wish oP pm) : TOL a, we miust SEE fae Rey yatagne Ge +0 pal: 7 Sam, . TO Se glee oo ULB) fr———S_—e— ee —____ C > Gal) - £(5)} Fay = We(Bw) + Gre) o “ty o Wet 1) | «2 (ai sy eor(27] top| 4nd | | wih | Lsyas = BAS + Dlepes ~ HO eBed TE et ~; pansy ep ME at i in ‘This is obusined as follows. Noell, farther known that 3x18 (ms) 3x10 _ a= p> Fie) fx 10° (MH) o A= Fn) | ~My , Ss igh em! 2 9 x 10° 9 x 10" } 1 . 22 | = Gra | asx Gs baaaieee 10 3] (oes eA Le Hence expressing eqn. 11. 6 (3) into above mls, we have a6 ( 300 x 300 3 0 We _ GrGr x 0.05705 x 10 t (ash Expressing above power ratio in decibels, we get toes 1O logio Gr = 10 loge Ge + 10 logy 0.57 + 10 logia 10™*— 10 Iogiod — 10 ee = Gr) + Gx (db) + 10% 1.7559 — 10 X 3 logyo 10-102 loge d-2x 10g? = Gr( db) + Gr (a) + 3.5590 - 30.0000-20 loge d-2logief |» ~ SAW = Gp(2)+ Gr (db) - 3245-20 logied-20 logos +359 { =H =iMs Gr Gr (ay where | L(s)a = 3245 + 20 logied + 20loguy d in km and f in MHz. This is the loss in decibels, resulting from the spreading of th it cant ee ie . 1 our the source. (sis known a spatial aueruation or transmission path lace. at mierocave aguas OS __ Will be greater because af atmospheric absorption. Itmay be noted that decibels are defined in terms Cf " ratios as such, i is not correct to express logarithmic ratio of frequency and distance as decibels! expressions should always be written as 20 logrof or 20 logio d ere. ‘Often, it is required to know the electri ivi pit obuained as follows. By Poysting Th ae field strength of the wave at the receiving anven®s Tp, ExH ndor 26 eva dt + 120% | by eqn. 11.2 “ (HL) This is the fundame : ce-propagation conditon: Arete Bslves the field strength at the recelving antenna for free pelecve ate and ence open cca cts ere, hasan lec engi reg /ealopous we recelving antenna is given by Eqn, 11.11 is also written Bais Biv + sae (1112) Pe Sometimes in terms ofthe field surength > at unit distance fe. 1 km, Thus enter Ve] ww (11.13) SS Ws-Gr Vim | Putting eqn. 11.13 Into eqn, 11.11, we have p= WG - é. we 11.14 (a) or B= Bax Hd vm 1114) Further, Eqn. 11.11 is also written in an aliemative form when choice of reference having distance expressed In 1 km and transmitted power is 1 kW. Then . BOO fy = LOWEGE _ VW TOO XTX We _ 100 x VIR WE WE Vm d 1000 7000 = La 8 0.173 Vr v/m Eo & 173 VWr mv/m| if Wr = 1kW ine ‘Eo = 173 mv/m Hence, it can be written, in general, 08 173. Wr (AW) aus Ba(mV/m) = Ten) 1a, »AGATION .__ (AMIETE, Dec, 1992) 4 Manes one the transmitting antenna may reach tothe receiving antenna following any of the following modes of propagations depending upon several factors lke frequency of operation, distance between transmitting and receiving antennas lc, pmo. 11.4.1. Ground Wave or Surface Wave Propagation (Upto 2 Mis) “ (AMIET, May 1978, 77, 78,79, 93, Nov. 1977, 78, 1685, 1992) wave (someties also called as Norton's surface wave) is of practica) i ‘The ground wave sm sels Some for medium waves, long wavag and very long waves, The - eesiines at Broelchat oi {s guided along the surfuce of the carth, staan cecromagnet Jc wave ne 7a waveguide ov veartasion line Surfoco wave permis the propaga on around the Curvature Of the earth, io oe rag exist when the tasting and cel vy wnt as aro loss the surface gt a ae of, pean edge by the presence of the ground, The ground wave as being produced usually ipport : —_—$—‘ites ARTERTA [8 by vertical antennas, js vertically polarized 1, Eleciric field vectors: ofe.m, waves arc vertical yr2 40) shag : int of electric field in comtact with the earth is ston o Sree 1 ae erie ee can ts ange seas tavel with the wave and hence constitate a current, While carrying this induce current beeen inant just as a leaky capacitor and, therefore, he canh can be represented as a resittance in shart wig) apacitor. This behaviour of eanh as a conductor may be described in terms of conductivity ae dent constant When the surface wave glides over he surface of te earth energy is abstracted fom the mrtce wine ‘0 supply the losses in the canh. Thus while passing aver the surface of the earth, the surface wave 20405 tomy ofits energy by absorption, Energy lost so, is, however, replenished toa certain extent, by the: tan, downward from the upper portion of the wave front present some what above the immediate once nat earth. The ground wave, therefore, suffers varying amount of attenuation while propagating along the osrrasre of the earth, depending upon frequency, surface irregularities, permittivity and conductivity, Earth's tion increases as the frequency increases and hence the mode of propagation is suitable for low and aie, frequency i.e. upto 2 MHz only. At higher frequency, wave attenuation by ground is much moré than at low frequency over the same ground. Itis also called as medium wave propagation and is used invariably in keeat broadcasting. All the broadcast signals received during day time is due to ground wave propagation. In Fg, 11.5 path A, represents the ground or surface wave propagation. YOMOSPHERE PROPAGATION Ec __DIRECT WAVE sites Se noineet ia cy GLEs. ‘GROUND AP em as \, REFLECTED TRAMSMITTING wave, ANTERMA GROUND WavEoR SURFACE WAVE Tx = Transmitting antenna. Rx = Receiving antenna. Path A » Ground wave propagation. Path B = Sky or ionospheric propagation. W = Successive wave froms Pah C = Space wave propagation. A,A,A",A",A" = Tilt angles in increasing order Fig. 11.5. Possible propagation paths from Fig. 11.6.Tilling wave wave fronts in transmitting antenna to receiving antenna ground wave progagation. Besides ground attenuation, there is sil another way in which surface wave is atlenuated i. dt © diffraction and ttt in the wave front as illustrated in Fig. 11.6. As the wave progress over the curvature of 2 arth, the wave fronts stant gradually tilting more and more. This increase in the tilt of wave causes more sh Circuit ofthe electric field component and hence the field strength goes on reducing. Ulimatly, at 50% appreciable distance from the ransmiting antenna in wavelength, the surface wave dies because of e135 mentioned above. may be noted that maximum range of surface wave propagation depends not only onthe frequerey but power as well. Hence range of transmission can be incteased by increasing the power of the transmitter the VLF band but this method can not be effective al the MF band (higher side} where the dling dae diffraction is more effective. The field suength ata from the