ASSOSA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DESIGN DTREAM

NAME; DEREJE TAMIRE ID, NO; 0443/08

SUBMITTED TO MR. SACHIN

Q.1 Discuss the various type of D.C Motors and control of D.C. motors. Write the application in
domestic use.

Direct current (DC) motors are used in a large number of mechatronic designs because of the
torque-speed characteristics achievable with different electrical configurations. DC motor speeds
can be smoothly controlled and in most cases are reversible. Since DC motors have a high ratio of
torque to rotor inertia, they can respond quickly. Also, dynamic braking, where motorgenerated
energy is fed to a resistor dissipater, and regenerative braking, where motorgenerated energy is
fed back to the DC power supply, can be implemented in applications where quick stops and high
efficiency are desired.
Figure 1.1 illustrates a typical torque-speed curve that displays the torques a motor can provide
at different speeds at rated voltage. For a given torque provided by the motor, the currenttorque
curve can be used to determine the amount of current required when rated voltage is applied. As
a general rule of thumb, motors deliver large torques at low speeds, and large torque’s imply large
motor currents. The starting torque or stall torque Ts is the maximum torque the motor can
produce, at zero speed, associated with starting or overloading the motor. The no-load speed _max
is the maximum sustained speed the motor can attain. This speed can be reached only when no
load or torque is applied to the motor (i.e., only when it is free running). Based on how the stator
magnetic fields are created, DC motors are classified into four categories: permanent magnet,
shunt wound, series wound, and compound wound. The electrical schematics, torque-speed
curves, and current-torque curves for each configuration are illustrated in Figures 1.2 through 1.5.
In the figures, V is the DC voltage supply, IA is the current in the rotor (armature) windings, IF is
the current in the stator (field) windings, and IL is the total load current delivered by the DC supply.
The stator fields in permanent magnet (PM) motors (see Figure 1.2 ) are provided by permanent
magnets, which require no external power source and therefore produce no I2R heating. A PM
motor is lighter and smaller than other, equivalent DC motors because the field strength of
permanent magnets is high. PM motors are easily reversed by switching the direction of the applied
voltage, because the current and field change direction only in the rotor. The PM motor is ideal in
control applications because of the linearity of its torque-speed relation. The design of a controller
is always easier when the actuator is linear since the system analysis is greatly simplified.
When a motor is used in a position or speed control application with sensor feedback to a
controller, it is referred to as a servomotor. PM motors are used only in low-power applications
since their rated power is usually limited to 5 hp (3728 W) or less, with fractional horsepower
ratings being more common. PM DC motors can be brushed, brushless, or stepper motors. Shunt
motors (see Figure 1.3 ) have armature and field windings connected in parallel, which are
powered by the same supply. The total load current is the sum of the armature and field currents.
Shunt motors exhibit nearly constant speed over a large range of loading, have starting torques
about 1.5 times the rated operating torque, have the lowest starting torque of any of the DC motors,
and can be economically converted to allow adjustable speed by placing a potentiometer in series
with the field windings.
Series motors (see Figure 1.4 ) have armature and field windings connected in series so the
armature and field currents are equal. Series motors exhibit very high starting torques, highly
variable speed depending on load, and very high speed when the load is small. In fact, large series
motors can fail catastrophically when they are suddenly unloaded (e.g., in a belt drive application
when the belt fails) due to dynamic forces at high speeds. This is called run-away. As long as the
motor remains loaded, this poses no problem. The torque-speed curve for a series motor is
hyperbolic in shape, implying an inverse relationship between torque and speed and nearly
constant power over a wide range.

Fig. 1.1 Motor torque speed curve.

Fig. 1.2 DC permanent magnet motor schematic and torque-speed curve.

Fig. 1.3 DC shunt motor schematic and torque-speed curve.

 Fig. 1.4 DC series motor schematic and torque-speed curve.

Compound motors (see Figure 1.5 ) include both shunt and series field windings, resulting in
combined characteristics of both shunt and series motors. Part of the load current passes through
both the armature and series windings, and the remaining load current passes through the shunt
windings only. The maximum speed of a compound motor is limited, unlike a series motor, but its
speed regulation is not as good as with a shunt motor. The torque produced by compound motors
is somewhat lower than that of series motors of similar size.

