SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN WESTERN

EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION
2.1 Middle Ages
Life in the Dark Ages
Science and Technology in the Middle Ages
Golden Age of Islam
Reason for Collapse of Roman Empire
Political
Internal weakness
No strong leadership
Assassinations, civil war and inner turmoil
Army controlled state to satisfy its greed
Economic
Cost to maintain large empire
Raise taxes
Value of coins decrease
Prices increase
Moral
Discipline, duty and loyalty not valued anymore
Greed increases
People anted free food and entertainment
Family life disintegrated
There is a theory that lead poisoning contributed to the
fall of Roman Civilization. The Romans used lead water
pipes since the metal is malleable as well as for
cosmetics, cooking pots, and defrutum, wine that was
sweetened by boiling it down in lead pots. In 476 C.E.
Romulus, the last of the Roman emperors in the west,
was overthrown by the Germanic leader
Odoacer, who became the first Barbarian to rule in
Rome. The order that the Roman Empire had brought to
western Europe for 1000 years was no more.
Western Europe in the Middle Ages
After the fall of Roma, Western Europe had constant
warfare
Medieval kingdoms lacked trade, common language,
and cultural diffusion
The millennium between the collapse of the Western
Roman Empire in the 5th century CE and the beginning
of the colonial expansion of Western Europe in the late
15th century has been known traditionally as the Middle
Ages, and the first half of this period consists of the five
centuries of the Dark Ages. The Middle Ages got its
name because Renaissance scholars saw it as a long
barbaric period that separated them from the great
civilizations of ancient Greece and Rome that they both
celebrated and emulated.
The Dark Ages witnessed terrible political and
economic upheaval in Western Europe, as waves of
invasions by migrating peoples destabilized the Roman
Empire like the Vikings and Saxons in the North. It was
a period of declining human achievement, especially
when compared to the Ancient Greeks and Romans. The
Dark Ages evokes pictures of filthy, illiterate peasants
and rulers, with medieval society a pale, superstitious
shadow of the Greek and Roman ages of reason and
high philosophy.
For three turbulent centuries, the glimpse of a square
sail and dragonheaded prow on the horizon struck terror
into the hearts of medieval Europeans. Indeed, the
Viking Age, from A.D. 800-1100, was the age of the
sleek, speedy longship. Without this crucial advance in
ship technology, the Vikings would never have become
a dominant force in medieval warfare, politics, and
trade.
Life in the Middle Ages
Feudalism
What is it?
Social and Economical structure typical from the
Middle Ages
Reciprocal legal and military obligations among the
warrior nobility with three key concepts: Lord, vassal
and fiefs.
When? X-XIIIth Centuries
Middle Ages
Lack of Safety
Rural World FEUDALISM
Self Sufficiency
Rise of Nobility
Peasants
Are not a private property
But theyre not actually free: they were serfs servants
They must give a portion of the harvest and work
certain days in the Lords own land
Vassal
A vassal is a person who has an obligation to a lord or
a monarch in the feudal system of Medieval Europe. The
obligations often included military support and mutual
protection, in exchange for certain privileges.
The typical manor was largely self-sufficient, growing
or producing all of the basic items needed for food,
clothing, and shelter. To meet these needs, the manor
had buildings devoted to special purposes, such as the
mill for grinding grain, the bake house for making
bread, and the blacksmith shop for fashioning metal
goods. Some of the fields has been left unplanted, so
that the soil can replenish its nutrients.
Mill house using a water wheel to grind grain
Time and Space
Life depended on the daylight hours
Work begun and ended with the sun
Church bells divided time every 3 hours clocks were
invented in the XIVth Century
Nowadays, calendar didnt exist.
Distance was measured by walking
90 of the population were peasants and never left
their villages or towns
As a consequence they knew their environment reall
well
Man was part of the Creation
Houses
A cottage with mud walls or wattle and daub , clay
floor and thatched roof, often shared with animals
warmer
Living in the Middle Ages, interior view, wooden
furniture, old sod houses, turf and sod constructions,
open-air museum
Few if any small windows
Waxed clothes or parchment were used to close the
windows
Glass was a luxury material
Horn panes were a good substitute of glass
The Bed
Sometimes the whole family slept together in the same
bed
Mattress was just a piece of cloth with straws and
dried leaves inside. They were easily rotten and full of
insects.
Lavender, Tansy and other herbs made the bed smell
sweeter and kept the bugs away
Furnishing
Peasants had a bed, a table, a couple of wooden
benches and a trunk
Wooden bowls were used for eating and drinking
In most homes people sat on a plain stools or benches
Only a lord was likely to have a chair with a back and
armrest
Medieval Food
Peasants cottages had no chimneys, cooking was done
on a simple stone heart in the center of the room
A hole in the roof instead of a chimney made the room
not only darker but smokey but smoke is a good
deodorant! In the center of which was a few flat stones
on which the fire was placed.
 In stone houses a fireplace was common and the iron
pots or cauldrons hanging from hooks were the main
cooking utensils.
In manor houses and castles big kitchens were often
housed in separate buildings since they posed a serious
fire hazard.
Dinner was the main meal
Basic food were vegetables, cereals, legumes, beer,
wine, soup, oil and bread
Sometimes there was a pig meat, rabbit, eggs, milk or
fish available
Food was preserved in salt
Spices were commonly used to disguise meat in bad
condition
Spices were very, very expensive
The search for spices caused some important changes in
European History
Bathing during the Middle Ages
Christians
As a rule, only the very wealthy could afford taking
baths.
Most of the people cleaned themselves maybe a
couple of times a month.
Muslims
 Muslims were obligated by their religion to wash
themselves face, hands and feet 5 times a day.
Public baths were very popular in Muslim towns.
Education
In medieval only the richest children were taught by
the Catholic Church.
Boys were the only ones who were allowed to go to
school. Here they learned grammar, astronomy,
philosophy and math.
Girls were not allowed to go to and were only allowed
to take specific classes like music and art.
Middle Ages AD 800-AD 1400
Renewed interest in medical practices of Greek and
Romans
Bubonic Plague killed 75 percent of population in
Europe and Asia
Major diseases included smallpox, diphtheria,
tuberculosis, typhoid, the plague and malaria
Arabs began requiring physicians pass examinations
and obtain licenses
Average life span was 20-35 years
Medieval Clothing
Medieval clothing varied according to the social
standing of the people.
 The clothing worn by nobility and upper classes was
clearly different than that of the lower class.
The clothing of peasants during the Middle Ages was
very simple.
Clothes like tools, were mostly homemade from local
materials.
Medieval peasants women spent much of their time
spinning wool or turning it into felt, which they used for
hats.
Many would have worn hats made of local straw to
protect their heads on hot days while working the land.
Medieval Guilds
Merchants and workers began to unite in associations
called guilds. A guild was an association of artisans who
controlled the practice of their craft in a particular town.
A few guilds in France even gave rise to the earliest of
the universities, where our modern academic degrees-
bachelors, masters, doctorate-retain this guild-like
structure: apprentice, journeyman, master.
In each town, a merchant guild had the sole right to
trade there. Craft guilds also formed over time. Each
guild member had a single craft shoemaker, weaving,
etc.
 In time, towns' guild members became the-middle
class whose status was between the class of a noble and
that of a peasant and unskilled workers.
History in Depth
Guild Services
To members:
Set working conditions
Covered members with a type of health insurance
Provided funeral expenses
Provided dowries for poor girls
To the community:
Built aims houses for victims of misfortune
Guaranteed quality work
Took turns policing the streets
Donated windows to the Church
Crafts Guilds
Craft guilds formed an important part of town life
during the medieval period. They trained young people
in a skilled job, regulated the quality of goods sold, and
were major forces in
community life.
Apprentice
Parents paid for training
Lived with a master and his family
 Required to obey the master
Trained 2-7 years
Was not allowed to marry during training
When trained progressed to journeyman
Journeyman Day Worker
Worked for a master to earn a salary
Worked 6 days a week
Needed to produce a masterpiece his finest work to
become a master
Had to be accepted by the guild to become a master
Master
Owned his own shop
Worked with other masters to protect their trade
Sometimes served in civic government
Medieval Cities in Europe
Prague, Czech Republic
Rothenburg, Germany
As towns and trade grew in the Middle Ages,
townspeople saw they did not fit into the manorial
system. Townspeople now made their living by making
and trading goods. .
The growth of towns during the Middle Ages could be
exciting, but the growth of a town was also filled with
turmoil and hysteria
 Waste was dumped into open gutters and diseases
spread quickly through crowded cities the most notable
was the Black Death.
Since this amazing era of history ended, countless
cities in Europe have managed to retain their Medieval
elements, architecture, charm, and flair. From mighty
walled cities, to small villages with castles, and Gothic
meccas, there are a lot of well-preserved Medieval
towns to visit in Europe.
Weaving in Middle Ages
Fabric
Linen
Flax plant
Undergarments, bed mattress
Wool
Fleece from sheep
Outer garments
Silk
Silkworms from China
Garment
Cotton
Cotton plant from India and Americas
Garments
Linen is an elegant, beautiful, durable, and refined
luxury fabric
 Linen is the strongest of the vegetable fibers and has 2
to 3 times the strength of cotton
Linen yarn is spun from the long fibers found just
behind the bark in the multi-layer stem of the flax plant
Linen fibers are known for the luster and strength
These fibers are held together under the stems mark
principally by a gummy substance, Pectin.
In order to retrieve fiber from the plant, the woody
stem and inner pith, which holds the fibers together in a
clump, is rotted away.
The cellulose fiber from the stem is spinnable and is
used for the production of linen thread, cordage and
twine.
Cultivation of linen requires the following things-Deep
rich well ploughed soil and a cool damp climate. Land
with good supply of soft fresh water. For a good crop,
the soil must be enriched for 6 years. Only one crop in 7
yrs. can be raised in a specified portion of land
Cultivation Process
The flax seeds are sawn with hand in April or May
Plant should be protected from weeds
In 3 to 4 months, the plant will grow with straight,
slender stalks, that may be 2 to 4 feet high with small
blue or white fibers.
 The flax plant turns yellow and seeds turn brown
indicating the time to harvest
Linen Process
Hackling combing is done to remove remnants of the
fibrous core and other bark and align the bundles of
fiber for spinning.
A series of iron combs, ranging from coarse to fine
are used.
The fibers are pulled through the teeth of combs
beginning with coarser one leaving the fine fibers
This separates the short fibers from the longer and
more luxurious linen fibers
Short fibers are called Tow and it is used for making
coarse, sturdy goods.
The very finest flax fibers are called line or dressed
flax, and the fibers may be from 12 to 20 inches in
length
Breaking
When the decomposed woody tissue is dry after
retting, it has to be crushed
They are sent through fluted rollers, which breaks up
the stem and separate the exterior fibers from the best
that will be used to make linen.