Maxwell eqns. as stance from the transmitting untenna due to ground wave has been calculat=dee ques ALI) ; 2 Voltemeter nero ate eid Anutinvig, + hem Bltoctive elie wf fe Antenna currents, Am wavelength, Impedlanen of free epice, F trnvivmliting and receiving AnKenNO® de di itmoweveebe danced cra un Ee sng an esi ol gna atmospheric absorptio ntteaion uy rg, the relucon Inthe fold strength duo 10 ground attentuation sees ines field strength than that shown by eu TG ee ee ee point lereases "Hie Acoonding to S § 10 Sommerfeld, the field strength for ground wave propagation for a tla earth Is given BY we (LIT) a where Eo = Ground wave ficld strength atthe surfaco of earth at unit distance from the transmitting antenna, Barth losses not accounted, E, = Ground wave field strength, A = Factor accounting for earth losses called atterntion fuctor. d = Distance from transmiting antenna expressed in the sams unit as Eo. Unit distance field strength Ey depends ypon (i) Power radiation of transmitting antenna, (i Directivity in vertical and horizontal planes. Ifthe antenna is non-directional inthe horizontal plane, producing. radiated field which 's propos tional o the cosine ofthe angle of elevation (as incase of short vertical antenna), then the lle unit distance {Ge Lk) fora radiated power of 1 KW is given by te general formula Bia 300.T Ey= oS vim = 2 7m = 300: mv/m wa LLU @) where P = radiatea power in kitoWatts and d= distance in kilometers. ‘This is because, for a short vertical unipole antentt (grounded antenna), the fleld strength Eo at a distance of d on a hypothetical flat perfectly conducting carth is By = OBE vots/metees P= radiated power in Watts d = distance in metres. (kw) and din kilometres (km), - SOE TOO ym we LAS (0) where and when ? is expressed in kilowals then eqn, 11,18 (d) reduced to | Sinco P= 1 kW = 1000 Wats a and d= tL km = 1000m a ie soe vem — ig expressed in aules, then 7 If is expres: . ce my/imiles = 186.45 mV/miles vv LLIB (b) E eSe_WAVE PROPER distance of 1 km and Ep WV, ro = 300 mv/m at 1 and By 7 (eg wil be proportional tothe square oo 7 ata aioe of ie Fr ater vale rae ee wih the ret In hart ae, ae cated shectnly when ie, eld isnot proportional 10 cosine a the angle . being effective power radiatd in KiloWat and athe Ain eqn 11:17 accountng for earth osses 10, depends 8” san @ frequency ji) dielectric cons Git) conductivity of the earth ; . Ais a complicated function of above foctors, expressed in terms of two auxiliary variables, y rumerical distance p and phase constant b. ; _ ‘These twoconstants p and bre determined by the frequency. distmncs on eee of ground considered as a conductor of radio frequency currents and are given as follows, haractersicy () For Vertically polarised wave. The reduction factor ‘Ais expressed in terms of two anrilisry parameters p and b. ‘The parameter p and b are related 3s Gye Thus for radiated power of | wanco in kilometers. The eduction fay pa cosd = ALID@, and b= ent(#54)- thd 11.190) My 4 and = 18x16 = 18x lote A = Gy mhos/em = “FMite) mhos/m ~ (129 (i) For horizontally polarized wave : The parameters p and b are given by (1121) (2) and (1.3) ‘th = Power factor angle of the impedance offered by the earth current. where f = frequency, in Hz. ” rote ow ot = the conductivity of the earth, in mhos/em. e = dielectric constant of the earth relative to air. 2. = wavelength in same unit as d, 11.4.2, The Ground wave Attenuation factor A. The ween distance und W \. relatic ri i“ phase constant b is shown in Fig. 11.7. The numerical distance er a and the i constants and the actual distance to the transmitter. It is proportional to the distance and the square of i Reon a eed almost invent fe ito ‘ground conductivity, The phase constant b is a measure . 1 The —— riuation factor A may be represented by following empirical forms Az—2+03p 2) 2+ p+ 06h aw——— ” ss . 24, 3-— ——— ‘The aust “alg |) AY Dateenesee mimi | <5 given by P ineaisgge | “rae Mate, Bey, atl «13.25 O08 Ob, the at Of A in Earth offers a resistive pe ti polarization and b = 1269 gop p "PAaren ty ge —— th cites polarization, The suygy gh el Galery A ae YO Fig 1 ys AU Bee chfeny ¢ EY OMTCAG wen bm 1) Log ° thorns tha Hi pac apr ee rial aide | - “10 “2 “s a “6 fale OTe tts ers o— Pig. 11.7. Shaws graph of the approsimate values of urd wen attenuation factor A against numerveal distance phased — Fit, N14, Varian eh yonid maenuston facor h wih onegn 124. aararical stance 9 for diferent aloes of. () Porp <1, The ground attenuation factor A differs only tighy fram onity xd redaces tomy withthe increags ofp. The ground lnses ae ten ea sii Frm ezy 1.17 canbe em Sate eld re vasies imverly with the distarce, Pomerat werent) ——e strength of the ground wave : . (i) Porp> 1. As the nuserical dimance p becomes preatet than cnity, the ecemaation larson A =e almentexecily ierenvely poporiceal wo acta pryscal attenuation (acter Ais fie Mb arength of the pred ane ie ively epee} 2 be of ie! (ii) For p » 10. The distance. Hence for p » 10, the the distance. earth (erp 11.25) prose wave sturmection facie c hese : aascensation factex A it The value of numerical ister t ity, Tie anal Pt . ignores the effect of diffraction 208 WOOT yg diane san shown in Fig, 14.7. This give 70. 1 hm 27 dno © BF OY. pe manior Gace is 125 kum to 90 kaa of sea) val iin othe TIP 5 ian i siete dha KO aad cael * - A hy panes 8 core ding 1a ft jan is ODD © ies Uo respeniding, ale sol “gis core scour great relative Ay gy of We sefined by ©Tn ZNTENRA & WAVE PROB;, (t= US . fr tant" = “Tao ~My with the auxiliary parameter for numerical distance reduced to . , 0.5824 - f cos bY * £ (1a where d isin km, is in MHz and o is in mS/m. . 1 ‘The expression for A is then changed to eqn. 11.26. These assumptions assume a Plane earth, ayer polarization and distances restricted t0 dass . The difference in above equations and equations shown eat is only of units. Sometimes, ground wave propagation is sub-divided into surface wave and space wave Propaga, tion following sommerfeld. According to him, space wave predominates at a larger distance above the ean, where as, the surface wave is the larger near the surface of the earth. 