Fig. 1.5 DC compound motor schematic and torque-speed curve.

Note that, unlike the permanent magnet motor, when voltage polarity for a shunt, series, or
compound DC motor is changed, the direction of rotation does not change (i.e., these motors are
not reversible). The reason for this is that the polarity of both the stator and rotor changes because
the field and armature windings are excited by the same source. Q.2 Describe the different logic
functions and their performance.

1. Logic AND Function

The Logic AND Function output is only true when all of its inputs are true, otherwise the output is false

The Logic AND Function function states that two or more events must occur together and at the same time
for an output action to occur. The order in which these actions occur is unimportant as it does not affect
the final result. For example, A & B = B & A. In Boolean algebra the Logic AND Function follows the
Commutative Law which allows a change in position of either variable.
Switch Representation of the AND Function

2. Logic OR Function
The Logic OR Function function states that an output action will become TRUE if either one “OR” more
events are TRUE, but the order at which they occur is unimportant as it does not affect the final result.

For example, A + B = B + A. In Boolean algebra the Logic OR Function follows the Commutative Law
the same as for the logic AND function, allowing a change in position of either variable.

Switch Representation of the OR Function

3. Logic NOT Function
The Logic NOT Function output is true when its single input is false, and false when its single input is true

The “logic NOT function” is so called because its output state is NOT the same as its input state with its
Boolean Expression generally denoted by a bar or overline ( ¯ ) over its input symbol which denotes the
inversion operation, (hence its name as an inverter).
As NOT gates perform the logic INVERT or COMPLEMENTATION function they are more commonly
known as Inverters because they invert the signal. In logic circuits this negation can be represented by a
normally closed switch.

Switch Representation of the NOT Function

If A means that the switch is closed, then NOT A or simply A says that the switch is NOT closed or in
other words, it is open. The logic NOT function has a single input and a single output as shown.

4.Logic NAND Function

The Logic NAND Function output is only false when all of its inputs are true, otherwise the output is
always true
The NAND or “Not AND” function is a combination of the two separate logical functions, the AND
function and the NOT function in series. The logic NAND function can be expressed by the Boolean
expression of, A.B

The Logic NAND Function will not produce an output when “ALL” of its inputs are present and in
Boolean Algebra terms the output will be FALSE only when all of its inputs are TRUE.

Switch Representation of the NAND Function

The truth table for the NAND function is the opposite of that for the previous AND function because the
NAND gate performs the reverse operation of the AND gate. In other words, the NAND gate is the
complement of the basic AND gate. NAND Function Truth Table
5. Logic NOR Function
The Logic NOR Function output is only true when all of its inputs are false, otherwise the output
is always false

he NOR or “Not OR” gate is also a combination of two separate logic functions, Not and OR
connected together to form a single logic function which is the same as the OR function except
that the output is inverted.

To create a NOR gate, the OR function and the NOT function are connected together in series with
its operation given by the Boolean expression as, A + B
The Logic NOR Function only produces and output when “ALL” of its inputs are not present and
in Boolean Algebra terms the output will be TRUE only when all of its inputs are FALSE.
Switch Representation of the NOR Function

NOR Function Truth Table

The NOR Function is sometimes known as the Pierce Function and is denoted by a downwards
arrow operator as shown, A NOR B = A↓B.
Q.3 Explain the architecture of a PLC with a suitable block diagram. Mention three industrial
application.

Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are specialized industrial devices for interfacing to and
controlling analog and digital devices. They are designed with a small instruction set suitable for
industrial control applications. They are usually programmed with ladder logic, which is a
graphical method of laying out the connectivity and logic between system inputs and outputs.
PLCs are designed with industrial control and industrial environments specifically in mind.
Therefore, in addition to being flexible and easy to program, they are robust and relatively immune
to external interference.
The symbols, notation, and basic constructs used to define and create ladder logic diagrams are
shown in Figure 3.1 . Programming a PLC is a simple matter of constructing a diagram like this
by interactively dragging and dropping components in a graphical user interface provided by the
manufacturers. Referring to the figure,
 Fig. 3.1 Ladder logic symbols and basic functions .

the rails on the ladder represent power (on the left) and ground (on the right), and the rungs
represent current-flow paths (from left to right) to output devices. An input is typically a switch
or proximity sensor that is represented by a normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC) relay
symbol. Inputs can be arranged in series and parallel configurations in a rung to represent various
logic functions. An output is included on the right side of a rung, and it is energized when the
input relays on the left side of the rung result in a closed circuit. An output can be a motor, heater,
lamp, solenoid, or other controlled device. An output state can also be used as an input relay to
control other rungs in the ladder. Special features such as timers and counters are also available to
create sequencing, stopping, and restarting of a series of events.
In Figure 3.1 output O 1 is energized only while No input I 1 is closed. I 2 is an NC input, and
output O 2 is off when I 2 is open. Output O 3 is energized only while NO input I 3 is closed or
NO input I 4 is closed. Output O 4 is energized only while NO input I 5 is closed and NO input I
6 is closed. The O 5 rung is called a latching circuit.
It is triggered (i.e., O5 is energized) when NO input I 7 is closed. Also, once triggered, the output
remains energized, even if input I 7 returns to the open state, until NC input I 8 opens. This is
accomplished by using the output signal as an additional input (called an output relay ) OR’d with
the trigger input I 7 . The term latch is used because the output’s ON state is maintained (stored)
until it is reset by a second input ( I 8). The last two rungs show how a timer is used. When NO
input I 9 closes, a timer is started. When the timer reaches a preprogrammed period, the timer input
closes, energizing output O 6.
Q.4 With a help of block diagram, explain digital, logic control.

Digital circuits are composed of logic gates, such as elementary electronic circuits operating in
only two states. These gates operate in such a way that the resulting logical value corresponds to
the resulting value of the Boolean algebra statements. This means that with the help of gates we
can realize every logical and arithmetical operation. These operations are performed in
combinational circuits for which the resulting value is dependent only on the actual state of the
inputs variables. Of course, logic gates are not enough for automata construction. For creating an
automaton, we also need some memory elements in which we capture the responses of the
arithmetical and logical blocks. A typical scheme of a digital finite state automaton is given in
Figure 4.1. The automata can be constructed from standard ICs containing logic gates, more
complex combinational logic blocks and registers, counters, memories, and other standard
sequential ICs assembled on a printed circuit board. Another possibility is to use application
specific integrated circuits (ASIC), either programmable or full custom, for a more advanced
design. This approach is suitable for designs where fast hardware solutions are preferred. Another
possibility is to use microcontrollers that are designed to serve as universal automata, which
function can be specified by memory programming. Digital integrated circuits are designed to be
universal and are produced in large numbers. Modern integrated circuits have many upgraded
features from earlier designs, which allow for “user-friendlier” access and control. As the
parameters of Integrated circuits (ICs) influence not only the individually designed IC, but all the
circuits that must cooperate with it, a roadmap of the future development of IC technology is
updated every year. From this roadmap we can estimate future parameters of the ICs, and adapt
our designs to future demands. The relative growth of the number of integrated transistors on a
chip is relatively stable. In the case of memory elements, it is equal to approximately 1.5 times the
current amount. In the case of other digital ICs, it is equal to approximately 1.35 times the current
amount.

Fig. 4.1 A finite state automaton: X —input binary vector, Y —output binary vector, Q —internal state
vector.
Q.5 Enumerate the difference between a PLC and a personal computer (PC).

Q.6 What are the benefits of Mechatronics in industry? Mention application defense.