 Small piece of barks, broken in this process is called
Shives
Scutching is done by machine or hand
This machine removes the broken shives with
rotating paddle
This process finally releases the flax fibers from stalk
Spinning
Linen fibers are put through machine called
Spreaders, which combine fibers of same length, laying
the fibers parallel creating sliver.
Sliver passes through set of rollers making a roving.
Tow are used for spinning of irregular linen yarns
and put through carding operation
There are two basic method of spinning: dry spinning
and wet spinning
What is Wool?
Wool is the dense, warm coat of sheep, also called a
fleece. The hair of sheep has many unique properties
that make it well suited to textile production, something
humans realized approximately 8000 BCE, when sheep
first began to be domesticated. Wool is used in variety
of textiles and can be found woven or knitted.
It pulls moisture away from skin, wool has several
qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur; it is
crimped, it is elastic, and it grows in staples clusters.
Wool is favored for textile production because it is easy
to work with and takes dye very well.
Wool Processing Steps
A. Wash Fleece Removes dirt and fat
B.Sort Wool
C.Card Wool Aligns fibers
D. Comb Wool Removes shorter fibers making
wool worked
E.Spin Wool Into a single strand of yarn
F. Ply Yarn Five single strands of wool yarn twisted
together
Steps in Processing Wool to Yarn
Step 1: Shearing: In this process, fleece of the sheep is
removed along with a thin layer of skin. Nowadays it is
done by machines which are used by barbers to shave
off hair. Shaving off the hair happens in the hot weather
so that the sheep can live without their protective
coating.
Step 2: Scouring: After removing the fleece from the
body of sheep, it is washed to separate dirt and grease
from the fleece.
Step 3: Sorting: After the process of scouring, fleece is
separated according to their texture. Hair of similar
texture are kept at one side and the another type of
texture in the other.
Step 4: Picking: After sorting the fleece, a fiber that is
called burr is picked out from the hair
Step 5: Carding: It is a mechanical process that
disentangles, cleans and intermixes fibers to produce a
continuous web or silver suitable for subsequently
processing.
Step 6: Dyeing: After carding and separating burrs,
they are dyed in the required colour.
Step 7: Spinning: After dyeing wools, the fibers are
then combined, straightened and rolled into yarns.
Woven cloth straight from the loom has an open, loose
texture and the woven threads needed closing or
tightening. The fulling process consolidates and thickens
the structure of the fabric by knitting the fibers together
more thoroughly and by shrinking them which
transforming the cloth into a more compact tight weave.
Fulling involves the cleansing of cloth particularly
wool to eliminate oils, dirt, and other impurities, and to
make it thicker. Fulling involves two processes:
scouring and milling thickening.
Scouring used river water and a soap cleaning agent
was used to help rid the cloth of any natural oils and
grease. This process involved the use of a number of
different agents such as Fuller's earth, stale urine or
soap. By the medieval period, fuller's earth had been
introduced for use in the process. More recently, soap
has been used. The second function of fulling was to
thicken cloth by matting the fibers together to give it
strength and increase waterproofing felting
Originally, fulling was carried out by the pounding of
the wool cloth with a club, or the fuller's feet or hands.
From the medieval period, however, fulling was often
carried out in a water mill.

2.2 Middle Ages

Golden Age of Islam
Scholasticism
Medieval Medicine
Power sources
Metal working
You know, there was another time when Science wasnt
taken seriously and religion ruled the world. We call it
the Dark Ages.
In the years immediately after the fall of Rome there
was a period of social and political upheaval, where
medieval society returned to rural culture and was more
concerned with keeping peace than nurturing centers of
learning. There was little progress in what we come to
regard as the scientific method. Classical thought and
philosophy were lost to the west and became the
preserve of Islam and Byzantium, as an increasingly
rural and dispossessed population began to rebuild after
the collapse of Rome. In the first few centuries of the
Middle Ages intellectual activity was centered on the
study of the Bible and on the Christian faith. The
medieval intellectual elite were mostly from the clergy
who did not investigate scientific matters and when
medieval scholars made statements about central
scientific problems like the order of the universe, they
would refer to the doctrines of authorities like the Bible,
the books of the Church Fathers, or, later, the texts by
Greek and Roman philosophers. In this way, scientific
argument was made up of deductions based on the
assumptions dogmas of these authorities.
It is important to remember that during the Middle Ages
it was rare that anyone except members of the clergy
monks, priests, etc. could read and write. However,
monastic study kept some of the scientific processes
alive. They studied medicine since it was the Churchs
duty to help and tend the sick. It was also important for
the Church to determine the date for the all-important
Easter which would not have been possible without
some knowledge of the motions of the Moon and the
Sun. The medieval science of computus "computation"
was a complex measuring of time and space that
determines the calendar date of Easter. Their astronomy
kept alive mathematics and geometry, although their
methods were but an echo of the intricate mathematical
functions of the Romans and the Greeks. . By the 6th
century teaching and learning moved to monastic and
cathedral schools.
Islamic Golden Age 800-1500
While Europe languished in the dark age of ignorance,
a golden age downed on Islamic Empire.
How Islamic Golden Age Came About
Islam began in the Arabian Peninsula in the early 7th
century
By the 13th century, Islam had spread across India and
Southeast Asia
Reasons for the success and expansion of Islam and its
empire be attributed to:
Strong Arab Armu
Use and development of common language
Reasonable treatment of conquered people
The Golden Age
 The Abbasid could rival their pre-Islamic predecessor
in carrying and developing a civilization that was the
most superior of its time
Arab Muslims, who brought with him from the desert
a keen curiosity to gathering knowledge adopted
Aramaic civilization influenced by the Greek in Syria
and Persian civilization in Iraq.
The Arabic reading world was in position of the chief
philosophical works of Aristotle, of chief Neo-Platonic
Commentators and of the most of the medical writings
of Galen, as well as Persian and Indian science works.
The development was enhanced by The Caliphs
generous patronage of artists and artisans of all kinds.
Economic prosperity and intellectual exchange was
enhanced by the trade rout established by the great
7,000-mile Silk Road from Xian Sian, China to
Baghdad-then the two largest cities in the world-helped
provide the wealth. For early Muslims, knowledge was a
treasure they would eagerly seek. Medical science and
pharmacy were no exceptions. Muslim physicians early
practice emphasized the importance of preserving health
through natural gentle interventions.
Medicine
 The Muslim set up a system of medical training which
included qualifying exams for Doctors and Pharmacists.
Arab Doctors informed the world about their scientific
discoveries by publishing their findings.
Avicenna Abu-Ali Al-Husein ibn Abdullah ibn Sina
980-1037 Avicenna is considered the greatest Arab
physician today and was recognized as such during his
lifetime as well. Rulers of various warring states of the
disintegrating Arab hegemony considered Avicenna one
of the spoils of war. In addition to his many writings
concerning health and medicine, Avicenna argued that
alchemists would never be able to
transmute base metals into gold. He also transmitted
many of Aristotles views to the wide audience he
obtained for the hundreds of books.
Mathematics
Islam made major strides in the field of algebra,
geometry and trigonometry.
They used to solve practical problems
Contributions can be traced to Al-Khawarizmi in the
9th century.
He introduced the fundamentals of algebra.
Most revolutionary contribution was the development
of numbers and the discovery of zero
Scientific Method
Scientific method was first developed in the Muslim
world, where significant progress in methodology was
made.
The most important development of the scientific
method was the use of experimentation and
quantification.
Muslim scientists translated Greek classics and made
far reaching advances in many fields
Advances in Medicine
In the field of medicine the Muslims laid down the
foundations of many sub areas of medicine.
Both preventative and remedial aspects of medicine
was researched and developed.
Al-Razi, a 9th century Persian physician, made the first
major Muslim contribution to the medicine when he
developed treatments for smallpox and measles.
Another physician Ibn sina composed over 276 works
and the most prominent is Qanun Ibn sina Cannon of
medicine
Muslims also made advances in the treatments of
cataracts main cause of blindness during old age
Developing Science
 Scientific work started with the translation of scientific
texts into Arabic
Notable achievements are in the field of chemistry and
physics
Muslim chemist Jabir discovered nitric acid and
developed the process of distillation, sublimation,
filtration, coagulation and crystallization.
Physics
Ibn al-Haytham ca. 965-1039, father of optics
explained how human vision takes place
He used an early form of the scientific method to
explain optics
Architecture and Engineering
Islamic architecture is distinct in terms of its unique
architectural elements and ornamentations
Calligraphy, an essential aspect of written Arabic,
developed in manuscripts is often incorporated
architectural designs
Muslims also contributed to the field of engineering
by inventing gears, cranks, pistons and pumps
These tools was later incorporated into machinery
developed during the European-based industrial
revolution
Rhazes c.860-930, Islamic Persian scholar, physician
and alchemist, with an assistant, in his chemistry
laboratory in Baghdad now in Iraq
Islams Golden Age
Muslims blended and absorbed customs and traditions
from many of the people they ruled
Preserved the Greco-Roman culture
Muhammad stressed the importance of learning
Arts and architecture-Muslims architects built
mosques and beautiful places. Artists were excellent at
calligraphy, which decorated artwork and buildings.
Literature-adopted the ideas of Greek, India, and
Chines writers
Math and Sciences-Muslims studied Indian and Greek
mathematics, pioneered the study of algebra and
geometry, and calculated the circumference of the earth
within a few thousand feet
Muslim doctors had to pass very difficult tests before
they could practice medicine

Philosophy
Muslim scholars translated the works of Greek
philosophers
Muslim philosophers:
 Ibn Rushd-wrote commentary on Aristotles writing
Ibn Khaldun-argued for the use of historical
investigation
Astronomy played a key role in Islam itself and those
who worked to solve astronomical problems became
interested in the mathematical sciences for their own
sake. Islamic astronomers worked to create a further
development of Ptolemaic astronomy which was more
fully consistent with Aristotelian physics.
Golden Age of Islam
The Spear of Destiny also known as the Holy Lance is
a name given to the spear used by a Roman soldier to
pierce the side of Jesus of Nazareth several hours into
crucifixion. ... Charlemagne carried the spear through 47
battles, with legend claiming he died immediately after
dropping the relic.
During the 9th Century Charlemagne or Charles the
Great who was a hero to the Church, tried to reestablish
knowledge as a cornerstone of medieval society. His
Frankish Empire covered most of Western Europe, and
he instigated a revival in art, culture, and learning, using
the Catholic Church to transmit knowledge and
education. They systematize education and the teaching
of logic, philosophy, and theology. He ordered the
translation of many Latin texts and promoted astronomy,
a field that he loved to study, despite his inability to
read!
By about 1000 CE the conditions of political stability
necessary for the reestablishment of a vigorous
commercial and urban life had been secured. Thereafter
for 500 years the new civilization grew in strength and
began to experiment in all aspects of human endeavor.