1143. Sky wave or lonospheric Wave Propagation. (Between 2 to 30 MHz), The sky waves an, of practical importance at medium and high frequencies (i.e. at medium waves and short waves) for very long distance radio communications. In this mode of propagation electromagnetic waves reach the receiving pois after reflection from the ionized region in the upper atmosphere called ionosphere-situated between 50 km.iy 400 km above earth surface-under favourable conditions. This is illustrated by the path (B) in Fig. 11.5. Tie ionosphere acts like a reflecting surface and is able to reflect back the electromagnetc waves of frequencies between 2 to 30 MHz. Electromagnetic waves of frequency more than 30 MHz are not reflected beck from the ionosphere rather they penetrate it. Mostly sky wave propagation is suitable for frequencies between? ip 30 Miz, so this mode of propagation is also called a: ‘Short wave propagaton’. Further, since sky wave propagation takes place after reflection from the ionosphere, so it is also called as ionospheric propagation, Since long distance point to point communication is possible with sky ‘wave propagation, so it is also called as point to point propagation or communication by engineers and scientists. Extremely long distance iz. round the globe communication is also possible with the multiple reflections of sky waves as shown in Fig 11.9. Ina single reflection from the ionosphere the radio waves cover a distance not more than 4000 km. ‘The signals received due to sky wave propagation are, however, subjected to fading in which signal strength varies with time. Itis because Fig. 11.9. Shows multiple reflections at the receiving point a large number of waves follow adifferent number "@dio waves free ionosphere. of paths. Hence provision has to be made to overcome the fading. 1144 Space wave propagation (above 30 MHz). The space wave propagation of practical importance at VHF bands (between to 30 MHz to 300 MHz), U.H.F. and microwaves and communications like televisions, radar, frequency modulations etc... utilize this mode of propagation, In this mode of Propagation, electromagnetic waves from the transmitting antenna reach the receiving antenna either directly oF after reflections from ground in the earth's troposphere region. Troposphere is that portion of the aunosphere which extends upto 16 km from the canh surface (Fig, 11.5, Path C). Space wave consists, of at Teast two components ¢.g. direct component and indirect i.e. ground reflected components. It means in the former, wave reaches directly from the transmitting antenna to receiving antenna and in latter, the wave reaches the receiving antenna after reflection from the ground, where the phase change of 180" is also introduced du to reflection at the ground, in the ground reflected wave. Although both the waves (direct and indirect) leave the transmitting antenna at the same time with the same phase bat may reach the receiving antenna either i phase or out of phase, because the two waves wravel differemt path lengths. The strength of the result waves thus, atthe reeaiving pointmay be stronger or weaker than thedirct path atone depending upon whe the two waves are adding or opposing in phase. At receiving point the signal strength is the vector addition ©WAVE PROPAGATION aia 5 sect and indirect Waves, Space wave dive propagates INDUBh troposphere, 1 wave propagati ‘nly i i Sree WANE eoea gat att in VHF, and higher frequencies because at such Feauerene aad ho ay be reflected from the cone ee 30 MHz sky wave fails as the wavelength Beer pis : a aa! ? ‘tno Tee ner ge tenn wave till. SP: ve propagation is also called as fin, vom because at VHF. rowave frequencies, this mode of propagation isliniled wo ei ot ‘ithcdisance and isalso vat A tice. wi ven slightly beyor Zande dt efron inthe moma of we can neo igt aan want sen $id receiving antenna can usually “see” each other, In fact, the line of sight distance i.e. range of com- munication can also be increased by increasing the heights of transmitting and receiving antennas as. ¥ illustrated in Fig. 11.10. The curvature of the earth and the height of the transmitting and receiving antennas determines maximum range of com- ‘monication through direct waves, Fig. 11.0. Directray propagation. In the Fig. 11.10, with the height of transmitting antenna, hy and receiving antenna h,, , the direct wave ‘communication range is TR. As the range is increased i.e. receiving antenna is moved away from R, a point is reached when the line of sight distance from T to S will just graze over the surface ofearth. Then 7S represents the maximum range of line of sight distance upto which communication is possible with the transmitting and receiving antennas of height A; and fy, This line of sight distance can still be increased if heights of either ‘antenna is increased further (say /3 ) point U which means the range has increased from TS to TU. Lastly, if the receiving antenna is moved to a distance which is not in the line of sight distance just like point V of the same height hr, then no direct wave signal reception is possible. In fact, the line of sight distance has now been extended by what is known as Space Communication or specially Satellite Communication which has facilitated trans-oceanic propagation of microwaves with the potentiality of large bandwidth. By space communication we mean the radio traffic between a ground station and satellite or space probe, between ‘satellites or space probes and also between ground stations itself via man ‘made communication satellites or natural space body (¢.g. the sun, the moon, the venus etc.) Propagation is also called as Tropaspheric propagation: because space fant 11.45. Tropospherie Scatter Propagation or Forward Scatter Propagation (UHF and Microwaves - above 300 MHz) (AMIETE, June 1974, 80, 91, 92, 93, Dec. $7, $9, $2) Forward scatter propagation or simply scatter propagation is of practical importance at VHF, UHE and microwsves, UEIE and microwaves signals were found to be propagated much teyond the line of sight Propagation through the forward scattering in the tropospheric iegularties. It uses certain properties of troposphere and is also known as Troposcatier as . ” lustrated in Fig, 11.11. This has also lead t0 the dis: ON _- siti region, thus, com ie raysand mete reat radiations UV) ye i » Aven the molecule donate one electron it possible to knock off on two clecuore cue which rcepe it becomes negatively CRIES ion, These ions noc tarps ion a ‘mol ci es, Further, elscteans can be knocked off becomes positively CoE equa or reeled vag such as ulia-vi0let and COSMIC TAyS. can easily be effect ctrons bl also by or aural fo ionization