The benefits of mechatronics are numerous and involve those that concern multi domain (mixed)
systems and particularly electromechanical systems. These applications may involve 1.
Modifications and improvements to conventional designs by using a mechatronic approach
2. Development and implementation of original and innovative mechatronic systems
In either category, the applications will employ sensing, actuation, control, signal conditioning,
component interconnection and interfacing, and communication, generally using tools of
mechanical, electrical and electronic, computer, and control engineering. Some important areas of
application are indicated in the following text.
Transportation is a broad area where mechatronic engineering has numerous applications. In
ground transportation in particular, automobiles, trains, and automated transit systems use
mechatronic devices. They include airbag deployment systems, antilock braking systems (ABS),
cruise control systems, active suspension systems, and various devices for monitoring, toll
collection, navigation, warning, and control in intelligent vehicular highway systems (IVHS). In
air transportation, modern aircraft designs with advanced materials, structures, electronics, and
control benefit from the concurrent and integrated approach of mechatronics to develop improved
designs of flight simulators, flight control systems, navigation systems, landing gear mechanisms,
traveler comfort aids, etc.
Manufacturing and production engineering is another broad field that uses mechatronic
technologies and systems. Factory robots (for welding, spray painting, assembly, inspection, and
so on), automated guided vehicles (AGVs), modern computer-numerical control (CNC) machine
tools, machining centers, rapid (and virtual) prototyping systems, and micromachining systems
are examples of mechatronic applications. High-precision motion control is particularly important
in these applications. In medical and healthcare applications, robotic technologies for examination,
surgery, rehabilitation, drug dispensing, and general patient care are being developed and used.
Mechatronic technologies are being applied for patient transit devices, various diagnostic probes
and scanners, beds, and exercise machines.
In a modern office environment, automated filing systems, multifunctional copying machines
(copying, scanning, printing, FAX, and so on), food dispensers, multimedia presentation and
meeting rooms, and climate control systems incorporate mechatronic technologies.
In household applications, home security systems with robots, vacuum cleaners with robots,
washers, dryers, dishwashers, garage door openers, and entertainment centers use mechatronic
devices and technologies.
In the computer industry, hard disk drives (HDD), disk retrieval, access and ejection devices, and
other electromechanical components can considerably benefit from mechatronics. The impact
goes further because digital computers are integrated into a vast variety of other devices and
applications. In civil engineering applications, cranes, excavators, and other machinery for
building, earth removal, mixing, and so on will improve their performance by adopting a
mechatronic design approach. In space applications, mobile robots such as NASA’s Mars
exploration Rover, space-station robots, and space vehicles are fundamentally mechatronic
systems. It is to be noted that there is no end to the type of devices and applications that can
incorporate mechatronics. In view of this, the traditional boundaries between engineering
disciplines will become increasingly fuzzy, and the field of mechatronics will grow and evolve
further through such merging of disciplines.

Q7. What are position sensors? Explain the working of hall effect sensors and mention the
advantages of it.
A position sensor is a sensor that facilitates measurement of mechanical position. A position sensor may
indicate absolute position (location) or relative position (displacement), in terms of linear travel, rotational
angle, or three-dimensional space.

Linear and rotational position sensors are two of the most fundamental of all measurements used
in a typical mechatronics system. In general, the position sensors produce an electrical output
that is proportional to the displacement they experience. The most common type position sensors
are listed in Table 9.1.

• Capacitive displacement sensor

• Eddy-current sensor
• Hall effect sensor
• Inductive sensor
• Laser Doppler vibrometer (optical)
• Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
• Photodiode array

• Piezo-electric transducer (piezo-electric) Position encoders: o Absolute encoder o

Incremental encoder o Linear encoder o Rotary encoder
• Potentiometer
• Proximity sensor (optical)
• String potentiometer (also known as string pot., string encoder, cable position transducer)
• Ultrasonic sensor

Hall effect sensor

A Hall effect sensor is a device that is used to measure the magnitude of a magnetic field. Its
output voltage is directly proportional to the magnetic field strength through it.
Hall effect sensors are used for proximity sensing, positioning, speed detection, and current
sensing applications.[1]
Frequently, a Hall sensor is combined with threshold detection so that it acts as and is called a
switch. Commonly seen in industrial applications such as the pictured pneumatic cylinder, they
are also used in consumer equipment; for example some computer printers use them to detect
missing paper and open covers. They can also be used in computer keyboards, an application that
requires ultra-high reliability. Another use of a Hall Sensor is in the creation of MIDI organ
pedal-boards, where the movement of a 'key' on the pedal-board is translated as an on/off switch
via Hall Sensors.
Hall sensors are commonly used to time the speed of wheels and shafts, such as for internal
combustion engine ignition timing, tachometers and anti-lock braking systems. They are used in
brushless DC electric motors to detect the position of the permanent magnet. In the pictured
wheel with two equally spaced magnets, the voltage from the sensor will peak twice for each
revolution. This arrangement is commonly used to regulate the speed of disk drives.