This period saw the renewal of large scale building and
the re-establishment of sizable towns. Monasteries
became wealthy and important centers of learning.
By the 12th Century, centers of learning, known as the
Studium Generale, sprang up across Western Europe,
drawing scholars from far afield and mixing the
knowledge of the Ancient Greeks with the new
discoveries of the great Muslim philosophers and
scientists. At that time also the oldest universities were
established Oxford 1167, Cambridge 1209, Montpellier
1220, Padua 1222, Sorbonne 1253, Valladolid 1292
Medieval Universities
Scholasticism
From the Latin word scholasticus that which
belongs to the school was a method of learning taught
by the academics or schoolmen of medieval
universities circa 1100-1500 C.E
 A system of theology and philosophy popular among
medieval European scholars based on Aristotelian
writings of the early church Fathers featuring a strong
emphasis on Catholic tradition and dogma
Scholasticism was a new philosophy that tried to
balance human reason and logic with religious faith.
Aristotle used human reason and logic to explain
things.
Medieval scholars had little use for reason and logic.
They wanted a religious explanation for everything.
St. Thomas Aquinas was a famous Scholastic
philosopher.
About Scholasticism
The main figures were Peter Abelard, Albertus
Magnus, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham,
Bonaventure and, above all, Thomas Aquinas, whose
Summa Theologica is an ambitious synthesis of Greek
philosophy and Christian doctrine which influence from
Aristotle and Plato.
Medieval Science
Europes first great medieval mathematician was the
Italian Leonardo of Pisa, better known by his nickname
Fibonacci. Although best known for the so-called
Fibonacci Sequence of numbers, perhaps his most
important contribution to European mathematics was his
role in spreading the use of the Hindu-Arabic numeral
system throughout Europe early in the 13th Century,
which soon made the Roman numeral system obsolete,
and opened the way for great advances in European
mathematics.
An important but largely unknown and underrated
mathematician and scholar of the 14th Century was the
Frenchman Nicole Oresme. He used a system of
rectangular coordinates centuries before his countryman
Rene Descartes popularized the idea, as well as perhaps
the first time-speed-distance graph. Oresme was one of
the first to use graphical analysis.
In the first book of the Almagest, Ptolemy describes his
geocentric system. He argues that, in its position at the
center of the universe, the Earth must be immovable.
Ptolemy argued that since all bodies fall to the center of
the universe, the Earth must be fixed there at the center,
otherwise falling objects would not be seen to drop
toward the center of the Earth.
Again, if the Earth rotated once every 24 hours, a body
thrown vertically upward should not fall back to the
same place, as it was seen to do.
As a result of such arguments, the geocentric system
became dogmatically asserted in Western Christendom
until the 15th century, when it was supplanted by the
heliocentric system of
Nicolaus Copernicus.
The Ptolemaic model accounted for the apparent
retrograde motions of the planets in a very direct way,
by assuming that each planet moved on a small sphere
or circle, called an epicycle that moved on a larger
sphere or circle, called a deferent. The stars, it was
assumed, moved on a celestial sphere around the outside
of the planetary spheres.
Alchemy was an ancient branch of natural philosophy,
which has a long philosophical and pseudoscientific
tradition originating in Greco-Roman Egypt in the first
few centuries AD.
Alchemists attempted to purify, mature, and perfect
certain materials. Common
aims were the transmutation of "base metals" e.g., lead
into "noble metals"
particularly gol; the creation of an elixir of immortality;
the creation of panaceas able to cure any disease; and
the development of an alkahest, a universal solvent.
In Europe, the creation of a philosopher's stone was
variously connected with all of these projects.
Alchemists, who were eager to solve the problem of the
shortage of gold in their laboratories, more or less
accidentally laid the foundation of modern Chemistry.
However, they continued antiquity's belief in four
elements and guarded their work in secrecy including
ciphers and cryptic symbolism. Their work was guided
by Hermetic principles related to magic, mythology, and
religion.
Paracelsus was an alchemist and physician of the
Renaissance. The Paracelsians
added a third element, salt, to make a trinity of
alchemical elements
THE FOUR HUMORS
The four humors are the basis of ancient medicine.
Essentially, according to the four humors model, general
health is held to be reliant on the balance of four major
body fluids: blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile.
The concept arose in Ancient Greece, but persisted into
the 19th century. Though the idea of the four humors
and their effect on general health and temperament has
been discarded in the field of medicine, many modern
theories of psychology are based upon the four
personality types associated with the four humors.
The four humors and their associated elements are:
Blood or Sanguine Humor-Air
Phlegm or Phlegmatic Humor-Water
Yellow Bile or Choleric Humor-Fire
Black Bile or Melancholic Humor-Earth
An excess of any of the four was thought to correspond
a certain temperament in the patient. A large quantity of
blood made the patient sanguine or cheerful, perhaps
with too much energy.
Too much phlegm made him or her phlegmatic, or cool
and apathetic. An excess of black bile, also called spleen
or melancholy and thought to be excreted by the spleen,
would make a person melancholic or depressive.
Finally, too much yellow bile, or choler, made for a
choleric or easily angered temperament.
Medical treatments in the past were often attempts to
rebalance the four humors. Bloodletting was common in
the medieval era, and in the Elizabethan period, certain
foods were thought to address complaints caused by an
excess or deficit of certain humors. Each of the four
humors was believed to be either hot or cold and either
dry or wet, so that each corresponded to one of the four
possible combinations of these attributes. To treat an
excess of phlegm, then, which was considered warm and
wet, the patient would be given foods considered cold
and dry. This system is the basis behind current
classifications of foods and wines using these terms,
such as a "hot" pepper or a "dry" white wine.
The Four Humors
In Europe, the Middle Ages were a time of few
advancements and many superstitions in herbal lore. In
an era that witnessed Druid rituals and the practice of
witchcraft, herbs played a major role in daily life, even
if their uses often were informed by fantasy and
imagination rather than scientific experimentation.
Nearly every tree, bush, or root in the forest was
believed to have some sort of magical power.
For centuries throughout Europe, people continued to
believe strongly in the magical power of herbs. They
wore them around their necks as amulets to ward off evil
spells, mixed them into ointments to prevent baldness
and sunburn, hung them from doorways as charms to
protect cattle or cure madness, and combined them with
ale, milk, vinegar, or honey to create powerful potions.
Medieval Europeans also used herbs liberally in their
daily diets, as did the ancient Greeks and Romans. The
use of spices was more than a matter of enlivening dull
food. With few fresh vegetables and no refrigeration to
preserve meat, spices were needed to make such fare
palatable, to mask repulsive odors and flavors, and even
to reduce contamination by killing organisms that could
make a person eating it get sick.
 Most people usually gathered herbs such as
horseradish, parsley, and fennel locally, from nearby
fields and forests, but those with more social status and
larger incomes relied on intrepid explorers to import
exotic spices from the Far East. The kings and gentry of
Europe often ate meals and drank wines seasoned with
cinnamon, pepper, and ginger grown and harvested
continents away.
Before Islamic experts brought a semblance of reason
to the practice of not allowing sick people to die on the
operation table, the realm of medicine in the Medieval
period was mostly a blood-soaked shambles led by
military doctors and barber-surgeons who were used to
cutting away at wounds during the heat of battle.
Medical Stagnation in the Middle Ages
Causes of medical stagnation in the Middle Ages
included:
Loss of medical knowledge or bad doctors
The forbidding by the Church of dissection, and its
encouragement of prayer and superstition
The encouragement by the Church of prayer and
superstition
The emphasis on authority rather than on
observation and investigation
The lack of resources to build public health systems
 Social disorder and war, which disrupted
communication and learning
The Church played a big part in medical stagnation in
the Middle Ages. It discouraged progress by:
Forbidding dissection of human corpses
Insisting that people afree with the writings of Galen
Encouraging people to rely on prayers to the saints
and superstition to cure them of diseases
Encouraging the belief that disease was a punishment
from God
This led to fatalism and prevented investigation into
cures
However, the Church did encourage people to go on
Crusades, meaning that people travelled to the Middle
East. Here they came into contact with Muslim doctors,
who were significantly more skilled than their
counterparts in Britain.
Techniques of Medieval Surgery
Medieval surgeons realized how to use wine as an
antiseptic, and they used natural substances mandrake
root, opium, gall of boar and hemlock as anaesthetics.
Medieval surgeons could therefore do external surgery
on problem areas such as facial ulcers and even eye
contacts. There was also, surprisingly, some internal
surgery undertaken e.g to remove bladder stones
However, they still had no idea that dirt carried
disease, and most operations in Medieval times, if
carried out today, would end in a suit for criminal
negligence. Deep wounds still caused death from
bleeding, shook and infection. Some surgeons even
believed it was good to cause pus in wounds.
A medieval surgeon might cure an epileptic patient by
trephining the skull to let the demon out.
Medieval Surgery: Trepanning
Trepanation is most infamous for its use during the
Middle Ages as a form of physical exorcism. Anyone
acting in a way that might perturb others was seen as a
symptom of demonic possession.
A trephine was a cylindrical blade used to burrow
through flesh and bone, basically a corkscrew for
people, and this tool was used to break off a nice old
piece of human skull in order to force residing demons
to evacuate their host. To make matters worse for a
patient, the administration of anesthesia was not
available and sometimes poisonous hemlock was
considered a form of anesthetic if opium was not
available.
Sources of Power
Wind and Water in the Middle Ages
Fluid Technologies from Antiquity to the Renaissance
The first instrument of this power revolution was the
horse. Once the horse could be harnessed to the heavy
plow by means of the horse collar, which increased their
pulling power by a factor of four, it became a more
efficient draft animal than the ox.
The German tribes used a heavy wheeled plow made
of iron. This allowed them to settle in the forested
lowlands of northern and western Europe, whose soil
was heavier and wetter and had frustrated the
agricultural techniques of their predecessors.
These advances in agriculture greatly increased the
food supply and with it the population
Norse Mill
The Norse mill , using a horizontally mounted
waterwheel driving a pair of grindstones directly,
without gears, provides the power to drive a millstone
for grinding the corn from which flour is made.
Watermills were sited close to a stream or river, whose
flow could be controlled by building a dam to hold back
the water. It could then be released at the required rate.
Such mills, ruggedly built of stone with turf roofs, were
used for grinding corn.
Scheme of the Roman
 Hierapolis sawmill, the earliest known machine to
incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism
The combination of waterwheel and transmission
linkage, often including gearing, was from the Middle
Ages usually designated a mill.
Of the three distinct types of water mills, the simplest
and probably the earliest was a vertical wheel with
paddles on which the force of the stream acted. Next
was the horizontal wheel used for driving a millstone
through a vertical shaft attached directly to the wheel.