ns pressure is 10 notonly by i ie Lael te onl se yen UY and sami eays reach tho Upper atMasphere, ys resting wl ‘evo ioe and the sun fs const Tapas ar frequent collisions occur they eausea ange PPOPON irons and 2 as ce tine. Thus once a molecule unher, the 1085 Oe pe process eco? a deperds on many factors and one e recombine ecombiii eween them ily He gas i ae Lowe ‘of the earth atmosphere — isionized, does Not : yun oa for 2 Yuet CMe Besides the such i the average SHI’ cg pence Ak wet Meath stmosptere and so there is relatively collisions are verY greatly abs nltra-vioteveays trom neQA AE RG) OF Hale ionization in the to the earth's atmosphere and very litle ionization below about 59 the ouher hand, above "aa belgie of 400 ke ihe alr particles. present are so few that the ag ionization is again very low, However, considerable ionization (Le. lonosphere) exits in the Intermeg! height (Le. depween $0 km 10.400 km, and this region is, therefore, has the most influence on the hy ea Propagation, ak Since sky waves of different frequencies are found to return {0 carth from the different heights, j ‘means ionosphere is not having one but several layers, The different layers in the ionosphere APC UE 10 the fect thar different gases in the carth's almosphere ionized at different pressures ( i.e, different heights) ang there are different ionizing agents to do the ionization. ‘Thus due to different ionizing agents and different physical properties of the atmosphere at dtferey heights, the ionization in the ionosphere stratified and the levels at which the electron density Teaches maximum are called as layers. The number of layers, their heights and the amount of sky wave that can by bent by them, will vary from day to day, month to month and year to year. For each such layers there is g Stitical frequency, above which if a radio wave is sent vertically upward, will not return back to the earth buy will penetrate it, There are three principal layers during day time and are called £, Fy and F3 layers as shown in Fig. 11.13. Besides these regular layers, there is a region below E, called D region. This lies between $019 90 km and is responsible for much of the day time attenuation of high frequencies waves. During night the Fi and F layers combine and form one layer called F layer and D region vanishes altogether, Thus OUTER ATMOSPHERE G REGION Fig. 11.13. Typical height of ionospheric layers above earth. ir. the night only two principal layers exits ic. E and F layers. E layer is generally found at the 110 km but may vary between 90 km to 140 km. Similarly 2 lies at 220 km with little diurnal or seasonal variations. Fz layer is more variable having typical height range of 250—400 km, Now the characteristic of ann! F layers will be discussed. The name D, E, Fi ete. was allocated by Sir £, Appleton who did much of the work. So F layer is also known as ‘Appleton layer’ and E layer as ‘Kennelly Heaviside layer’ after the discovers. é| PPLETN LAYER) i BL —)eteencuuy nearsee) § taven Zl Teer fLetinow BSG tesa (b) night. \ fa) day. Fig. 1214. Electrons density variation during (a) day, (b) nightCHARACTERISTICS of po 16 Peg ane Sae ceases Different regions wi FERENT Ton1: it a 8 Will be discuss REGIONS 11.6.1, D-region, Sed one by on (AMIETE, D ie. . May 1973. 69, Nov: 1964) ais layer i present only durin ‘Hytest. This is due to the foetal MIETE Dee. 1989) BICC recombination increases resulting vanish; nishin, mxtnum at noon and its electron de does not have the well defined n ‘man, is ranging from 10" a. p-region is believed ee ese layer. to 10! per cubic centimeter. This D-rexion «gation i ionized by ; sprization is produced by Le (Lym 9” photo-ionizati pros. an hoto-ionizat i scp cyl iene photoionization of oxyge a ae etaatte st NO eight This en molecule (Op) atits first esun. A comprehensive view is that D-region iS ‘nization potential Tis not important from th \¢ HF comniunicati a 5 i oe | gio. very long waves) and LF signals (ic, Lon ication point of view but is capable of reflecting VLF signals critical frequency is about 100kHz butitean as me and absorbs to a certain extent MF and HF signals. [ts Spsorption. D-layer is also known as absot be observed by customary methods due to very high selective electrons in this region is not suffi jing layer for short wave signals (i.e. HF). Since the density of Ce while passing, Ted cient to effet appreciable bending of ratio “waves and hence they suffer atone mum in summer. THe i aviation of absorption iemanimum atthe noon and seasonal VaRUOE ; : nization aso increases with solar activity. Sometime jn electron density has been i “D' cars ye y betrved in lower ‘D" region which suggests “C-region” For range 50 km 10 7okm. 11.6.2 Normal E-region. (AMIETE, Dec. 1989) Esrogion (normal) lies 9s narrow layer ization jst above the D-region in he height ne of 90 to 140 km, having maximum at 110 Kr from the earth surface (Fig 11.13). Two Scientists A.E. Kennelly in (USA)and Oliver Heaviside Gn England) independently predicted 1502) thatthere must be densely ionized Tayer which acts as mirror for turning electromagnetic W ack to cath by refTection of if is expressed in per ci yess a i” wis 8) Ne rea frequen? of the ionosphere is alw’ is lower os are aut enc} wa density is higher and St he 0 means under such COM waves: transmit or bend the 730ANTENNA 8: WAVE Pig 4122 i ened! by the ordinary optical lay, ‘The bending of radio waves by the ionosphere is B via given by Vy. Sry, law, the angle of incidence (4) and refraction (r ) at any poin sind Me Sine — “th re angle of refraction will 60 On devin Si ionosphere, so sin # < sit 1 aoe i the normal as th wave wl comes rarer medium as illustrated in ig. uw a ‘ Hes layers : donosphere are of higher electron density i.e, Ng > Ns > Na > Ns > Na y ean, "ay Fig. 11.17. Refraction of radio waves in the ionosphere. will go on decreasing and decreasing ie. jin > {2 > [is > ja > Hs > ls. Thus a wave enters at £2y peng P will be deviating more and more and a point will reach where it travels parallel to carth (at Pp), Here te angle of refraction is 90* and the point Px is the highest pointin the ionosphere reached by the radio waye If a . be refractive index and Nm be the maximum electron density at the point Pm then eqn. 11.41 wil become meme sinr = sin 90° = 1 ...