A wheel containing two magnets passing by a Hall effect sensor

The magnetic piston (1) in this pneumatic cylinder will cause the Hall effect sensors (2 and 3) mounted on its
outer wall to activate when it is fully retracted or extended.

Engine fan with Hall effect sensor

Commonly used circuit symbol

Working principle
In a Hall effect sensor, a thin strip of metal has a current applied along it. In the presence of a
magnetic field, the electrons in the metal strip are deflected toward one edge, producing a
voltage gradient across the short side of the strip (perpendicular to the feed current). Hall effect
sensors have an advantage over inductive sensors in that, while inductive sensors respond to a
changing magnetic field which induces current in a coil of wire and produces voltage at its
output, Hall effect sensors can detect static (non-changing) magnetic fields.
In its simplest form, the sensor operates as an analog transducer, directly returning a voltage.
With a known magnetic field, its distance from the Hall plate can be determined. Using groups of
sensors, the relative position of the magnet can be deduced.
When a beam of charged particles passes through a magnetic field, forces act on the particles and
the beam is deflected from a straight path. The flow of electrons through a conductor form a
beam of charged carriers. When an conductor is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the
direction of the electrons, they will be deflected from a straight path. As a consequence, one
plane of the conductor will become negatively charged and the opposite side will become
positively charged. The voltage between these planes is called the Hall voltage.
When the force on the charged particles from the electric field balances the force produced by the
magnetic field, the separation of them will stop. If the current is not changing, then the Hall
voltage is a measure of the magnetic flux density. Basically, there are two kinds of Hall effect
sensors: linear, which means the output of voltage linearly depends on magnetic flux density;
and threshold, which means there will be a sharp decrease of output voltage at each magnetic
flux density. This experiment was the one to demonstrate that there are only negative charges
free to move in a conductor. Before this, it was believed that positive charges move in a current
carrying conductor. This experiment is known as the Hall Experiment.

Advantages

A Hall effect sensor may operate as an electronic switch.

• Such a switch costs less than a mechanical switch and is much more reliable.
• It can be operated at higher frequencies than a mechanical switch.
• It does not suffer from contact bounce because a solid state switch with hysteresis is used rather than a
mechanical contact.
• It will not be affected by environmental contaminants since the sensor is in a sealed package. Therefore, it
can be used under severe conditions.
In the case of linear sensor (for the magnetic field strength measurements), a Hall effect sensor:

• can measure a wide range of magnetic fields

• is available that can measure either North or South pole magnetic fields
• can be flat

Q.8 Explain static and dynamic characteristic of sensors.

Static Characteristics of Sensors
The static characteristic of the sensor refers to the relationship between the output and the input of the sensor
for the static input signal. Because both input and output are independent of time at this time, the relationship
between them is that the static characteristics of the sensor can be described by an algebraic equation without
time variables, or by using input as abscissa and output as longitudinal coordinates. The main parameters that
characterize the static characteristics of the sensor are linearity, sensitivity, hysteresis, repeatability, drift and so
on.

(1) Linearity: refers to the degree to which the actual relationship curve between sensor output and input
deviates from the fitting line. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum deviation between the actual
characteristic curve and the fitting straight line in the full range to the output value of the full range.

(2) Sensitivity: Sensitivity is an important indicator of static characteristics of sensors. It is defined as the
ratio of the increment of output to the corresponding increment of input that causes the increment. Sensitivity is
expressed by S.