Third was the geared mill driven by a vertical
waterwheel with a horizontal shaft. This required more
knowledge and engineering skill than the first two, but it
had much greater potential. Vertical waterwheels were
also distinguished by the location of water contact with
the wheel: first, the undershot wheel; second, the breast
wheel; and third, the overshot wheel.
Water wheels were used throughout Europe during the
Middle Ages approximately 500 to
1500, as the main source of power for driving large
machines. Some examples of how water
wheels were used are:
driving the mills that ground grain into flour
moving bellows air blowers used in metal foundries
in the iron smelting process
 hammering flax leaves to make paper
crushing rock often used to make roads
fulling wool and cloth
A windmill is a structure that converts wind power into
rotational energy by means of vanes called sails or
blades, specifically to mill grain.
The earliest type of European windmill was the post
mill, so named because of the large upright post on
which the mill's main structure the "body" or "buck" is
balanced. By mounting the body this way, the mill is
able to rotate to face the wind direction; an essential
requirement for windmills to operate economically in
north-western Europe, where wind directions are
variable.
By the end of the 13th century, the masonry tower mill,
on which only the cap is rotated rather than the whole
body of the mill, had been introduced.
The spread of tower mills came with a growing
economy that called for larger and more stable sources
of power, though they were more expensive to build. In
contrast to the post mill, only the cap of the tower mill
needs to be turned into the wind, so the main structure
can be made much taller, allowing the sails to be made
longer, which enables them to provide useful work even
in low winds
Artillery in the Middle Ages primarily consisted of the
introduction of the cannon, large tubular firearms
designed to fire a heavy projectile over a long distance.
Guns, bombs, rockets and cannons were first invented in
China during the Han Chinese Song Dynasty and then
later spread to Europe and the Middle East during the
period.
Although gunpowder was known in Europe during the
High Middle Ages due to the usage of guns and
explosives by the Mongols and the Chinese firearms
experts employed by the Mongols as mercenaries during
the Mongol conquests of Europe, it was not until the
Late Middle Ages that European versions of cannons
were widely developed. The first cannons introduced
into Europe were probably used in Iberia, during the
Christian wars against Muslims in the 13th century.
During the Middle Ages from the 5th century AD to the
16th century, Western Europe saw a blooming period
for the mining industry.
During the first medieval centuries, the output of metal
was in a steady decline and constraint in small scale
activities. Miners adopted methods much less efficient
than those of the Roman times. Ores were extracted only
from shallow depths or from remnants of former
abandoned mines. Apparently only the output of iron
diminished less in relation to the other base and precious
metals until the 8th century. This fact, correlated with
the dramatic decrease in copper production, may
indicate a possible displacement of copper and bronze
artifacts by iron ones
The main problem in underground mining was the
inefficient means for draining water out of shafts and
tunnels. This resulted in the flooding of mines. The
secondary problem was the separation of the metal
bearing minerals from the worthless material that
surrounds it or is closely mixed with it. There was also
the difficulty of the transportation of the ore, which
resulted in additional high costs.
The economic value of mining resulted in investment in
the development of solutions to these problems. This
included innovations such as water power using
waterwheels for powering draining engines, bellows,
hammers; or the introduction of advanced types of
furnaces.
The extent of this evolution was brilliantly summarized
by Georgius Agricola in his De re metallica, published
in 1556. illustrated book shows techniques of shafting,
pumping by treadmill, animal power, and waterpower,
and of conveying the ore won from the mines in trucks.
Iron is one of the most useful metals ever discovered,
but it is also one of the more difficult metals to
understand. There are three forms of iron: Pure,
unadulterated iron is only moderately hard, as anyone
who has bent a nail with a hammer can attest. When it
becomes red hot, say at about 700 degrees Celsius, it can
be easily bent and formed into whatever shape the
artisan wishes-straps, hinges, horseshoes. For this reason
we speak of "wrought iron," wrought, from wreak, to
bend or twist. Unfortunately, it is also only moderately
tough; it can easily be bent when being used. It also
loses any sharp edge very quickly under the pressure of
work or abrasion.
Cast iron, on the other hand, is enormously strong. Cast
iron takes its name from the fact that it emerges from the
smelter in liquid form and can be cast into moulds rather
like bronze or silver.
Unfortunately, it is rather brittle, and worse, it can't be
bent or shaped in any way once it has solidified.
Hammering on red hot, even white hot, cast iron will
simply break it
Steel, iron with a small amount of carbon dissolved
inside its structure, combines the best of both worlds. It
can be cast into moulds from the furnace, shaped when
red hot, and it holds an edge when it has been
sharpened, even under fairly heavy use. Steel is clearly
the prince of
ferric metals, but it's not easy to make.
Carbon is the major variable that distinguishes between
wrought iron, steel, and cast iron. Too little, and one
gets wrought iron; too much and the iron begins to flow
as cast iron. Just the right amount of carbon around 1 or
a bit more and you've got steel. So why didn't everyone
make steel? Because the smelting furnace doesn't let the
operator control the carbon content with any degree of
precision.
A bellows or pair of bellows is a device constructed to
furnish a strong blast of air. The simplest type consists
of a flexible bag comprising a pair of rigid boards with
handles joined by flexible leather sides enclosing an
approximately airtight cavity which can be expanded
and contracted by operating the handles, and fitted with
a valve allowing air to fill the cavity when expanded,
and with a tube through which the air is forced out in a
stream when the cavity is compressed. It has many
applications, in particular blowing on a fire to supply it
with air.
The term "bellows" is used by extension for a flexible
bag whose volume can be changed by compression or
expansion, but not used to deliver air. For example, the
light-tight but not airtight bag allowing the distance
between the lens and film of a folding photographic
camera to be varied is called a bellows
Several processes, such as metallurgical iron smelting
and welding, require so much heat that they could only
be developed after the invention, in antiquity, of the
bellows. The bellows are used to deliver additional air to
the fuel, raising the rate of combustion and therefore the
heat output.
A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical furnace used
for smelting to produce industrial metals, generally pig
iron, but also others such as lead or copper. Blast refers
to the combustion air being "forced" or supplied above
atmospheric pressure.
In a blast furnace, fuel coke, ores, and flux limestone
are continuously supplied through the top of the furnace,
while a hot blast of air sometimes with oxygen
enrichment is blown into the lower section of the
furnace through a series of pipes called tuyeres, so that
the chemical reactions take place throughout the furnace
as the material falls downward. The end products are
usually molten metal and slag phases tapped from the
bottom, and waste gases
flue gas exiting from the top of the furnace. The
downward flow of the ore along with the flux in contact
with an upflow of hot, carbon monoxide-rich
combustion gases is a countercurrent exchange and
chemical reaction process.
2.2 Renaissance
The Black Death
Age of Exploration
Technological innovations
2.3 The Scientific Revolution
The Black Death
The Black Death was a devastating global epidemic of
bubonic plague that struck Europe and Asia in the mid-
1300s. The plague arrived in Europe in October 1347,
when 12 ships from the Black Sea docked at the Sicilian
port of Messina. People gathered on the docks were met
with a horrifying surprise: Most sailors aboard the ships
were dead, and those still alive were gravely ill and
covered in black boils that oozed blood and pus. Sicilian
authorities hastily ordered the fleet of death ships out
of the harbor, but it was too late:
Over the next five years, the Black Death would kill
more than 20 million people in Europe-almost one-third
of the continents population Europeans were scarcely
equipped for the horrible reality of the Black Death. In
men and women alike, the Italian poet Giovanni
Boccaccio wrote, at the beginning of the malady, certain
swellings, either on the groin or under the armpits
waxed to the bigness of a common apple, others to the
size of an egg, some more and some less, and these the
vulgar named plague-boils.
Blood and pus seeped out of these strange swellings,
which were followed by a host of other unpleasant
symptoms-fever, chills, vomiting, diarrhea, terrible
aches and pains-and then, in short order, death.
The Bubonic Plague attacks the lymphatic system,
causing swelling in the lymph nodes. If untreated, the
infection can spread to the blood or lungs. The Black
Death was terrifyingly, indiscriminately contagious. The
disease was also terrifyingly efficient. People who were
perfectly healthy when they went to bed at night could
be dead by morning. Today, scientists understand that
the Black Death, now known as the plague, is spread by
a bacillus called Yersina pestis.
They know that the bacillus travels from person to
person through the air, as well as through the bite of
infected fleas and rats. Both of these pests could be
found almost everywhere in medieval Europe, but they
were particularly at home aboard ships of all kinds-
which is how the deadly plague made its way through
one European port city after another.
The Black Death that spread throughout Europe made
people aware of diseases and wanted to be protected.
During and after the Black Death there was a need to
kill diseases. Soap was invented to clean hands and
other everyday items. The death percentage dropped and
people started to get healthier. Quarantine was also used
during the plague to separate ships from the mainland so
that if the people in the sailors die they wont
contaminate that mainlanders. For the plague rat traps
were invented which caught mice and rats that had the
plague.
Every child has happily joined hands with friends and
recited the familiar nursery rhyme, Ring around a rosie,
a pocket full of posies. Ashes, ashes, we all fall down.
Few people realize to what this seemingly happy little
nursery rhyme actually refers. This nursery rhyme began
about 1347 and derives from the not-so-delightful Black
Plague, which killed over twenty-five million people in
the fourteenth century. The ring around a rosie refers to
the round, red rash that is the first symptom of the
disease. Many believed that noxious smells caused the
disease, so they held flowers to their faces and nose for
protection. The practice of carrying flowers and placing
them around the infected person for protection is
described in the phrase, a pocket full of posies. Poisies is
a kind of flower. Ashes is a corruption or imitation of
the sneezing sounds.
For some time Byzantine and Greek scholars had gone
to Italian city-states as part of cultural exchange begun
in 1396 when the chancellor of Florence invited them to
lecture at the University of Florence. The conquest of
Constantinople and the fall of the Byzantine Empire was
a key event of the Late Middle Ages. After the conquest
many Greeks, fled the city and found refuge in the Latin
West.
The migration waves of Byzantine scholars and emigres
in the period following the fall of Constantinople in
1453 is considered by many scholars as key to the
revival of Greek and Roman studies that led to the
development of the Renaissance science. They brought
to Italy and Western Europe knowledge and documents
from the preserved Greco-Roman tradition.
According to the Encyclopedia Britannica: "Many
modern scholars also
agree that the exodus of Greeks to Italy as a result of this
event marked the
end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the
Renaissance".
The Renaissance
 The Renaissance is a period from the 14th to the 17th
century, considered the bridge between the Middle Ages
and Modern history. It started as a cultural movement in
Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the
rest of Europe.
Raphael's School of Athens was not meant as any type
of school that actually existed Plato's
Academy but an ideal community of intellects from the
entire classical world. To facilitate
this vision, Raphael created a spacious hall that recalls
the "temples raised by philosophy".