(1149 The point Pm, is usually called as point of reflection although itis actually a point of refraction. At this point total internal reflection takes place and the wave gets bent earthward and ultimately retums tocarh, Hence the rodio waves once enter at point P, leave the ionosphere at point Q after slight penetration in to the ionosphere and thus radio waves are reflected back to earth afier successive refraction in te ionosphere. Eqn. 11.42 suggests that smaller the angle of incidence (Zi), the smaller the refractive index ta which implies higher should be the electron. density needed to rewrn the radio wave towards the earth. Further, if angle of incidence reduces to zero i.e, for vertical incidence (27 = 0), then the refractive index alo becomes zero for reflection to take place and this Corresponds to maximum electron density of the layer and the frequency corresponds to critical frequency — the maximum frequency which can be reflected by a yet at vertical incidence. 11.7.3. Critical Frequency. (AMIETE, Dec. 1990, 84, 93, 1991, 1980, 72,71, May 1978, 76, 70, 69, 91, UPSCIES 1969) The critical frequency of an ionized layer of the ionosphere ig defined as the highest frequency whick can be reflected by a particular layer at vertical incidence, This highest frequency is called critical frequent? Jor that particular layer and it is different for differen layers. It is usually denoted by fy or fe. ids! frequency for the particular regular layer is Proportional to the square root Of the maximum electron densil? inthe layer as shown below. Fsom eqn. 11.40 and 11,41 we can write By definition, at vertical incidence Angle of incidence Zi = 0; N = Nyy, and f =f AS the angle of incidence go on decreasing and beaches to 2et0, (i.e. vertical incidence) tne clect™y WAVE PROPAGATION, poe. i creasing and reaches to gensity 800° . 10 maximum electron der cy that cart pe reflected back by the ionosphere is one for which iin i Nes ely a = snd _ 7 BN, iP sine = “Vt - =0 1144 (@) 1 = Bae fi or fe = VBI(Nm) Se = 9NNm is expressed in MHz and Nm in per cubic metre, Thus if the maximura electron density No frequency can be calculated by eqn, 11.44, Of course critical frequency is the highest which can be reflected by a panicular layer at vertical incidence but it is, no: the Highe-t which will get reflected for any other angle of incidence ‘The frequency that can be Te unction of angle of incidence (and i called maximum usabie frequency MUF (co be seen of or is knots where fe the critical frequency frequency from a layer isa next). ‘Thus critical frequency gives an idea that radio waves of frequency equal to or less frequency will certainly be reflected back by the ionospheric layer irrespective of the angle of incidence. ratio waves of frequency greater than critical frequency will also be vrriened 1o earth only when the angle suficienily glancing so that eqn. 11.42 is satisfied atthe frequen involved, otherwise the taiathcted back by 2 still higher layer. Thus for ofincidence (i) is ‘wave will penetrate the layer concerned. However, it may wave of frequency greater than critical frequency to be reflected, the condition is than the critical from eqn. 11.42 sini > Hn Bi Nm oi ~ (11.45) sini > Yt £ BINn Nne™ = Taefik .. (1146) fa” mae pike EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD ON IONOSPHERIC RADIO WAVE (AMIETE, May 1970, 16, 80, Dec. 1971, 76, 73, 1993} which isnot ionized is notaffected by the earths magnetic ‘electrons are set in motion by the electric field of force on the vibrating electrons producing twisting where 118, EFFECT OF THE PROPAGATION erode wave propagating in af abMmosPhere field, However, inthe ionized medium Le ionosphere the the radio wave and the earth’s ‘magnetic field, then, exerts effect on their paths. This reacts on the cident radio waves. / “Thos the earth magnetic Hci spuLs UP We incident radio waves into two components ¢-. the ordinary and the extra-ordinary waves. The Proper oft oiinany wave ars ashe waves wthous super posed magnetic field. ‘The fexura-ordinary wave is distinguishat hese ee ‘ unary sone only invabe upper. region of Fa layer or F layer. The two rayon enon ad "erie also i tee bs pos travel diecghy a e along hy ry an ee ay) have sie! poate sind ro. direction, The phenomenon of spliuing of wave by 0 emer Wy the earth's magnetic field is called as "Magneto ionic spl” TM pit ‘onthe magnitude of we magnetic fe er Oey the (72) by an amount approximately Pie 910 EOI Besides, spliving of incident wire a ory and enteecdia wa f, the electron motions follows an elliptical path Fig 11.18 (b) and the 00) 6 $ (a) () (c) Migh frequency > fy Critical frequency f = fy sow frequency f «fy where fy = Gyro-frequeney = Be ig, 11.18, Poth followed by an electron while vibrating under earth's magnetic fed_.. - 4 KANE HE LIE PLE pinay \ itaa ww iy »| etal /H, HE hs tell Hf ail titi wid #7 J il bat til {1 Wf {ail pW FONT bem ed EMT A welvh whet Why iA ifWlayt i mit wtp EMME hdl Wo Veen bi fikds Pf Or ‘Mt inet tot visited tay i didadion poottiltl ity eb? i WU caluetllly wig mi ey ‘ ws and Mote Mf teamnitvisity (Webet mhid vey j Hetnoe tthe presence af velltedent tee telewetivn idee en ae ” est Mbit 6 uy ae be b= f we L mholi2 6 2) Wi whine = collision freyueny For n piven frequency (, the mixiaiutn vale: Of conductivity 6 9AM Oc6at when Oy % Pewee tow ty inelastic collisions of electrons, Ihe lonusphere Hit only has edeced (shtactinss mer test sat. gon 0 eto conductivity which gives loss of energy, The collision fequency is a fate tion of heiaie ae x Segond on Se thermal agitation and gay pressure, AL geoat helglis where v ts sinill aid 1 << ai, the COnMictivity becomes aegtiggity onal at effective dielectric constant /.