(3) Hysteresis: The phenomenon that the input-output characteristic curve does not coincide with the
output characteristic curve becomes hysteresis when the input of the sensor changes from small to large
(positive stroke) and from large to small (reverse stroke). For the input signal of the same size, the positive and
negative stroke output signals of the sensor are different in size. This difference is called hysteresis difference.

(4) Repeatability: Repeatability refers to the degree of inconsistency in the characteristic curve of the
sensor when the input varies continuously and repeatedly over the whole range in the same direction.

(5) Drift: Sensor drift refers to the change of sensor output over time when the input is constant. This
phenomenon is called drift. There are two reasons for the drift: one is the sensor’s own structural parameters;
the other is the surrounding environment (such as temperature, humidity, etc.).

Dynamic characteristics of sensors

The so-called dynamic characteristics refer to the output characteristics of the sensor when the input changes. In
practical work, the dynamic characteristics of the sensor are often expressed by its response to some standard
input signals. This is because the response of the sensor to the standard input signal can be easily obtained by
experimental method, and there is a certain relationship between the response of the sensor to the standard input
signal and its response to any input signal.
The latter can be inferred by knowing the former. The most commonly used standard input signals are step
signal and sinusoidal signal, so the dynamic characteristics of the sensor are often expressed by step response
and frequency response.

Q.9 What are buses? Explain types of buses.

A bus is a high-speed internal connection. Buses are used to send control signals and data
between the processor and other components.

Buses are conductors interconnecting the three types such as

a) Central processor

b) Memory devices

c) Input\output devices

These buses carry electrical signals from one section to another section of the computer.
They can be tracks on a printed circuit board (PCB) or wire in a ribbon cable.

These are three forms of buses in a microprocessor system.

a) Data bus

b) Address bus

c) Control bus.

1. DATA BUS
• Data buses carry data associated with the processing function.

• A data bus is used to transfer data between the processor and memory or I\O devices.

• The number of conductors of a data bus depends on the number of bits the data bus has to carry
at a time and depends on computer.

• For instant an 8 – bit computer has 8 – conductors in its data bus and that can move 8 bits of data
at a time.

• Some computers uses bus – sharing technique to reduce the number of conductors required in the
data bus.

• Each conductor or wire carries a binary signal i.e. 0 to 1. Thus a four wire bus carries a word
length of 4 – bits (half byte).
• Data bus is bidirectional, i.e. it can transfer data in both direction.

2. ADDRESS BUS :
These buses carry address of the memory location, each memory location, having its own address,
including I/O devices .

• When a particular address is selected and placed on the address bus, only that location is
open to the communication from the CPU. The CPU is able to communicate with
only one location at a time.
• Address bus is unidirectional.
• A computer with an 8 – bit data has typically 16 – bit address bus , i.e 16 wires.
• This size address bus enables 216 locations to be addressed, i.e 65536 and written as 4k .(k
= 1024)

3. CONTROL BUS:
• Control bus carries control signals between the processor and devices connected to it
. Such as to READ data from input device or WRITE data to an output device.
• In addition to this, control bus also carries system clock sign. So as to synchronize all
actions of the microprocessor system. Control bus is bidirectional.

Q.10 Distinguish between a transducer and sensor.

Transducer

Transducer converts the physical quantity or nonelectrical into another signal or electrical signal
or is a device that changes the physical attributes of the non-electrical signal into an electrical
signal which is easily measurable. The process of energy conversion in the transducer is known as
the transduction.

The transduction completed into two steps. First by sensing the signal and then strengthening it for
further processing. It is quite difficult to determine the exact magnitude of the physical forces like
temperature, pressure, etc. However, if the physical force converted into an electrical signal, then
their value is easily measured with the help of the meter. The transducers convert the physical
forces into an electrical signal, which can easily be handled and transmitted for measurement.
Sensor
 Sensor will give an out put in the same format and transducer will convert the
measurement into an electrical signal.
 The sensor is a device that measures the physical quantity (example heat, light, sound
etc.) in to an easily readable signal (voltage, current etc.)
 the sensor senses the physical changes occur in the surrounding
 The sensor is a device that measures the physical quantity (i.e. Heat, light, sound, etc.)
into an easily readable signal (voltage, current etc.). It gives accurate readings after
calibration.
 Examples – The mercury used in the thermometer converts the measurand temperature
into an expansion and contraction of the liquid, which is easily measured, with the help of
a calibrated glass tube. The thermocouple also converts the temperature to an output
voltage which is measured by the thermometer

Basis for comparison between sensor and transducer

Basis For Sensor Transducer
Comparison
Definition Senses the physical changes The transducer is a device
occurs in the surrounding and which, when actuates transforms
converting it into a readable the energy from one form to
quantity. another.