The School of Athens demonstrates, like classical
statues or clear and distinct ideas, idealized
portraits of Raphael's contemporaries representing the
major figures of classical wisdom and
science. Taken further, Raphael painted on the Vatican
Palace's walls his vision of the world
of Humanist thought.
Renaissance:
Means rebirth in French
Time of great beauty and art
Time of creativity, imagination and curiosity
Age of exploration
Science and Art
 Science and art were very closely related during this
time. Great artist, such as Leonardo da Vinci, would
study anatomy to better understand the body so they
could create better paintings and sculptures. Architects
such as Filippo Brunelleschi made advances in math in
order to design buildings. The true geniuses of the time
were often both artists and scientists. They were both
considered talents of the true Renaissance man
Leonardo da Vinci 1452-1519
Leonardo was an Italian polymath, regard as the
epitome of the Renaissance Man, displaying skills in
numerous diverse areas of study.
Aside from his famous paintings he is also renowned
in other fields like hydrodynamics, mathematics,
mechanical engineering, optics, physics, pyrotechnics,
and zoology.
Da Vincis Contributions
Flying Machine
Helicopter Aerial Screw
Bridges and hydraulics
The Vitruvian Man, is a study of the proportions of the
human body, linking art and science in a single work
that has come to represent Renaissance Humanism
Michaelangelo-a famous painter and sculptor
Renaissance Art
 Oil-based paints were used for the first time
Artists began to paint in perspective 3D and use
shading
Artists painted everyday life instead of religious
scenes
European Age of Discovery
When the Ottoman Empire took control of
Constantinople in 1453, it blocked European access to
the area, severely limiting trade. In addition, it also
blocked access to North Africa and the Red Sea, two
very important trade routes to the Far East. Thus began a
search for new routes to the East to obtain gold, silver,
silk and spices Europe needed The Age of Discovery, or
the Age of Exploration approximately from the
beginning of the 15th century until the middle of the
17th century, is an informal and loosely defined term for
the period in European history in which extensive
overseas exploration emerged as a powerful factor in
European culture, most notably the discovery of the
Americas, and during which time was the beginning of
what is known today as globalization. It also marks the
rise of the widespread adoption of colonialism and
mercantilism as national policies in Europe. Many lands
previously unknown to Europeans were discovered by
them during this period, though most were already
inhabited. From the perspective of many non-Europeans,
the Age of Discovery marked the arrival of invaders
from previously unknown continents.
Impact of the Age of Exploration
Explorers learned more about areas such as Africa and
the Americas and brought that
knowledge back to Europe.
Massive wealth accrued to European colonizers due to
trade in goods, spices, and precious metals.
Methods of navigation and mapping improved,
switching from traditional portolan charts to the world's
first nautical maps.
New food, plants, and animals were exchanged
between the colonies and Europe.
Indigenous people were decimated by Europeans,
from a combined impact of disease, overwork, and
massacres.
Advances in maritime technology included the multi-
masted ships with lateen sails, the sternpost-mounted
rudder and the skeleton-first hull construction. Along
with new navigational techniques such as the magnetic
compass, the quadrant, the Jacob's cross-staff and the
mariner's astrolabe, these allowed economic and military
control of the seas adjacent to Europe
In the Age of Exploration Europe embarked on the
colonial domination of the worlds oceans. The need for
reliable navigation created a demand for better
instruments. The quadrant was improved by conversion
to the octant, using mirrors to align the image of a star
with the horizon and to measure its angle more
accurately: with further refinements the modern sextant
evolved
Gerardus Mercator March 5, 1518
Mercators disciplines were cartography and
geography. From 1535-1536 Mercator made terrestrial
globs for several rich individuals. In 1537 Mercator
constructed a globe of the stars. He was the first to use
longitude and latitude for sailors. Mercator was also
very good at making an accurate map of Western
Europe.
Technology and Inventions
1625 Method of blood transfusion was invented by
Jean Baptiste Denys
1642 Adding Machine invented by Blaise Pascal
1300 The first mechanical clock
1366 Scales for weighing
1411 The trigger for the gun
1411 The first piano called the Spinet invented
In turn the new sciences laid the theoretical foundation
for the invention of the steam engine. Although
waterpower and wind power remained the basic sources
of power for industry, the steam engine, began to slowly
replace them as new applications could be found for it.
The researches of a number of scientists, especially
those of Robert Boyle of England with atmospheric
pressure of Otto von Guericke of Germany with a
vacuum, and of the French Huguenot Denis Papin with
pressure vessels, helped to equip practical technologists
with the theoretical basis of steam power. The first
commercially successful industrial use of steam power
was due to Thomas Savery in London in 1698.
Metallurgy and mining
Important experiments in the iron industry include using
coal instead of charcoal to smelt iron ore and to process
cast iron into wrought iron and steel. The first success
came in 1709, when Abraham Darby used coke to
reduce iron ore in his improved blast furnace.
Other processes, such as glassmaking, brick making, and
the manufacture of pottery. In ceramics European
manufacturers imitated the hard, translucent quality of
Chinese porcelain.
Stoneware, requiring a lower firing temperature than
porcelain, had achieved great decorative distinction in
the 17th century as a result of the Dutch success with
opaque white tin glazes.
Mining for minerals other than coal and iron also
increased. These include gold and silver and other
nonferrous metals such as tin and lead. Brass, an alloy of
copper and zinc, was manufactured in foundries. This
knowledge is preserved in the book De re Metallica by
Agricola which became a worldwide manual on metal
working and mining practice.
Of the crafts, the largest one was in cloth making. By
the Middle Ages, the location of textile production was
usually a household where the man was the weaver and
the women prepared and spun yarn for the loom. All
cloth was woven by hand on a loom and the most
common materials of this time period were wool, cotton,
silk, and linen. Each of these materials had its own
production and most of them required the contributions
of more than one individual. Manufacturing techniques
remained unchanged over a long period of time. To
produce wool, the fleece needed to be washed and then
combed to remove tangles. Next, the yarn needed to be
spun with a spindle.
During the Medieval Age, wool was the dominant
textile with linen as the next important manufactured
textile produced. Linen is a particular difficult finished
product to manufacture. Linen is derived from flax, a
plant that has been cultivated for material since 3000
BC.
Another key innovation in the 13th century was the
introduction into Europe of the spinning wheel. The
Great or Jersey wheel, introduced around 1350, was the
first improvement made in the process of cotton
spinning. Thread could be spun faster on the wheel than
with the traditional distaff. The final Medieval technical
improvement to the spinning wheel was the addition of a
foot treadle that powered the wheel.
The processes of cloth manufacture had been partially
mechanized upon the introduction of fulling mills and
the use of spinning wheels. But in the 18th century the
industry remained almost entirely a domestic or cottage
one, with most of the processing being performed in the
homes of the workers, using comparatively simple tools
that could be operated by hand or foot. The most
complicated apparatus was the loom, but this could
usually be worked by a single weaver.
Evolution of the Clock
In Europe during most of the Middle Ages, there was no
technological advancement in time keeping. Sundial
styles evolved but didn't move far from ancient Egyptian
principles. During these times, simple sundials placed
above doorways. By the 10th century, several types of
pocket sundials were used.
Then, in the first half of the 14th century, large
mechanical clocks began to appear in the towers of
several large Italian cities. These public clocks, which
were weight-driven and regulated by a verge-and-foliot
escapement.
Variations of the verge-and-foliot mechanism reigned
for more than 300 years, but all had the same basic
problem: the period of oscillation of the escapement
depended heavily on the amount of driving force and the
amount of friction in the drive. Like water flow, the rate
was difficult to regulate.
Another advance was the invention of spring-powered
clocks between 1500 and 1510 by Peter Henlein of
Nuremberg. Replacing the heavy drive weights
permitted smaller and portable clocks and watches.
Although they ran slower as the mainspring unwound,
they were popular among wealthy individuals due to
their small size and the fact that they could be put on a
shelf or table instead of hanging on the wall or being
housed in tall cases.
The Dutch polymath and horologist Christiaan Huygens,
the inventor of first precision timekeeping devices
pendulum clock and spiral-hairspring watch. From its
invention in 1656 by Christiaan Huygens until the
1930s, the pendulum clock was the world's most precise
timekeeper, accounting for its widespread use.
The Artesian well was invented in the early 12th century
in France by Carthusian monks at Artois. The main idea
of an Artesian well is to use natural water pressure and
avoid pumping the water out of the earth.
A thin iron rod, with hard cutting edges along its side
would be inserted into a shaft which was drilled in the
ground and repeatedly hit with a hammer. The idea was
to have the rod make contact with the underground
spring or water table and force the water back up the
hole without the aid of a pump.
The key insight was to use the natural water pressure
resident in an aquifer. Certain geographies have large
amounts of water trapped in the earth, reasonably close
to the surface 60-200 feet in depth in the form of an
aquifer, or a layer of soft rock which accumulates water
from either natural water recharge, rain, or from nearby
lake and river systems. The soft rock does not block the
passage of this water into natural holding areas, located
between impervious rock layers. If you sink a shaft into
this aquifer basin and pressure drill, you can force the
water back to the surface.
Water supplies were absolutely critical to medieval
castle life. A chain pump was a device used for
transporting water uphill, and was used for centuries in
ancient China and Egypt, as well as in Europe during the
early Renaissance in Europes dockyards and naval
vessels. The pump consisted of a long loop of chain,
mounted over two wheels at the top and bottom. As the
looped chain was cranked around, either by hand or by
animal-power, the upward moving section of chain
passed through a pipe and drew water up with it, which
then flowed out at the top of the pump.
Historians have estimated that the first European glasses
were invented around the 1280s CE in Venice Italy
since it was the place known for glass making.
The Dutch spectacle maker Hans Janssen and his son
Zacharias built probably the first compound microscope
in the last decade of the 16th century.
Hans Lippershey 1570-1619 was a German-Dutch
spectacle-maker. He is commonly associated with the
invention of the telescope, because he was the first one
who tried to obtain a patent for it. It is, however, unclear
if he was the first one to build a telescope.
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, in proportions
which can be varied to achieve varying mechanical and
electrical properties. Brass is similar to bronze, another
alloy containing copper that uses tin in place of zinc.
The earliest consistent and continued use of
wheelbarrows in Europe begins in the 12th century CE
with an adaptation of the cenovectorium. The
cenovectorium Latin for "muck carrier" was originally a
cart with handles at both ends and carried by two
individuals.
The Invention of Movable Type Printing Press
Johannes Gutenberg invented the first real printing
press in Germany.
Gutenberg first printed book was the bible.
For the first time in history, the average person had
access to printed materials
The Scientific Revolution 1543-1687
The Scientific Revolution was a time of thinking of the
known natural world in new ways. Scientists of this
period recorded their careful observation and possessed
a willingness to question accepted beliefs.
Causes of Scientific Revolution
When people traded around the world, they brought
new ideas and new items back to Europe.