¢, refractive index will be given ty eqn. IAG ey. [sf ito) | on we other hand, at low helght v >> 0, the conductivity again becomes segligihhy small’ st reduction of dielectric constant approaches zer, ‘The effects at the low heighes are forter sngmemet by the fact that NV decreases rapidly at low heights Le, below 90 kin. the result 19 thee de orpan of high conductivity and hence high absorption or loss ls confined lo a relatively thin tajer ware where the upper part of D reglan and lower part of E-reglon (Le. at d helght about 70 ke to ware shan V7 toms Sure day hours 11.12, DEFINITIONS The terminology around ionosphere und sky wave propagation which has developed will be Siscassect now. The important being virtual height, MUR, skip distance, L.U.F., 0.7.8. etc. 11121. Viral Height, (AMIETE, June 1983 92, Dec 1997, 9b. UPSC LES PA Can be understood with help of diagram drawn in Fig. 11.20, Fig. shows that as the wave is tac from the layer, itis bent down gendually suther sharply. The actual path Of the wave ta the ionized lxzer & & curveand is duc to the refraction of the wave, as lappens in case of refraction from the praca. Since its amoe vow think of the wave bein, nient (© ie cotN® eactod therefore, the path can be assumed sie ,fract 3 ines 1D and RD as shown in {i sent lines n metab exon is Made in Une measurements of the eine fours 25 ak sar pt r : an ve he height OD is called the virtual height ot u PAT con ac tn voce ofS ayer a8 itis MOK He Tue heigh. Th ine gee / HB A grea ie (Ot height shown in figure, Virtual height ip "™" ment NS righ han the irtual height is Le \ agra ays greater than the actual height. Y€ virwat , Fi oe ee then it is easy to calculate 7 i : sre angle of ee required for the wave to return cr ‘ i int, aia ‘earth at a des! pot lg. 11.20, Virtual and actual heights ofan lonised Layer Virtwal height of an ionospheric layer may be . sntvericaly wpwardand travelling with he ‘pect oflgheaaid ei fo witch ashen pain ee sents whe actual pulse refleced from the layer. Inthe shi the se 0 na os vr yandreceiving point (R ) are usuall In the measurement of virtual heights the transmiting pont ly placed very close together so that the wave sentnearly vertically upward. ‘The commonest method of virtual height measurement is that in which the transmitted signal consists of pulses of RF energy ‘of short duration. The receiver which is located close ta the transmitter, picks UP both the direct and the reflected signals. The spacing between these signals on the time axis of C.R.O. gives measurementof the heightof the Jayer. Theactual height ( h) isless than virtual height because the interchange of energy takes place between the wave and the electrons of the ionosphere causes the velocity of the propagation to be reduced. ° sat height detereination JO curved earth. hi (vie mv rene tae A. i ed, and it is very useful in ig i Laven wv of Oe or, a mosphere conditions re ml Daal he ial i Fra asamp? on Mange TR is ~Mained from the transmission-path-caleulaton Fer tat 0 " symmetrical for the incide Fig. 11.21 (@) (a) Virtual height a , fh Toe ene I= : ANTENNA 5A gy te on " Te ing 8? y an ‘ May Whon curvature earth is acvounted for, then the tnaniasion path ists nay hy ang hy f Cie the gromotry of he Mig, E121 ()) Heo A TOD Mg mind win (ms) nln KT (RV) URN sind sino eMC 1) sly ™ “RRA A = Tdi OF th omth 67) jy But ZOD en ZU 0) o teeter) “ iva-0] (UL ‘Hence, patting this in above eqn,, wo gel sino. 0) a= 2) oes of since = 0) = 7 a1 ( Ren 0. o a= 08 sit (iF) Further, from Fig, 11.21 (b) 9 = ae B or a= 99" = fs (U8) Hence, putting thia in equ. 11,81 In terms of angle of elevation 0, can be weltten na 0» (90 =f) = sin"! (ame) (90 = By = ane! (os a om radians . wa (18D) Now we know that Anglo = 5M and 0 Auto . Bf “P, Aus er ee YT | where isin 0 Bo BRO 2 | (= By = she (E4)] cakes us ant Measurement of vir ent knot H helgh ally eastied out by mena of wn Mise ihe ; ° ve wi JONOSONDE, ‘The basic nhethosl ito tranait vertically upward a se Sox ho 88 ton of about 150 micro-seconds, The teflected signal by received chase to the taismaisston POM time T required for the p bs measured, The vittual height ix then given by qua @ Vietnal height S where © velocity of light, in mae 41x 10" metres /aee iapie. Ware PROPAGATION = ae —— The ionosonde Will hays facilities op the eutioy frequency Ringe, Lypleally, itw Yate to 20 MBA io J minates, will algy iM somatic plotting of virtual height Aoi of aul ant graph is known as an JONOGRA yo vel IM shown Wing. U2. fm y Ge Tho ionogram shows Ovo critical treques fabs and fr Pr These two eritionl frequencies aie &” oniinary ray denoted by fy Fa and for the oxtm-onlinary ray «= — . agnotel by fi F2. The development of two components of the Gaur ane renee selative permittivity of the ionized layer js due 0 earth's re magnetic field , The occurrence of two etitical frequencies are Pig. 11.22, fonogram only for Fy layer. 1112.2 Maximum Usable Frequency (MUR) (AMIETE, May 1993, 92, 78,77, 76,75, 68, Nov. 1966, 68 69, 87, 89, 91, 92 Critical frequency is the maximum frequency of the radio wave which is returned from u ionizedt layer a vertical incidence, However, when the frequency of rutio wave exceeds the cect frequency, then Uke influence of the ionospheric layer on tho path of propagation (ie, communication) depends on the angle of maximum possible value of frequency for which reflection rakes place for a given distance of propagation. is called as the maximum usable frequency (MUF) for that distance, and for the siven ionospheric layer. the ‘wave frequency is higher than this then the wave penetrates the ionized layer and does not reflet back. ts the ‘arth. Stating in another way MUF can also be defined as she frequency which makes a given receiving point sprrespends (0 a distance from the transmitter equal to the skip distance. Still another way of saying MUF is: that MUF is the highest frequency which can be used for sky wave communication between two given points cathe earth. This implies that maximuun usable frequency isthe highest frequency which -an be used for shy wave communication benveen two given points on the earth and there is different value of MUF for each pair points on the globe, Normal value of MUF vary from 8 MHz. 10 35 MHz. However, after unusual solar activity it may be igh as 50 MHz. A¢ the same time the highest working frequency between pwo particular Points on the earth is obviously a bit less that MUF, For a sky wave to retum to carth, angle of refraction i, Zr = 90°, which implies Y= Nas and J fas i.e. the maximum frequency — BlNe | Applying the condition of MUT Sout or 1 - Sts | Bu 2 = 81m Sou Ope niles siné = ae aS (11.86) or Lo. 1 = sin?i = cost 11.87 (a) Pa Baa fe si = ELE OY) (ere eers eget | by a factorsec u ‘This shows that mug for layer orOi ANTENNA & Ta Tks is known as SECANT LAW and gives the maxiruum frequency which can be us, - ed for communication fora given angle of incidence (i) between bxo points On the earth. Thisequation canis” ae safely upto.a distance of 1000km, However, as the distance between two points (Le. transmitting ang Pt is increased a limit occurs due to the curvature of the earth (Fig. 11.23) where the path of the waye Pia 10 the surface of the