Components Sensor it self Sensor and signal conditioning

Function Detects the changes and induces Conversion of one form of energy
the corresponding into another.
electrical signals
Examples Proximity sensor, Magnetic Thermistor, Potentiometer,
sensor, Accelerometer sensor, Thermocouple, etc.
Light sensor etc.

And another key differences between the sensor and transducer

i. The sensor senses the physical change across the surrounding whereas the transducer
transforms the one form of energy into another. ii. The sensor itself is the major component of
the sensor, whereas the sensor and signal conditioning are the major elements of the sensor.

iii. The primary function of the sensor is to sense the physical changes, whereas the transducer
converts the physical quantities into an electrical signal. iv. The accelerometer, barometer,
 gyroscope are the examples of the sensor whereas thermistor, and thermocouple is the examples
of the transducer

Q.11 Explain with neat sketches the functioning of following sensors:

(i) Pyroelectric sensor (ii) Thermo diodes

(i) Pyroelectric sensor

Pyroelectric sensors are generally used to detect weak infrared irradiation due to their high
sensitivities at room temperature. However, they require the use of metallic packages to insulate
the sensitive element from thermal disturbances and electromagnetic noise, making their
miniaturization difficult. Moreover, it is difficult for the pyroelectric sensors to detect a stationary
human body because the surface charge generated on the pyroelectric element disappears gradually
when the human body is stationed. Thermopile infrared sensors, which are used in remote
thermometry, are also available, but they require the same thermal isolation technique and are
unable to respond to fast signals. As the sensitivity of thermopiles is one order of magnitude lower
than pyroelectric infrared sensors, the application of thermopiles is thus limited to proximity
sensing.
(ii) Thermo diodes

A sensor device embedded on microprocessors used to monitor the temperature of the processor's
die is also known as a "thermal diode".
This application of thermal diode is based on the property of electrical diodes to change voltage
across it linearly according to temperature. As the temperature increases, diodes' forward voltage
decreases. Microprocessors having high clock rate encounter high thermal loads. To monitor the
temperature limits thermal diodes are used. They are usually placed in that part of the processor
core where highest temperature is encountered. Voltage developed across it varies with the
temperature of the diode. All modern Intel CPUs have on-chip thermal diodes. As the sensor is
located directly on the processor die, it provides most local and relevant CPU temperature
readings. The silicon diodes have temperature dependency of -2mV per degree Celsius. Thus the
junction temperature can be determined by passing a set current through the diode and then
measuring voltage developed across it. In addition to processors, the same technology is widely
used in dedicated temperature sensor IC's.
Thermo-diodes and thermo-transistors are used in temperature sensors operating in the range from -80
to + 150 °C. the Upper limit of the temperature range is limited by the thermal breakdown of the p-n
transition and for certain types of germanium sensors reaches 200 °C, and for silicon sensors - even
500 ° C. The lower limit of the temperature range of thermal diodes and thermal transistors is
determined by a decrease in the concentration of the main carriers and can reach for germanium
sensors — (240 - 260) °C, for silicon -200 °C.

The main advantages of thermo-diodes and thermo-transistors are small size, the possibility of
interchangeability and, most importantly, low cost, allowing them to be used in single-use sensors.

Q12. Explain the principle and application of proximity and light

sensors.
Proximity

This is a type of sensor, which can detect the presence of a nearby object within a given distance,
without any physical contact. They are used to sense the proximity of an object relative to another
object. They usually provide a on or off signal indicating the presence or absence of an object.
Inductance, optical, capacitance, photoelectric, and Hall Effect types are widely used as proximity
sensors.
Working principle of proximity sensor

1. Eddy current proximity sensors:

 Fig Construction of Eddy current proximity sensors:

Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect non-magnetic but conductive materials.
They comprise of a coil, an oscillator, a detector and a triggering circuit.

