PHYSICAL

PROCESSES IN
WASTEWATER
TREATMENT
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 150
ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESS ENGINEERING
OUTLINE
• Preliminary Treatment Stage
• Design of Equalization Basin

• Primary Treatment Stage

• Sedimentation
• Types of Settling
• Design of Sedimentation Tanks
Preliminary
Treatment Stage
DESIGN OF EQUALIZATION BASIN
24 HOUR CYCLIC FLOW
(VOLUMETRIC FLOW vs. TIME)
• Also called Diurnal Flow.
24 HOUR CYCLIC FLOW
(VOLUMETRIC FLOW vs. TIME)

Curve 2

Curve 1
Curve 4

Curve 3
Primary
Treatment Stage
SEDIMENTATION
PRIMARY TREATMENT
• Removal of floating and suspended solids,
using physical processes.
SEDIMENTATION
• Examines the transport (specifically the
downward settling) of particles in water.
• Key parameter is settling velocity.
• Determines how fast particle will settle and thus how
much volume (i.e. residence time) treatment systems
require.
SEDIMENTATION
• Applications:
• Grit or sand and silt removal.
• Suspended solids removal in primary clarifiers.
• Removal of chemically coagulated floc before filtration.
• Biological floc removal in activated sludge final
clarifiers.
• Humus removal in trickling filters.
PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION
• Remove suspended solids since organic solids
also contain BOD. Typically, removes 70% of
incoming solids, 30% is BOD.
• Done in tanks called clarifiers.
• Solids are removed from clarifier as sludge.
• Hydraulic retention is about 1 to 3 Hours.
Primary
Treatment Stage
TYPES OF SET TLING
 TYPES OF SETTLING
• Classification is based on the concentration of
the particles and the ability of the particles to
interact.
TYPE DESCRIPTION
I Discrete Settling
II Flocculant Settling
III Hindered or Zone Settling
IV Compression Settling
Primary
Treatment Stage
TYPE I: DISCREET SET TLING
TYPE I: DISCREET SETTLING
• Happens when particle concentration is ~200
mg/l.
• Kind of settling in most grit chambers.
• Particles settling without influencing other
particles.
SETTLING VELOCITY
• Determine settling
velocity, VS, for a
spherical particle.
SETTLING VELOCITY
• Gravitational Force:
4 3 𝜋 3
𝑊 = −𝜌1 𝑔 𝜋𝑟 = −𝜌1 𝑔 𝑑
3 6
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑀
𝜌1 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 3
𝐿
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿
𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿
𝐿
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2
𝑇
SETTLING VELOCITY
• Buoyant Force on sphere due to displaced
fluid: 𝜋
𝐵 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑑 3
6

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑀
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 3
𝐿
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿
𝐿
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2
𝑇
SETTLING VELOCITY
• Drag Force:
1 𝜋 2 2
𝐷 = 𝜌𝐶𝐷 𝑑 𝑉𝑠
2 4
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝜋 2
𝑑 = 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿2
4
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐿
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑇
SETTLING VELOCITY
• At equilibrium:
𝑊+𝐵+𝐷 =0
𝜋 3 𝜋 3 1 𝜋 2 2
−𝜌1 𝑔 𝑑 + 𝜌𝑔 𝑑 + 𝜌𝐶𝐷 𝑑 𝑉𝑠 = 0
6 6 2 4
𝜋
𝜌1 − 𝜌 𝑔 𝑑3
𝑉𝑠 2 = 6
1 𝜋 2
𝜌𝐶 𝑑
2 𝐷 4
1
4 𝜌1 − 𝜌 𝑔𝑑 2
𝑉𝑠 =
3 𝜌 𝐶𝐷
SETTLING VELOCITY
DRAG COEFFICIENT
• At equilibrium:
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝑉𝑠 𝑑 𝑉𝑠 𝑑
𝑁𝑅𝑒 = =
η υ
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
η = 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
η
υ = 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
𝜌
DRAG COEFFICIENT
DRAG COEFFICIENT
• 3 Regions in the graph:
• Laminar Flow (NRe <1)

𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ≫ 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

24
𝐶𝐷 =
𝑁𝑅𝑒

𝑔𝑑 2 𝜌1 − 𝜌
𝑉𝑠 =
18η
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤
DRAG COEFFICIENT
• 3 Regions in the graph:
• Transition Flow (1 < NRe < 104)

𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ≈ 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

24 3
𝐶𝐷 = + + 0.34
𝑁𝑅𝑒 𝑁𝑅𝑒

𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

𝑔𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐷 , 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑉𝑠 , 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑁𝑅𝑒 , 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝐶𝐷
DRAG COEFFICIENT
• 3 Regions in the graph:
• Turbulent Flow (NRe > 104)

𝐶𝐷 = 0.4
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔:

𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌
𝑉𝑠 = 3.3𝑔 𝑑
𝜌
IDEAL BASIN THEORY
1. The settling is Type 1.
2. There is an even distribution of the flow entering the
basin.
3. There is an even distribution of the flow leaving the
system.
4. There are 3 zones in the basin: inlet, outlet and sludge.
5. There is an even distribution of particles throughout
the depth of inlet zone.
6. Particles that enter the sludge zone remain there and
particles that enter the outlet zone are removed.
RECTANGULAR TANK

L
U
H
RECTANGULAR TANK
𝐻 𝐿
𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑡𝑆 = 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑡𝑅 =
𝑉𝑠 𝑈

𝑄
𝑈= , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑊 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
𝐻𝑊

𝑇𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒,

𝑡𝑅 =𝑡𝑆 , which occurs when 𝑉𝑠 =𝑉𝑂
OVERFLOW RATE
• V0 is know as
overflow rate. The
settling velocity of
the smallest particle
that is 100%
removed.
RECTANGULAR TANK
𝐻
𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑡𝑆 = 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑡𝑅 = 𝑡𝑆 = 𝑡
𝑉0
𝐿 𝑄 𝐿𝑊𝐻
𝑡= , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑉 = , 𝑡=
𝑉 𝐻𝑊 𝑄
𝐿𝑊𝐻 𝐻
𝑡= =
𝑄 𝑉0
𝑄 𝑄
𝑉0 = =
𝐿𝑊 𝐴𝑃
𝑚3
𝑉𝑂 = 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑑𝑎𝑦 − 𝑚2
CIRCULAR TANK
CIRCULAR TANK
𝑄
𝑉=
2𝜋𝑟𝐻
𝑑ℎ 𝑉0 2𝜋𝑟𝐻𝑉0
= =
𝑑𝑟 𝑉 𝑄
𝐻
2𝜋𝐻𝑉0 𝑟0
න 𝑑ℎ = න 𝑟𝑑𝑟
0 𝑄 𝑟1

𝜋𝐻𝑉0 2 2
𝐻𝐴𝑃 𝑉0 𝑄
𝐻= 𝑟0 − 𝑟1 = 𝑉0 =
𝑄 𝑄 𝐴𝑃
EFFICIENCY
• The fraction of the total particles removed for a
design velocity, V0:

1 𝐹0
𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 = 1 − 𝐹0 + න 𝑉𝑑𝐹
𝑉0 0
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
1 − 𝐹0 = 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉 > 𝑉0
1 𝐹0
𝑉0
‫׬‬0 𝑉𝑑𝐹 = 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉 < 𝑉0
EFFICIENCY
Primary
Treatment Stage
TYPE II: FLOCCULANT SET TLING
TYPE II: FLOCCULANT
SETTLING
• In treatment, many particles are present, as
particle falls, it collides with other particles and
they stick together to form larger particles.
• Also, chemicals and polymers are added to
enhance coagulation and flocculation.
TYPE II: FLOCCULANT
SETTLING
• Coagulation: destabilization and initial
coalescing of colloidal particles.
• Flocculation: formation of larger particles (floc)
from smaller particles.
• Chemicals are added to quickly cause
coagulation, which then slowly flocculate.
COAGULATION
• Chemicals added to remove
small particles.
• Particles repelled from each
other by negative electric
charge.
COAGULATION
• Two forces are at play:
• Electrostatic repulsion:
(dominant) makes the system
stable.
• Van der Waals: attractive forces
(similar to gravitational forces).
COAGULATION
• Non-settleable solids: 0.1 millimicron to 100
microns.
• Colloids: 1 millimicron to 1 micron.
• sols : solids dispersed in liquids
• emulsions : liquid dispersed in liquid
• Sols will not settle by gravity (stable)
• Have electrostatic charge relative to
surrounding water.
COAGULATION
• Hydrophillic: water soluble groups on the
colloidal surface (e.g, proteins)
• amino, carboxyl, sulfonic and hydroxyl.
• water film surrounding them (bound water).
• Hydrophobic: inorganic colloids
• e.g., clay
COAGULATION
• Electrostatic charge: ionization of surface
groups and adsorption of surrounding ions.
• Most are negatively charged.
COAGULATION
COAGULATION
ZETA POTENTIAL (ζ)
• The electrostatic potential at the shear surface.
• The measure of repulsive force.
4𝜋𝑞𝑑
ζ=
𝐷
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
ζ = 𝑧𝑒𝑡𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑞 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑑 = 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
ZETA POTENTIAL (ζ)
FLOCCULATION
• Types of chemicals:
• Aluminum sulfate (alum)
• Most commonly used
• Concerns about Alzheimer's Disease
• Ferric chloride (iron chloride)
• Usually not as effective as alum
• Polymers
• "Liquid plastic"
• Very effective, doses as small as 0.1 mg/l
• Mechanism is called “particle bridging”
FLOCCULATION
• Once particles are coagulated, they can be
flocculated.
• Flocculation occurs by:
• Brownian motion: important for small particles (< 0.5
µm)
• Stirring: mechanical stirring strong enough to cause
particle collisions but not so strong as to break-up
particles
• Differential settlement: larger, faster particles catch up
with smaller, slower particles.
FLOCCULATION
• As particles
become larger
as they fall,
settling velocity
keeps on
increasing.
FLOCCULATION
• Design of clarifier for
this type of
sedimentation
requires knowledge
of settling velocity
distribution.
BATCH COLUMN TEST
Lab apparatus is column of depth similar to proposed tank
and with diameter >5 in to reduce wall effects.

Initially, suspended sediment is well mixed, then allowed

to settle.

Samples are taken at each port at selected time intervals,

e.g. 5, 10, 20,40, 60, 120, minutes and C/Co is
determined.

Removals are then charted on depth vs. time plot and

removal isolines are determined.

The fraction removed at detention time t ( e.g. t2) comes

from chart by reading delta depth between removal
isolines reading vertically from x-axis.
FLOCCULATION
• Scale-up Factors recommended by Eckenfelder:
• Overflow Rate: 0.65
• Detention Time: 1.75
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
Primary
Treatment Stage
TYPE III: HINDERED (ZONE) SET TLING
TYPE IV: COMPRESSION SET TLING
TYPE III: HINDERED (ZONE)
SETTLING
• At high particle concentrations, inter-particle
repulsion interferes with settling. Also particle
has less room for flow to go around particles,
creating hydrodynamic forces keeping particles
from settling.
TYPE III: HINDERED (ZONE)
SETTLING
• Concentration high enough so the ability of
individual particles to settle freely is hindered
by other particles.
• Particles tend to settle as a group in a distinct
zone.
TYPE III: HINDERED (ZONE)
SETTLING
• Concentration high enough so the ability of
individual particles to settle freely is hindered
by other particles.
• Particles tend to settle as a group in a distinct
zone.
TYPE IV: COMPRESSION
SETTLING
• water gets squeezed out of sludge.
BATCH SETTLING
BATCH SETTLING
 BATCH SETTLING
t=0 mins, Fill column with suspension of known
particle concentration. Observe height of
interface with time.

t=10 mins, Type 3 interface develops, Type 2

layer above, Type 4 layer below.