In the Middle Ages, universities started to study
ancient science.
The Renaissance brought more interest in math and
the human body.
Humanism made people believe that man can
accomplish anything!
The Reformation made people less religious.
The Scientific Revolution was an intellectual movement
that accompanied the Renaissance. For 1500 years the
authorities of Classical Antiquity like Aristotle in
mechanics, Ptolemy in astronomy, and Galen in
medicine stood unquestioned and their works taken as
dogma. Beginning in the 16th century they were now
challenged by scientists who used observation and
experiment instead of relying on pure reason and logic
to establish new theories for the natural world. One
characteristic of this new knowledge was that they were
developed using the evolving scientific method. This
natural philosophy would be progressive and self-
correcting building upon the work of others.
The Scientific Revolution
Nicolaus Copernicus 1473-1543 was a Polish
mathematician and astronomer, who formulated a model
of the universe that placed the Sun rather than Earth at
the center of the universe.
The publication of Copernicus' model in his book De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium On the Revolutions of
the Celestial Spheres, just before his death in 1543, was
a major event in the history of science, triggering the
Copernican Revolution.
Tycho Brahe 1546-1601 is a Danish astronomer whose
work in developing astronomical instruments and in
measuring and fixing the positions of stars paved the
way for future discoveries. His observations-the most
accurate possible before the invention of the telescope-
included a comprehensive study of the solar system and
accurate positions of more than 777 fixed stars.
Johannes Kepler 1571-1630 was a German
mathematician and astronomer who was a key figure of
the Scientific Revolution. His most famous
accomplishment are:
the three laws of planetary motion which laid the
foundation of celestial mechanics.
laid the foundation of modern optics.
 formulated the inverse-square law governing the
intensity of light
invented an improved refracting telescope
correctly explained the working of a human eye.
made a systematic work on the calculation of areas
and volumes by infinitesimal techniques and laid the the
basis of solid geometry and integral calculus
he derived logarithms purely based on mathematics,
independent of Napier's tables published in 1614.
Galileo Galilei 1564-1642 born in Pisa, Italy and lived
in Florence was an astronomer, physicist and engineer,
sometimes described as a polymath. Galileo has been
called the "father of observational astronomy", the
"father of modern physics", the "father of the scientific
method", and the "father of modern science. He was the
most well-known and successful scientist of the
Scientific Revolution, save Isaac Newton.

If I have seen further than others, it is by standing upon

the shoulders of giants
This quote is from a letter written to fellow scientist,
Robert Hooke in February 1675. The phrase is
understood to mean that if Newton had been able to
discover more about the universe than others, then it was
because he was working in the light of discoveries made
by fellow scientists, either in his own time or earlier.
Sir Isaac Newton 1642-1727, an English physicist and
mathematician, more than anyone else, led the world
towards scientific revolution. His book Principia is
regarded by many as the most important scientific work.
Isaac Newton changed the way how numerous
phenomena were viewed by scholars and due to his
influence in the development of humankind he is
regarded by many as the greatest scientist of all time.
His accomplishments include:
his three laws of motion and the conservation of
momentum laid the foundation of classical mechanics
first to formulate the notion of gravity as a universal
force
discovered the generalized binomial theorem in 1665
invented calculus
formulated an empirical law of cooling
studied the speed of sound
built the first practical reflecting telescope
developed a theory of color based on observation that
a prism decomposes white light into a visible spectrum
 inferred correctly the oblateness of earths spheroidal
figure
De humani corporis fabrica libri septem is a set of books
on human anatomy written by Andreas Vesalius and
published in 1543. It was a major advance in the history
of anatomy over the long-dominant.
Luigi Galvani 1737-1798 was an Italian physician,
physicist, biologist and philosopher, who discovered
animal electricity. He is recognized as the pioneer of
bioelectromagnetics. In 1780, he and his wife Lucia
discovered that the muscles of dead frogs' legs twitched
when struck by an electrical spark.

Robert Boyle 1627-1691 was an Anglo-Irish natural

philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventor. Boyle is
largely regarded today as the first modern chemist, and
therefore one of the founders of modern chemistry, and
one of the pioneers of modern experimental scientific
method. He is best known for Boyle's law which
describes the inversely proportional relationship
between the absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if
the temperature is kept constant within a closed system.
Among his works, The Sceptical Chymist is seen as a
cornerstone book in the field of chemistry.
In 1656 Otto von Guericke 1602-1686 invented the air
pump, and demonstrates the properties of a vacuum by
using his air pump to take the air from within his famous
"Magdeberg hemispheres," which, though easily
separated in normal conditions, could not be parted by
two teams of sixteen horses once he had removed the
air. He thus proves that air indeed has weight and exerts
pressure.
A large step in the understanding of the properties of
gases was the invention of the barometer, to measure air
pressure, by Italian physicist and mathematician
Evangelista Torricelli 1608-1647, in 1643. He filled a
sealed tube with mercury, and with the open end
immersed in mercury, noted that the height fell in the
tube to a consistent level, leaving a void above it.
Torricellis experiments started a controversy since
Aristotle has said that vacuums do not exist in nature
and air has no weight.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 1632-1723 was a Dutch
scientist is commonly known as "the Father of
Microbiology" and is best known for his pioneering
work in microscopy and for his contributions toward the
establishment of microbiology as a scientific discipline.
In 1674 he discovers microorganisms and observes of
spermatozoa arguing they are not forms of disease but a
source of reproductive material.
An English physician William Harvey 1578-1657 was
the first to demonstrate, by dissection and in detail, the
continuous systemic circulation and properties of blood
being pumped to the brain and body by the heart in his
Anatomical Exercises on the Movement of the Heart and
Blood De motu cordis He broke with the beliefs of the
Galen who assumed that the blood consisted of two
types, one in the veins and the other in the arteries.
Rene Descartes 1596-1650 was a French philosopher,
mathematician, and scientist. His best known
philosophical statement is "cogito, ergo sum" "I think,
therefore I am" Descartes has often been called the
father of modern philosophy. He laid the foundation for
17th-century continental rationalism.
Descartes's influence in mathematics is equally
apparent; the Cartesian coordinate system was named
after him. He is credited as the father of analytical
geometry, the bridge between algebra and geometry-
used in the discovery of infinitesimal calculus and
analysis.
The Age of Enlightenment: The Age of Reason
The Age of Enlightenment also known as the Age of
Reason was an intellectual and philosophical movement
that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the
17th and 18th centuries. The Enlightenment emerged out
of a European intellectual and scholarly movement
known as Renaissance humanism and was also preceded
by the Scientific Revolution and the work of Francis
Bacon, among others. French historians traditionally
date its beginning with the death of Louis XIV of France
in 1715 until the 1789 outbreak of the French
Revolution. Most end it with the beginning of the 19th
century.
Antoine Lavoisier 1743-1794 prominent French chemist
and leading figure in the 18th-century chemical
revolution who developed an experimentally based
theory of the chemical reactivity of oxygen and
coauthored the modern system for naming chemical
substances. Having also served as a leading financier
and public administrator before the French Revolution,
he was executed with other financiers during the
revolutionary terror.
Joseph Priestley 1733-1804 was an English chemist,
natural philosopher, separatist theologian, grammarian,
multi-subject educator, and liberal political theorist who
published over 150 works. He has historically been
credited with the discovery of oxygen, having isolated it
in its gaseous state. During his lifetime, Priestley's
considerable scientific reputation rested on his invention
of carbonated water, his writings on electricity, and his
discovery of several "airs" gases, the most famous being
what Priestley dubbed "dephlogisticated air" oxygen.
However, Priestley's determination to defend phlogiston
theory and to reject what would become the chemical
revolution eventually left him isolated within the
scientific community.
Alessandro Volta 1745-1827 was an Italian physicist,
chemist, and pioneer of electricity and power who is
credited as the inventor of the electric battery and the
discoverer of methane. He invented the Voltaic pile in
1799, and reported the results of his experiments in 1800
in a two-part letter to the President of the Royal Society.
With this invention Volta proved that electricity could
be generated chemically and debunked the prevalent
theory that electricity was generated solely by living
beings animal electricity of Luigi Galvani. Volta's
invention sparked a great amount of scientific
excitement and led others to conduct similar
experiments which eventually led to the development of
the field of electrochemistry.
Pierre-Simon marquis de Laplace 1749-1827 was a
French scholar and polymath whose work was important
to the development of engineering, mathematics,
statistics, physics, astronomy, and philosophy. His work
translated the geometric study of classical mechanics to
one based on calculus.
Laplace is remembered as one of the greatest scientists
of all time. Sometimes referred to as the French Newton
or Newton of France, he has been described as
possessing a phenomenal natural mathematical faculty
superior to that of any of his contemporaries. He was
Napoleon's examiner when Napoleon attended the Ecole
Militaire in Paris in 1784.
As the role of universities in institutionalized science
began to diminish, learned societies became the
cornerstone of organized science. After 1700, a
tremendous number of official academies and societies
were founded in Europe, and by 1789 there were over
seventy official scientific societies. The 18th century
might well merit the epithet of the Age of Academies.
The essential spirit of the age as embodied in the motto
of the Royal Society of London 1660, Nullius in Verba
Takes nobodys word for it. This is the signature of the
Fellows determination to establish facts only via
experimentation.
The Royal Society, is a learned society and the United
Kingdom's national academy of sciences. Founded on
28 November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by
King Charles II as "The Royal Society". It is the oldest
national scientific institution in the world.
The French Academy of Sciences is a learned society,
founded in 1666 by Louis XIV, to encourage and protect
the spirit of French scientific research. It was at the
forefront of scientific developments in Europe in the
17th and 18th centuries, and is one of the earliest
Academies of Sciences.
THE PHILOSOPHES
18TH century French intellectuals
Interest in addressing a broad audience
Committed to reform
Celebrated the scientific revolution
Science applied to society

What was this Enlightenment?

 Characterized by an increase in intellectualism deep
thinking which had the affects of...