earth at these two points. The angle (i) corresponding lo this limiting distance 74" for F-layer. Hence maximum usable frequency for this case is given by Sabo foot = S00 T4 + fo 3 Jorn She ~- (1g, The frequency given by eqn. 11.88 is the maximum frequency which can be reflected fy, LOMOSPHE RIC Caves Fig. 11.23. Max. axgle of incidence of awave on the Fig. 11.24, Reflection from a thin layer on fst exe 11.123. Calculation of MUF. Case I. Thin Layer (or Flat Earth). The ionized layer may be assumed to be thin layer with sharp ionization density gradient, which gives mirror like reflection of radio waves as shown in Fig. 11.24, Forthe shorter distance of communication (Say upto 500 km) the earth can be assumed to be flat. From the Fig. 11.24, = (1189) where A = height of layer and D = propagation distance AC. ‘The maximum usable frequency for which the wave is to be reflected from the layer for rewming ® earth, f = fu, Sinr = 90° and N = Nq. Hence from eqn. 11.89 inte 1 Me "3 where fe = rita fregeea w= sini = 1-8 fi | snd mg tinge? cosi- 48 from eqn. 11.87 (a) andoga. 1S Tees p? 908) fag TD ait fia, 41 + DP by cross multiplying or res8t or po aR fot or aum usable ms of critical frequency (f- ), proy le frequency in temp of layer hand can be evaluated ite stance Dang Case Il. Thin Layer (Curved Barth)" (AMIETE, If the curvature of arth is wer oS eNOv 1969 reflecting region is considered to be cone: into account, the , nt frussated it Fig. 11.25 where onsmited wave hat transmitter tangentially to the carth, Let 2 fubstended by the transmission distance D 28 be the angle the centre of the carth . ig. 11.25, Reflection from asthin ionospheric layer rhea ‘but on curved earth accouting its curvature. Angle = —Ate ee Ri or D (1191) Now AT = RsinO; OT-= Rcos0 é BT = OE + EB - OT =h+R - Roos and AB = VAT? + BF = VR sino)? + (h + R - Reosy , BT h+ R- Roos Hence SOB (Rsin8 + (h + R-~ Reos0y , (a4 R - Roos8 i (11.92) or cot ea + (+ R - Reawoy = By egn. 11.87 (a) (A+R - Roos) 192) 2,-f- cost = 2” (sino + (he R - ReosOy ‘The curvature of earth limits both the MUF ‘and the skip distance D and the limit is obtained when i ing angle (implies OAB = 9"). | ; ; waves leave the transmitter at grazing ant sca ty is maximum, (i.e. MaX- Thus when D is oa__R (11.93) cos@ = Op = R+h wall 50 eqn. 11.93 can be expanded tual value of © is very sn ay R_e(i+t cos = (+8) R\it+ -} ~ 4 <«t (11.94) However act == (11.95) or from eqn. 11.95bn C196) Hence from eqn. 11.94 DB is coo (1 and as 0 is small (197 and sind = from eqn. 11.91 ~~ (11.93) Putting eons, 11,97 and 11,98 in eqn, 11.92, we get 2 a zy a. {rva-afr-Z)} _ (n+ ie Cora > ey 2 a DP PW 2.1.2 {e:Bee[erene 1-2} Btn a (Smug max = fe V At az (11.99) 8R Y and from eqn. 11.96 [CBs om = WERE] ollie As D is nothing but skip distance Dp a or paa[a+ 2 (4 -1 = 11,1000) 11.124. Transmission Curve Method of determination of MUF (AMIETE, Nov. 1988) ‘This method is a graphical method ulilized by Central Radio Propagation Laboratory (CRPL) Nationa! ‘Surea of Standards (America) and hence also known as CRPL method. In this experimental (’ —f) curve is utilized for determination of MUF, in terms of virtual height A’ rather than actual or tue height A. A” ~ curve is also known as "Transmission Curve". If h is replaced 4’ in equations of thin layer formulae, (say Eqn. 11,90), then it is equally applicable for thick layer case also in which gradual bending of radio wave in he ionospheric layer is involved Fig. 11.24), Thus from Eqns. 11.89 and 11.87 (b), we have ” = ‘it Sy = Sood fe o- H87 00) where A’ = virtwal or apparent height; ¢ = Angle of incidence and f. = Critical frequency. cost = 11.101)EER Now with the help of Eqn. 11.10 ote perce vital height A’ and cosi, fora ee 7 as wpean pe plowed. The curve is generally plotted on a ransparent scot cosi along x-axisona Eq “8 Fogarthmic scale and A’ along y-axes with inear scale a ¥ rine so oviained is given name uansmission q ‘4 iiagswngeny 4 5 Sine for given value of skip distance D as shown in i woh | we, z cat" 1.26 ovted) The scale of plot ofthis tansmis- §2 28h | 7ig Fig. [une is made identical with experimentally of woh 5 tained tf CUTVE. Inorder to determine the MUF of aie, E ee gular given path fora given ime, an experimen. Heel ry 5 lh - Sf) plot for that time at the place of reflection FREQUENCY (Mex) is taken. Now the transmission curve on on ie ranges ore given diane pled ve Paglia (Cteaal this experimentally obtain A’ — f) curve with their axes coincidis lided towards ri transmission curve just touches the experimental (h’ ~ tennant 1128 ‘Then the rae sev jsread from the frequency axis corresponding to.cos i = 1. Experimental (’ — "carve is shown with sold fines and the transmission curve with dotted line. 1113. LOWEST USABLE FREQUENCY (LUJLF. OR LUF. SIMPLY) “The absorption of an High frequency (HF) radio wave inthe region of theionasphet is proportional to the inverse square of the frequency. The: sensitivity of an HF receiver: ‘is normally limited by external nots which increases as the frequency is reduced. Hence there is a frequen mit below which the signal to poise wah falls in reach an acceptable value forthe service required. Ther fore, Lowest Usable Frequency (LUF). is dependent upon the engineering ‘characteristics of the link viz. transmitted power. In addition shcorption limitations, the signal can loose energy afer itiaas been transmitied by several other meclanism for example, (Free space propagation loss it. spatial spreading ofthe energy. the earth's magnetic field. (ji) Polarization change caused by (iii) Scatter processes. . vo “ i it ric curvature. (iv) Focusing and defocusing caused by ionospheric c ‘These processes omplicate the evaluation oI CRP performance ofibe cic ae Fora given distance of transmission and limited transmitter POWeh, ti lowest usable high freqeny i na > for sky wave propagation is limited mainly duc to following swoon (a) Sky wave absorption increases with decreasing frequency intensity for the lower frequencies. reducing the received Geld i ises it ith decreasing, cemade electrical noises increases Wu s seas also most of the mane sth lowering of transmuilley 0 teams na # AG inn Ea same on frequency in the a wees where tHE received noise fic frequency 2 situation siuenell ve ion in a given path, the intensity. F uency for sky wae propagation orn 5 i missible fred fam the received SkY WH" ‘As tke MUF limits the highest iy. Far