t=20 mins, Type 3 interface moves downward,

volume of Type 2 increases, volume of Type 4
decreases due to compression.
 BATCH SETTLING
t=40 mins, Type III interface continues downward at
approximately the same velocity, Type II volume continues
to increase, Type IV volume continues to decrease.

t=90 mins, Type III interface downward velocity decreases,

Type II volume continues to increase, Type IV volume
continues to decrease.

t=300 mins, settling complete, no Type III interface, little

or no Type II settling, settled solids compressed at bottom.
BATCH SETTLING
 APPLICATION TO
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
TYPE DESCRIPTION APPLICATION
I Discrete Settling Removes grit and sand from wastewater.
II Flocculant Settling Removes portion of untreated
wastewater in primary clarifier and
upper portion of secondary clarifier; also
removes chemical flocs in settling tanks.
III Hindered or Zone Settling Occurs in secondary settling used in
conjunction with biological treatment.
IV Compression Settling Occurs in lower layers of deep sludge
mass such as in bottom of deep
secondary settling and in sludge
thickening facilities.
Primary
Treatment Stage
DESIGN OF SEDIMENTATION TANKS
TYPICAL TANK SHAPES
• Rectangular Tanks
• Square Tanks
• Circular Tanks
TYPICAL TANK SHAPES
RECTANGULAR TANKS
• usually have chain-drive scrapers to bring
sludge to withdrawal trough in tank bottom.
• Typically 3 m deep for water treatment.
• Better hydraulic characteristics thus less short
circuiting.
RECTANGULAR TANKS
SQUARE TANKS
• less expensive since side walls can be shared.
• circular sludge collectors are relatively trouble
free but corner sweeps are problematic.
• more weir length in corners leads to non-
uniform radial flow thus sludge collects in
corners.
SQUARE TANKS
CIRCULAR TANKS
• inflow at center, outflow along perimeter weir
or radial collection troughs; circular rake arm to
rake sludge to center or with suction pipes.
• depths usually 3 or more.
• lower capital cost than a rectangular tank.
• circular sludge sweep is relatively trouble-free.
CIRCULAR TANKS
CIRCULAR TANKS
DESIGN FACTORS
• Detention Time
• Surface Overflow Rate:
• cubic meters per day per square meter of surface area
of the tank.
• depends on settling velocity.
• Weir Overflow Rate:
• cum/m or gal/ft length of weir.
• the higher the weir overflow rate, the more influence
the outlet zone can have on the sedimentation zone.
TYPICAL DESIGNS
RESIDENCE OVERFLOW RATE
TYPE OF TANK
TIME (hr) (m3/m2-d)
Grit Chamber 0.75 to 1.50 60
Primary Clarifier 1.50 to 2.50 30 to 50
Secondary with
1.50 to 2.50 24 to 32
Activated Sludge Return
Secondary Clarifier 2.00 to 3.00 16 to 28
WEIR OVERFLOW RATE
• the number of gallons of water passing over a
foot of weir per day.
• 10,000 to 14,000 gpd/ft and should be less
than 20,000 gpd/ft.
• longer weirs allow more water to flow out of
the sedimentation basin without exceeding the
recommended water velocity.
TYPICAL VALUES
DESIGN VALUE
PARAMETER (Horizontal Flow
Sedimentation Tanks)
Surface Loading Rate (m3/m2-d) 20 to 60
Mean Horizontal Velocity (m/min) 0.15 to 0.90
Water Depth (m) 3 to 5
Detention Time (min) 120 to 240
Weir Loading Rate (m3/m-d) 100 to 200
INLET STRUCTURE
• Momentum is dissipated.
• Distribute incoming flow in such a way to
establish required flow pattern in the tank.
INLET STRUCTURE
FLOW PATTERNS
OUTLET STRUCTURES
• Effluent structures are designed to do the
following:
• Provide uniform distribution of flow over a large area.
• Minimize lifting of the particles and their escape into
the effluent.
• Reduce floating matter from escaping into the effluent.
OUTLET STRUCTURES