Reform society through reason and individualism
Challenged tradition, religion and superstition
Promoted solving social problems using scientific
method-
developed from scientific revolution associated
with the Renaissance
Challenged Absolutism
Impact of Enlightenment
The writings and ideas of enlightenment thinkers will
be used to challenge monarchy
Revolutions will ensue throughout the 1700s and
1800s based around enlightenment thought
Many of these revolutions will bring about the first
republics people choosing their governments since
Rome
TOPICS
British Agricultural Revolution
The First Industrial Revolution
Evolution of the Steam Engine
Advancements in:
Textile industry
Iron and Steel making
 Transportation
Communication
Electricity
The birth of the Petroleum Industry
The birth of the car industry
The British Agricultural Revolution of the mid-17th to
late 19th century was significant because it increased
agricultural productivity in Britain and freed peasants
from working in the farms allowing them to migrate
from the rural areas to the cities where they can work in
the factories. This effectively ended feudalism in Britain
and ushered in capitalism. The British Agricultural
Revolution was the precursor to the First Industrial
Revolution that started in Britain. There are three main
events in this period:
1. The Enclosure Movement
2. Charles Townshends crop rotation
3. Jethro Tulls seed drill
The Enclosure Movement
In the decades and centuries before the 1700s, British
farmers planted their crops on small strips of land while
allowing their animals to graze on common fields shared
collectively. However, in the 1700s, the British
parliament passed legislation, referred to as the
Enclosure Acts, which allowed the common areas to
become privately owned. This led to wealthy farmers
buying up large sections of land in order to create larger
and more complex farms. Ultimately, this forced smaller
farmers off of their land. Having lost their way of life,
many of these farmers went to local towns and cities in
search of work. This was important to the overall
Industrial Revolution, because it helped create a system
that created a large workforce for the factories and
mines.
The Four Field System
Charles Townshend successfully introduced a new
method of crop rotation on his farms. He divided his
fields up into four different types of produce with wheat
in the first field, clover or ryegrass in the second, oats or
barley in the third and, in the fourth, turnips or swedes.
The turnips were used as fodder to feed livestock in
winter. Clover and ryegrass were grazed by livestock.
Using this system, he found that he could grow more
crops and get a better yield from the land.
The four field system was successful because it
improved the amount of food produced.
Clover is a plant which is able to add nitrogen
compounds to the soil because its roots have special
structures, called root nodules, attached to them. Inside
these nodules are found symbiotic bacteria which feed
by fixing atmospheric nitrogen and producing nitrates
nitrogen-containing salts. The clover, which is more
nutritious than grass, was used for grazing the livestock.
In turn, the livestock produced manure which could be
ploughed back into the soil.

Jethro Tulls Seed Drill

Jethro Tull invented the seed drill in 1701 as a way to
plant more efficiently. Prior to his invention, sowing
seeds was done by hand, by scattering them on the
ground or placing them in the ground individually, such
as with bean and pea seeds.
His seed drill included a hopper to store the seed, a
cylinder to move it, and a funnel to direct it. A plow at
the front created the row, and a harrow at the back
covered the seed with soil. It was the first agricultural
machine with moving parts.
The First Industrial Revolution 1760-1840
Textile Production: Liverpool and Manchester
Iron Production: Birmingham
Coal Mining: Newcastle
Why did it start in Britain?
Britains Coal
Britain had a large quantity of coal which was found to
be an effective form of power. Britains coal could be
mined easily. The coal mines were also close to the sea
which allowed the it to be easily shipped to other
European countries.
Britains Iron
Britain also had large quantities of iron. Englishman
Abraham Darby discovered a cheaper, easier method to
produce cast iron. Iron was an essential material, used to
make everything from appliances, tools and machines,
to ships, buildings and infrastructure.
Britains Intellectual Climate
Britain allowed its scientists, inventors and free thinkers
to work, discuss and debate openly without the threat of
the church or state. This provided the atmosphere for a
cascade of scientific breakthroughs. However, this was
not the case across Europe where people were censored
by their church and state.
Historical Significance of the Industrial Revolution
An ancient Greek or Roman would have been just as
comfortable in Europe in 1700 because daily life was
not much different-agriculture and technology were not
much changed in 2000 years
 The Industrial Revolution changed human life
drastically
More was created in the last 250 years than in the
previous 2500 years of known human history
What was the Industrial Revolution?
The Industrial Revolution was a fundamental change
in the way goods were produced, from human labor to
machines
The more efficient means of production and
subsequent higher levels of production triggered far-
reaching changes to industrialized societies
The Industrial Revolution
Machines were invented which replaced human labor
New energy sources were developed to power the new
machinery-water, steam, electricity, oil gas, kerosene
Some historians place advances in atomic, solar, and
wind energy at the later stages of the Industrial
Revolution
Increased use of metals and minerals
Aluminum, coal, copper, iron, etc.
Transportation improved
Ships
Wooden ships Iron ships Steel ships
Wind-powered sails Steam-powered boilers
 Trains
Automobiles
Communication improved
Telegraph
Telephone
Radio

Developments
Mass production of goods
Increased numbers of goods
Increased diversity of goods produced
Development of factory system of production
Rural-to-urban migration
People left farms to work in cities
Development of capitalism
Financial capital for continued industrial growth
Development and growth of new socio-economic
classes
Working class, bourgeoisie, and wealthy industrial
class
Commitment to research and development
Investments in new technologies
 Industrial and governmental interest in promoting
invention, the sciences, and overall industrial growth
Factory System
Developed to replace the domestic system of
production
Faster method of production
Workers concentrated in a set location
Production anticipated demand
For example: Under the domestic system, a woman
might select fabric and have a businessperson give it to a
home-based worker to make into a dress. Under the
factory system, the factory owner bought large lots of
popular fabrics and had workers create multiple dresses
in common sizes, anticipating that women would buy
them.
 Domestic System Factory System
Methods Hand tools Machinery
Location Home Factory
Ownersh Small hand tools Large power-
ip and owned by worker driven machines
Kinds of owned by the
Tool capitalist
Producti Small level of Large level of
on production production
Output Sold only to local Sold to a
market worldwide market
Manufactured on Manufactured in
per-order basis anticipation of
demand
Nature of Worker Worker typically
Work manufactured entire made one part of
Done by item the larger whole
Worker Henry Fords
assembly line early
20th century kept
workers stationary
Hours of Worker worked as Worker worked set
Work much as he she daily hours
would and could,
according to
The Textile Industry
Textiles-cloths or fabrics
First industry to be industrialized
Great Britain learned a lot about textiles from India
cotton and China silk
Great Britain imported raw materials like cotton first
from India then from North America and silk from
China.
Necessity Is the Mother of Invention
Spinning machine
Need to speed up weaving
Power loom created
RICHARD ARKWRIGHT
A significant invention of the Industrial Revolution was
the water frame, which was invented by Richard
Arkwright in 1769.
The machine replaced the need for manual labor and
enabled the production of inexpensive spun cotton by
using the moving force of a creek or river that spun a
shaft. This was because the water frame essentially
mechanized all of the process of spinning the yarn and
required very little human labor.
The water frame, which could produce a much stronger
yarn than that produced by the spinning jenny. The
water frame was a major advancement over previous
types of machinery including James Hargreaves'
spinning jenny.
EDMUND CARTWRIGHT
A significant invention of the Industrial Revolution was
the power loom. The first power loom was developed by
Edmund Cartwright in 1784 and completed in 1785.
Edmund Cartwright was an English inventor and is
remembered today for inventing the power loom along
with other devices important to the textile industry in
England. A loom is a device that is used to weave
together threads in order to produce a fabric. Traditional
handlooms were slow and required several laborers to
operate. Cartwrights invention of the power loom was
significant because it used mechanization to automate
much of the weaving process.
Necessity Is the Mother of Invention
Power loom
Increased demand for raw cotton
Invention of the cotton gin
In 1775 Samuel Crompton produced his Spinning Mule,
so called because it was a hybrid that combined features
of two earlier inventions, the Spinning Jenny and the
Water Frame. The mule produced a strong, fine and soft
yarn which could be used in all kinds of textiles.
The machine simultaneously drew out and gave the final
twisting to the cotton fibres fed into it, reproducing
mechanically the actions of hand spinning.
The Spinning Mule could also be driven by the new
steam engines that were being produced by James Watt
and Matthew Boulton.
The Birth and Growth of the Textile Industry
Samuel Crompton English
Spinning mule, 1779
Combined the spinning jenny and the water frame
into a single device, increasing the production of fine
thread
Edward Cartwright English
Power loom, 1785
Water-powered device that automatically and quickly
wove thread into cloth
Eli Whitney American
Cotton gin, 1793
Device separated raw cotton from cotton seeds,
increasing the cotton supply while lowering the cost of
raw cotton
Elias Howe American
 Sewing machine, 1846
Speed of sewing greatly increased
The Steam Engine
The steam engine, either used on its own or as part of a
train, is the iconic invention of the industrial revolution.
Experiments in the seventeenth century turned, by the
middle of the nineteenth, into a technology which
powered huge factories, allowed deeper mines and
moved a transport network. In a steam engine, hot
steam, usually supplied by a boiler, expands under
pressure, and part of the heat energy is converted into
work.
Development of Steam Engines
Early water power involved mills built over fast-
moving streams and rivers
Early water power had problems
Not enough rivers to provide the power needed to
meet growing demand
Rivers and streams might be far removed from raw
materials, workers, and markets
Rivers are prone to flooding and drying
Thomas Saverys Pump
The first commercially successful industrial use of
steam power was due to Thomas Savery in London in
1698. He took out a patent for a new Invention for
Raising of Water and occasioning Motion to all Sorts of
Mill Work by the Impellent Force of Fire in 1698. His
apparatus depended on the condensation of steam in a
vessel, creating a partial vacuum into which water was
forced by atmospheric pressure. It generated about one
horsepower hp and was used in numerous water works
and in a few mines hence its "brand name", The Miner's
Friend. Savery's pump was economical in small
horsepower ranges, but was prone to boiler explosions
in larger sizes.
Thomas Newcomens Steam Engine
The first commercially successful piston steam engine
was made by Thomas Newcomen, who erected his first
machine in 1712. The engine was operated by
condensing steam drawn into the cylinder, thereby
creating a partial vacuum which allowed the
atmospheric pressure to push the piston into the
cylinder. The piston was connected to one end of a
rocking beam, the other end of which carried the
pumping rod in the mine shaft. His engines were robust
but unsophisticated and produced power upwards of 5
hp. Their heavy fuel consumption made them
uneconomical when used where coal was expensive, but
in the British coalfields they performed an essential
service by keeping deep mines clear of water and were
extensively adopted for this purpose. A total of 1,454
engines had been built by 1800.
James Watts Steam Engine
Newcomens atmospheric steam engine was perfected by
James Watt when the latter patented a separate
condenser in 1769. Whereas Newcomens engine used a
single cylinder were the steam was expanded and then
cooled, Watt separated the two actions of heating the
cylinder with hot steam and cooling it to condense the
steam for every stroke of the engine. The upper part of
the cylinder was closed off thereby making the low
pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the
atmosphere. In Newcomens engine cooling water had
been injected directly into the cylinder, which cooled the
cylinder and wasted steam but in Watts design the use of
a condenser chamber and a steam jacket kept steam
from condensing in the cylinder improved fuel
efficiency by 75 to 80 . The engines generated power
from 5 to 10 hp.