a tower freaien of ron a ied by absorption LUF gives the lowest Pl Te and no nth arly Timived by increased nots? OF lower signal gets lost in the backgroune Whereas at night, itis pam he nighttime ad further increases inthe Dlayer during day lel PO rch ihe he mel ate receiving Sit ah ihe eo dy to a on during SID's Te vale ue nthe given neers 1¢ estimated value of s!GENTA EWAVE PROPAGRTES, Nov. 1975, 82, 89, 99, 1975, 1992, 1994, Nov. | 89,90, 9), (AMIETE, May we pay. (2) 1983, Agra Univ. MSc, Phy 1934 Me ner near the carth's surface is quickly absorbed dug ki id losses and hence only hon disareecommunsaion inca ot ienly at elms cd grounder surface wave. Radio wave radiatcd atti ES et ‘Thus radio wave radiated atshalion, earth at all and hence escapes rather pen’ jbsorption by the i angle (ie ape temecn horizontal and high ange) just Brot enough one orion ye cai enler he lower layer, suer iteauation, be bent at the uPPe! which the first wave returns ip is eal the distance at which surface wave becomes negligible and the asian a wc te ie wove rt carth from the ionospheric layer, there is a zone which is not covered by any sae i js the ‘stip distance.” Although, it is more yh This is i ‘and the distance across it is the ‘s' " Altho\ SO ae ee scpiennce ‘som the cansmlter © the point where first sky wave is received, as range of surface wave is always small. Hence skip distance may be defined as. @ The minimum distance from the transmitter earth by the ionosphere. It is represented by D (ii) The minimum distance from the transmitter to a received, or Gi) The minimum distance within which a sky (iv) The minimum distance for which sky wave propagation just takes place and no sky wave propagation is possible for points nearer than this distance. ‘The higher the frequency, the higher the skip distance and for a frequency less than critical frequency of a layer skip distance is zero, As the frequency of a wave exceeds the critical frequency, the effect of the ionosphere depends upon the angle of incidence at the ionosphere as shown in Fig. 11.27 in which waves of different angle of incidence is shown. ‘As the angle of incidence at the ionosphere decreases, the distance from the transmitter, at which the ray returns to ground first decreases. This be- haviour continues until eventually an angle of incidence isreached at which the distance becomes minimum. The ‘minimum distance is called skip distance D (as with “pea zour 8 wave no, 2). With further decrease in angle of in- on eee idence, the wave penetrates the layer (as wave nos. 3 SxiP p1StAl ‘and 4) and does not return to earth. Infact, skip distance is the distance skipped! over by the sky wave. Fig. 11.27. Skip distance explantation. ‘This happens because (1) As the angle of incidence é is large (say for wave n te sini ¥ g1N | is satisfied with sinall electron density. This means jt is sli e i mes: dba ino the luger: Y. 4 is slightly less than unity and hence wave retums after Ba As ihe ange of incidence is fanhor decreased (Asin wave i Iso ( n no. 2) sin i f : , mmparatively mare. Hence the wave pene or ben i coors bi nee ade om 11.14, SKIP DISTANCE Radio wave radiated horizontally at which a sky wave of given frequency is returned to asin the Fig. 11.27, or point where sky wave of a given frequency is fr wave of given frequency fails to be reflected back, or ANGLE WITH WHICH the eqn,“GAGE PROPAGATION é . (e say when angle of incidence is smal Tiss} Lastly i enough 5 imum elecison density of the layer, then the w Bh 90 thet ft int can not be saisied even by ‘ save nox. 3 and 4). y ave penctrates (as the ‘The frequency which makes a given distance corresponds a tothe lance is the maximum usable we OO oe ip distance no signals would be heard unless geney for unose wo points. Ifa receiver is placed with the -- (11.102) 1118. OPTIMUM WORKING FREQUENCY (OWE) (AND DAY AND NIGHT FREQUENCY) (AMIETE, May, 1971, Dec. 1992) In practical radio communication, for satisfactory reception of signals at the receiving points, it is ‘essential that the frequency should be less than MUF and absorption of waves by the ionosphere be small. Due topresence of electrons (free) which give rise to certain conductivity and this effectis important at lower edge of the ionosphere. The absorption is dependent on the inverse square of the frequency. Thus highest possible frequency gives the strongest sky wave signal atthe receiver and hence it is preferred to work as closely as possible to the MUP, Optimum frequencies are selected from the predication of MUF based on a monthly average and in practice there is daily variations about 15% from this mean value. Hence, it is normal to usc: a frequency 85% of the predicated MUF. Therefore there is a frequency called optimum working frequency (O.WF.) or optimum traffic frequency (O.TF.) which is 50% to 85% of MUF is used to accommodate a number of channels ie OWF = 85% MUF. Since MUF for a particular location varies considerably with time of the day, from season 10 crease iN — owen cook REFLECTING Tien tent i Nemcat we Lower c0ce oF season and from months to months and accordingly yearealne hr vomen cote trenton the optimum working frequency also follow similar ove 70 ii i REcOMeINATION variations. However, in practice itis not possible to RECewelmano) ‘change the frequency of communication from hour to Tae ) hour. Therefore, for continusus communication, it ts air oustance_| necessary to use atleast two frequencies, one for day ‘gute estan | and the other for night. Even, sometimes @ third oom Frequency for iransition period is also used. In the ‘ight the vertical height of the ionospheric IAYT rye 1.28, crease in heightof Lier daring night ant hence the increases than in the day time and so the skip distance’ need of day anal night frequency. ‘00 increases as illustrated in Fig. 11.28 ; Since the wave of lower frequency is bent round more quickly than sane of Aigher frequency and Accordingly different frequencies are used for day, (higher frequency) and mie pra drat) working. Face ee rn nene the night dua 10 Increase (tN eee ee silt amt the night, is Cancelled by use af tower frequency. Typical trequencics [OF cay and ght ate 0.450 MELz and 5000 Miz respectively. The practical frequency for day time is selocted 15% 10 fi re a average of optimum frequency for entire of the day time. Practical frequencies for night and transition hours are also selected on, similar basis,