Problem 2: Derive and calculate the fiber volume fraction of rods arranged in hexagonal

stacking such that the distance between the rods is equal the diameter of the rods.
Consider a hexagonal stack of rods width diameter R and separation a. The total area of the
formed triangle is Atot =
√ 3 1 ( 2 R+a )2, the area covered by the rods is A =3∙ π R2 = π R2.
rods
2 2 6 2
π 2
R
2
The micromechanical fiber volume fraction is then f = , we parametrize that the
√ 3 (2 R+a )2
4
a
spacing a between the rods is a part of the rods radius R, p= . Inserting this gives
R
π 2
R
2 4π 1
f ( a )= =f ( p ) =
√3 ( 2 R+ pR )2 2 √ 3 ( 2+ p )2
4
For the highest (undesired) fiber volume fraction you have
2π 1 2π 1
f ( 0 )= = =0,907 ≈ 90,7 %
√ 3 ( 2+ p ) √ 3 ( 2 )2
2

The solutions is graphically

f-UD
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

We see that if the distance between the fibers is equal the fiber radius you have 40 % fiber
volume fraction, if the distance between the fibers is equal diameter of the fibers (2 R), you have
some 22,7 %.
Let there be a stack of fiber perpendicular to each other. The unit cell of such a stack is a volume
π 2
3
( )
and V tot =( 2 R+a ) . The volume occupied by the fibers are V rods= A ∙ l= 4 R ( 2 R+a ). The
4
fiber volume fraction of that cell becomes
( 2 R+ a ) π R2 ( 2 R+ pR ) π R 2 π
f= 3
= 3
=
( 2 R+ a ) ( 2 R+ pR ) ( 2+ p )2
π
The highest possible fiber volume fraction is f ( 0 )= =78,5 % . Notably lower than the above
4
unidirectional case of hexagonal stacked rods. The solution for both UD and perpendicular case
is summarized below.
 1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

f-UD f-0/90
In the area of interest ( p=0,5) the difference may be as much as 8 %. This results is that the
laminate does simply never has a fiber volume fraction but rather an distribution of fiber volume
fractions distributed over the stack of plys.
An micrograph of such fiber arrangements show above all that the fibers are ordered only on
yarn level but not microscopically.

Problem 3: Derive and calculate the fiber volume fraction of rods arranged in square stacking
such that the distance between the rods is equal the diameter of the rods.
Problem 8: Explain what is drape ability and crimp in textiles. see
http://textilelearner.blogspot.fi/2012/02/what-is-drape-cusick-drape-test.html and
http://textilelearner.blogspot.fi/search?q=crimp
- Drape: the term used to describe the way a fabric hangs under its own weight. Measurement of
a fabrics drape is meant to assess its ability to do this and also its ability to hang in graceful
curves.
- Crimp: When warp and weft yarns interlace in fabric they follow a wavy or corrugated path.
Crimp percentage is a measure of this waviness in yarns.

Problem 9: What is the difference between plain, twill and satin weave?
Plain weave
Each warp fibre passes alternately under and over each weft fibre. The fabric is symmetrical,
with good stability and reasonable porosity. However, it is the most difficult of the weaves to
drape, and the high level of fibre crimp imparts relatively low mechanical properties compared
with the other weave styles. With large fibres (high tex) this weave style gives excessive crimp
and therefore it tends not to be used for very heavy fabrics.
Twill Weave
One or more warp fibres alternately weave over and under two or more weft fibres in a regular
repeated manner. This produces the visual effect of a straight or broken diagonal 'rib' to the
fabric. Superior wet out and drape is seen in the twill weave over the plain weave with only a
small reduction in stability. With reduced crimp, the fabric also has a smoother surface and
slightly higher mechanical properties.
Satin Weave
Satin weaves are fundamentally twill weaves modified to produce fewer intersections of warp
and weft. The ‘harness’ number used in the designation (typically 4, 5 and 8) is the total number
of fibres crossed and passed under, before the fibre repeats the pattern. A ‘crowsfoot’ weave is a
form of satin weave with a different stagger in the re-peat pattern. Satin weaves are very flat,
have good wet out and a high degree of drape. The low crimp gives good mechanical properties.
Satin weaves allow fibres to be woven in the closest proximity and can produce fabrics with a
close ‘tight’ weave. However, the style’s low stability and asymmetry needs to be considered.
The asymmetry causes one face of the fabric to have fibre running predominantly in the warp
direction while the other face has fibres running predominantly in the weft direction. Care must
be taken in assembling multiple layers of these fabrics to ensure that stresses are not built into
the component through this asymmetric effect.
Problem 10: What is the difference between a plain and a leno weave? see
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KhWelJEtYv8
Plain weave
Each warp fibre passes alternately under and over each weft fibre. The fabric is symmetrical,
with good stability and reasonable porosity. However, it is the most difficult of the weaves to
drape, and the high level of fibre crimp imparts relatively low mechanical properties compared
with the other weave styles. With large fibres (high tex) this weave style gives excessive crimp
and therefore it tends not to be used for very heavy fabrics.
Leno weave
Leno weave improves the stability in ‘open’ fabrics which have a low fibre count. A form of
plain weave in which adjacent warp fibres are twisted around consecutive weft fibres to form a
spiral pair, effectively ‘locking’ each weft in place. Fabrics in leno weave are normally used in
con-junction with other weave styles because if used alone their openness could not produce an
effective composite component.
Problem 11: What is weft and warp in a woven textile?
In weaving, the weft (sometimes woof) is the thread or yarn which is drawn through, inserted over-and-
under, the lengthwise warp yarns that are held in tension on a frame or loom to create cloth. Warp is
the lengthwise or longitudinal thread in a roll, while weft is the transverse thread.
On a loom, the warp is the set of yarns or other elements stretched in place before the weft is
introduced during the weaving process.The term is also used for a set of yarns established before the
interworking of weft yarns by some other method, such as finger manipulation yielding wrapped or
twined structures. In a finished fabric with two or more sets of elements, the warp is the longitudinal
set.
Problem 12: What is a resin (polyester, epoxy and vinylester)
Resin is a "solid or highly viscous substance" of plant or synthetic origin that is typically
convertible into polymers.
http://www.sollercomposites.com/epoxyresinchoice.html