Figure shows the construction of eddy current proximity switch. When an alternating current is
passed thru this coil, an alternative magnetic field is generated. If a metal object comes in the close
proximity of the coil, then eddy currents are induced in the object due to the magnetic field. These
eddy currents create their own magnetic field which distorts the magnetic field responsible for
their generation. As a result, impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude of alternating
current. This can be used to trigger a switch at some pre-determined level of change in current.

Eddy current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in small in size, highly reliable
and have high sensitivity for small displacements.

Applications of eddy current proximity sensors:

• Automation requiring precise location

• Machine tool monitoring

• Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives

• Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a vibrating element,

• Drive shaft monitoring

• Vibration measurements

Inductive proximity Sensor:

 Fig Schematic of Inductive proximity Sensor:

Inductive proximity switches are basically used for detection of metallic objects.

Figure shows the construction of inductive proximity switch. An inductive proximity sensor
has four components; the coil, oscillator, detection circuit and output circuit.

An alternating current is supplied to the coil which generates a magnetic field. When, a metal
object comes closer to the end of the coil, inductance of the coil changes. This is
continuously monitored by a circuit which triggers a switch when a preset value of
inductance change is occurred.

Applications of inductive proximity Sensor

• Industrial automation: counting of products during production or transfer

• Security: detection of metal objects, arms, land mines

Optical Proximity Sensor:

Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / angular displacement. These are
widely used in the Servo motors to measure the rotation of shafts. Figure shows the construction
of an optical encoder. It comprises of a disc with three concentric tracks of equally spaced holes.
Three light sensors are employed to detect the light passing thru the holes. These sensors produce
electric pulses which give the angular displacement of the mechanical element e.g. shaft on
which the Optical encoder is mounted. The inner track has just one hole which is used locate the
‘home’ position of the disc. The holes on the middle track offset from the holes of the outer track
by one-half of the width of the hole. This arrangement provides the direction of rotation to be
determined. When the disc rotates in clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer track lead those
in the inner; in counter clockwise direction they lag behind. The resolution can be determined by
the number of holes on disc. With 100 holes in one revolution, the resolution would be,

360 /100 = 3.6 .

Fig: Construction and working principle of Optical Proximity Sensor

The working principle of a Proximity sensor is simple. A transmitter transmits an electromagnetic

radiation or creates an electrostatic field and a receiver receives and analyzes the return signal for
interruptions. Proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional life because of the
absence of mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between the sensor and the sensed object.
Principle of Working and Applications of Light Sensors:
Light sensors:
A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light. There are different types of light sensors
such as photocell/ photo resistor and photo diodes being used in manufacturing and other
industrial applications.
Photo resistor is also called as light dependent resistor (LDR). It has a resistor whose resistance
decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It is made of a high resistance
semiconductor material, cadmium sulfide (CdS). The resistance of a CdS photo resistor varies
inversely to the amount of light incident upon it. Photo resistor follows the principle of
photoconductivity which results from the generation of mobile carriers when photons are
absorbed by the semiconductor material.
Figure 12.1 shows the construction of a photo resistor. The CdS resistor coil is mounted
on a ceramic substrate. This assembly is encapsulated by a resin material. The sensitive coil
electrodes are connected to the control system though lead wires. On incidence of high intensity
light on the electrodes, the resistance of resistor coil decreases which will be used further to
generate the appropriate signal by the microprocessor via lead wires.

Photo resistors are used in science and in almost any branch of industry for control, safety,
amusement, sound reproduction, inspection and measurement.
Fig. 12.1 Construction of Light Sensors
Applications of Light Sensor
• Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient light sensors to automatically control
the brightness of a screen

• Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using light sensor technology

• In space and robotics: for controlled and guided motions of vehicles and robots.

• Auto Flash for camera

• Industrial process control