Utilitarian Ethics The first ethical system in normative ethics, utilitarianism, is often equated with the

concept of “the greatest good for the greatest number.” The idea is that ethical decisions are made
based on the consequences of the action, which is why it is also sometimes called consequentialism.
Utilitarian ethics also “presents questions of conflict with regard to which segment of society should be
considered most important” in weighing the “good” or outcome. It is not always possible to predict the
outcome of an action. Bowen points out that “consequences are too unpredictable to be an accurate
measure of the ethics of a situations.” In other words, consequences of actions can be highly volatile or
impossible, even, to predict. Using outcomes as a measurement of ethics will not, therefore, provide an
accurate way for professionals to measure whether decisions are ethical. • For example, if you are
choosing ice cream for yourself, theutilitarian view is that you should choose the flavor that will give you
the most pleasure.

Deontological Ethics The second prominent concept, deontological ethics, is associated with the father
of modern deontology, Immanuel Kant. He was known for the ‘Categorical Imperative’ that looks for
transcendent principles that apply to all humans. The idea is that “human beings should be treated with
dignity and respect because they have rights.” Put another way, it could be argued that in deontological
ethics “people have a duty to respect other people’s rights and treat them accordingly.” The core
concept behind this is that there are objective obligations, or duties, that are required of all people.
When faced with an ethical situation, then, the process is simply one of identifying one’s duty and
making the appropriate decision. • An example of deontology is the belief that killing someone is wrong,
even if it was in self-defense

Virtue Ethics The consideration in virtue ethics is essentially “what makes a good person,” or, for the
purpose of this discussion, “what makes a good public relations professional?” Virtue ethics require the
decision-maker to understand what virtues are good for public relations and then decisions are made in
light of those particular virtues. • For example, if the virtue of honesty is the of utmost importance to a
good public relations professional, then all decisions should be made ethically to ensure honesty is
preserved.

1. IMMANUEL KANT Kant’s theory is an example of adeontological moral theory–according to these

theories, the rightness or wrongness of actions does not depend on their consequences but on whether
they fulfill our duty. Kant believed that there was a supreme principle of morality, and he referred to it
asThe Categorical Imperative. The CI determines what our moral duties are. Kant, unlike Mill, believed
that certain types of actions (including murder, theft, and lying) were absolutely prohibited, even in
cases where the action would bring about more happiness than the alternative.

2. WILLIAM DAVID ROSS According to W. D. Ross (1877-1971), there are several prima facie duties that
we can use to determine what, concretely, we ought to do. A prima facie duty is a duty that is binding
(obligatory) other things equal, that is, unless it is overridden or trumped by another duty or duties.
Another way of putting it is that where there is a prima facie duty to do something, there is at least a
fairly strong presumption in favor of doing it. An example of a prima facie duty is the duty to keep
promises. "Unless stronger moral considerations override, one ought to keep a promise made." By
contrast with prima facie duties, ouractual or concrete duty is the duty we should perform in the
particular situation of choice. Whatever one's actual duty is, one is morally bound to perform it. Prima
facie duties relate to actual duties as reasons do to conclusions of reasoning.

3. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS The master principle of natural law, wrote Aquinas, was that "good is to be
done and pursued and evil avoided."Aquinas stated that reason reveals particular natural laws that are
good for humans such as self-preservation, marriage and family, and the desire to know God. One of
Aquinas' contributions in Ethics is to mention, as much as possible, all of the things that matter in ethical
evaluation of actions. He holds that the goodness or badness of an action lies in the interior act of will, in
the external bodily act, in the very nature of the act, and even in its consequences.

4. JEREMY BENTHAM ethical theory holding that actions are morally right if they tend to promote
happiness or pleasure (and morally wrong if they tend to promote unhappiness or pain) among all those
affected by them. According to Bentham, pleasure and pain govern not only how human beings act but
also how human beings ought to act. The principle of utility or the principle of utilitarianism : I ought do
that act which will bring about the greatest happiness (pleasure) for the greatest number of persons
(the community). "Happiness is the greatest good."

5. JOHN STUART MILL The ethical theory of John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) is most extensively articulated
in his classical textUtilitarianism (1861). Its goal is to justify the utilitarian principle as the foundation of
morals. This principle says actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote overall human
happiness. Mill’s moral philosophy was a modified version of the utilitarian theory he had learned from
his father and Bentham. In the polemical UTILITARIANISM (1861) Mill developed a systematic statement
of utilitarian ethical theory. He modified and defended the general principle that right actions are those
that tend to produce the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people, being careful to include a
distinction in the quality of the pleasures that constitute happiness. There Mill also attempted a proof of
the principle of utility, explained its enforcement, and discussed its relation to a principle of justice. 6.
JOHN RAWLS Theory of Justice is a 1971 work of political philosophy and ethics by the philosopher John
Rawls, in which the author attempts to provide a moral theory alternative to utilitarianism and that
addresses the problem of distributive justice (the socially just distribution of goods in a society). Rawls
holds that justice as fairness is the most egalitarian, and also the most plausible, interpretation of these
fundamental concepts of liberalism. He also argues that justice as fairness provides a superior
understanding ofjustice to that of the dominant tradition in modern political thought: utilitarianism.
Rawls's theory of justice revolves around the adaptation of two fundamental principles of justice which
would, in turn, guarantee a just and morally acceptable society. The first principle guarantees the right
of each person to have the most extensive basic liberty compatible with the liberty of others. The
second principle states that social and economic positions are to be (a) to everyone's advantage and (b)
open to all.