James Watts Steam Engine Rotative Type
The original design of a single-acting reciprocating type
i.e., applying power only on the downward stroke of the
piston was transformed in 1783 by Watt into a double
acting rotative type, which meant that it could be used to
directly drive the rotary machinery of a cotton mill and
to large-scale grain milling. Many other industries
followed in exploring the possibilities of steam power
and it soon became widely used. With the help of
industrialist Matthew Boulton from 1775 and 1800, they
produced some 500 engines of both types, which despite
their high cost in relation to a Newcomen engine were
eagerly acquired by the tin-mining industrialists of
Cornwall and other power users who badly needed a
more economic and reliable source of energy.
Steam Engine Horizontal Type and Table Type Steam
Engine
Until about 1800 the most common pattern of steam
engine was the beam engine, built as an integral part of a
stone or brick engine-house, but soon various patterns of
self-contained rotative engines readily removable, but
not on wheels were developed, such as the table engine.
By this time also the conventional beam-type vertical
engine began to be replaced by horizontal-cylinder
designs.
Trevithickss Puffing Devil
The next improvement on the steam engine was the use
of higher steam pressures. Cornish engineer Richard
Trevithick and the American Oliver Evans constructed
machines that used high-pressure steam which was then
passed to the other side of the piston, where it
condensed and there it acted as a sub-atmospheric
pressure engine. High pressure yielded an engine and
boiler compact enough to be used on mobile road and
rail locomotives and steam boats. The first successful
steam locomotive was the Puffing Devil or Puffer in
South Wales in 1804. The success, however, was
technological rather than commercial because the
locomotive fractured the cast iron track of the tramway.
The age of the locomotive and railroad had to wait until
the development of steel.
Cornish Steam Engine
Meanwhile, the stationary steam engine advanced
steadily to meet an ever-widening market of industrial
requirements. High-pressure steam led to the
development of the large beam pumping engines with a
complex sequence of valve actions, which became
universally known as Cornish engines; their distinctive
characteristic was the cutoff of steam injection before
the stroke was complete in order to allow the steam to
do work by expanding. These engines were used all over
the world for heavy pumping duties. Cornish engines,
however, were probably most common in Cornwall
itself, where they were used in large numbers in the tin
and copper mining industries.
Sterling Steam Engine
Although all the successful engines during this era used
steam as its moving fluid, Robert Stirling in 1816
invented an external combustion engine that used air.
The hot-air engine depends for its power on the
expansion and displacement of air inside a cylinder,
heated by the external and continuous combustion of the
fuel. Various constructional problems limited the size of
hot-air engines to very small units, so that although they
were widely used for driving fans and similar light
duties before the availability of the electric motor, they
did not assume great technological significance.
Compound Steam Engine
The use of high-pressure steam led to the practice of
compounding, of using the steam twice or more at
descending pressures before it was finally condensed or
exhausted. Arthur Woolf in 1811 produced a compound
beam engine with a high-pressure cylinder placed
alongside the low-pressure cylinder, with both piston
rods attached to the same pin of the parallel motion,
which was a parallelogram of rods connecting the piston
to the beam.
McNaughts Steam Engine
In 1845 John McNaught introduced an alternative form
of compound beam engine, with the high-pressure
cylinder on the opposite end of the beam from the low-
pressure cylinder, and working with a shorter stroke.
Other methods of compounding steam engines were
adopted, and the practice became increasingly
widespread; in the second half of the 19th century triple-
or quadruple-expansion engines were being used in
industry and marine propulsion.
Models of a Steam Engine
Electronic Dynamo
By the 1880s the electric dynamo was invented and a
demand for electricity stimulated new thinking about the
steam engine. The problem was that a normal
reciprocating engine i.e., with a piston moving backward
and forward in a cylinder could not achieve rotational
speeds to make the dynamo efficient. The first radical
modification was to enclose the working parts of the
engine and force a lubricant around them under
pressure.
Charles Parsons Steam Turbine
The invention of the steam turbine by Sir Charles
Parsons in 1884 constituted a major technological
innovation working on a completely different principle.
By passing high pressure steam through the blades of a
series of rotors of gradually increasing size to allow for
the expansion of the steam the energy of the steam was
converted to very rapid circular motion, which was ideal
for generating electricity.
Modern Steam Turbine
Many refinements have since been made in turbine
construction and the size of turbines has been vastly
increased, but the basic principles remain the same, and
this method still provides the main source of electric
power. Even the most modern nuclear power plants use
steam turbines. In marine propulsion, too, the steam
turbine remains an important source of power despite
competition from the internal combustion engine.
The History of Steel
Steel is an iron alloy, with carbon being the most
commonly used alloying element.
 The carbon is important within the structure as
without it the pure iron metal can become soft, ductile
and weak.
In the 17th century irons properties were well
understood but as urbanisation grew in Europe there was
a larger and more desperate need for a more versatile
structural metal.
How To Smell Iron?
Wood
Wood was needed as timber and it takes too much
wood to smelt iron.
Coal
Although cheap and plentiful, coal contained Sulphur
that made the iron too brittle to be of any use.
Abraham Darby
In 1709, Abraham Darby finally succeed in smelting
iron with coke.
Coke
Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from
low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal.
Coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in
smelting iron ore in a blast furnace.
It is further used in making steel
 Abraham Darbys cooking process, which baked the
impurities from coal, gradually replaced scarce charcoal
as the fuel for iron production.
19th Century
Iron was being used increasingly for railroad
development in the 19th century, however there was still
a need for a more versatile metal and the growing
market provided an incentive to find a solution to the
problems of iron-namely its brittleness and
inefficiencies.
Steel was still unproven as a structural metal and the
production for it was slow and expensive.
1865 Developments
In 1856 Henry Bessemer designed an effective way to
introduce oxygen to molten iron to reduce the carbon
content within the alloy. This is known as the Bessemer
Process.
Henry Bessemer used a pear shaped receptacle the
converter where iron can be heated whilst oxygen is
blown through the molten metal.
As it is blown through it reacts with the carbon,
releasing carbon dioxide and producing more pure iron.
Bessemers Smelting Process
 Bessemer Process was the first inexpensive industrial
process for the mass production of steel
Remove impurities from the iron by blowing air
through it
Allowed the manufacture of bridges, railroads,
skyscrapers, and large ships
Transportation
Nicholas Cugnot, a French army officer is generally
given credit for developing the three wheeled, steam
driven horseless carriage in 1769. The carriage was later
used in 1770.
Transportation improved because of the developments
in steam and coal.
American Robert Fulton built the first commercially
successful steamboat.
British engineer Richard Trevithick built the first
railway steam locomotive.
British engineer John McAdam developed a new
process for road construction which made roads easier to
travel on.
On August 17, 1807, the Clermont, Robert Fultons
first American steamboat, left New York City for
Albany, serving as the inaugural commercial steamboat
service in the world. The ship traveled from New York
City to Albany making history with a 150-mile trip that
took 32 hours at an average speed of about five miles
per hour.
Richard Trevithick first developed an engine called
The Puffing Devil, that traveled not on rails, but on
roads. Its limited ability to retain steam prevented its
commercial success, however.
In 1804, Trevithick successfully tested the first
steam-powered locomotive to ride on rails. At seven
tons, however, the locomotive-called The Pennydarren-
was so heavy it would break its own rails.
The Rocket a pioneer steam locomotive built by the
English engineers George and Robert Stephenson ran in
1825 on a 64 km line between the cities of Liverpool
and Manchester.
For a short stretch the Rocket achieved a speed of 36
miles 58 km per hour.
Development in Trasportation System
Roads, Railways and Canals were built
Canals-Canals began to be built in the late eighteenth
century to link major manufacturing centres
Rail Road-The construction of major railways
connecting the larger cities and town
The Second Industrial Revolution 1850-1914
Essential Question
 What was the Second Industrial Revolution and what
differentiated it from the First Industrial Revolution?
1st Industrial 2nd Industrial
Revolution Revolution
Time Frame c. 1760-1830 c. 1850-1914
Methods of Hand Machine Increased
Production Automation
Mass Textiles Steel Bessemer
Production Process
Power Water, Coal and Petroleum and
Sources Steam Electricity
New Engines Steam Engine Internal Combustion
Inventions Spinning Jenny Automobiles
Water Frame Chemicals
Spinning Mule Railroads
Cotton Gin Telegraph,
Telephone and Radio
Standard of AWFUL Still bad, but
Living Think Tocqueville in improving Sewers,
Manchester Sanitation, etc.
Expansion of Middle
class
The Second Industrial Revolution
The first Industrial Revolution started in Britain but
the Second Industrial Revolution started in the United
States
 This new era began with numerous discoveries that
significantly altered manufacturing, transportation and
communication which include:
Bessemer process
Electric dynamo and generators
At first coal fired steam engines were the power
sources for factories but increasingly dynamos and
generators began replacing the steam engine
There was an abundance of inexpensive steel because
of the newly invented Bessemer process.
Steel was used in construction of heavy machinery,
railroads, and bridges and unlike iron steel does not rust
and much stronger
Using steel to create a skeletal frame in buildings
allowed architects to design larger, multistory buildings
Electricity
Scientists like Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania,
Alessandro Volta of the University of Pavia, Italy, and
Michael Faraday of Britain were the first pioneers in
electricity. Benjamin Franklin demonstrated that
lightning is static electricity and Alessandro Volta
produced electric currents using chemical reactions
within voltaic piles or batteries. But it was Faradays
experiments in 1831 that discovered the elusive
relationship between electricity
and magnetism. He mechanically generated electric
currents and utilized such current in producing rotary
motion thus making the first electric dynamo and
electric motor.
Simple Electric Motor and Simple Electric Dynamo
The mechanical generator and the electric motor depend
on the same principle which is that a rotating a coil of
wire between the poles of a strong magnet produced a
current. Conversely passing a current through the coil
causes it to turn. Both generators and motors underwent
continuous development in the 19th century particularly
in the design of the armature the coil of wire and
produced the dynamo. This made the large-scale
generation of electricity commercially feasible and
available to many industries.
Gas Lighting
The first use of electricity however was in lighting and
its main competitor was the use of coal gas.
William Murdock in 1792 at Cornwall experimented
in lighting the buildings there by gas, and use of gas
lighting spread all over in Britain in the first half of the
19th century. The first models used a fishtail jet of
burning gas, but were improved by the invention of the
gas mantle because of competition from electric
lighting.
Thomas Edisons Light Bulb
Thomas Edison did not invent the incandescent bulb
but he was the first to find new uses for electricity.
The development of the carbon-filament bulb showed
how this form of energy was better than gas lighting. In
a filament lamp a very thin conductor could be made to
glow brightly when an electric current passed through it.
The bulb had to be sealed in a vacuum to prevent the
filament from burning out.
Edison and the English chemist Sir Joseph Swan made
lamps with different types of filaments and eventually
choosing carbon. The new invention was an immediate
commercial success and different sizes of bulbs could be
made depending on the circumstances. However gas
lighting still remained popular for some forms of street
lighting until the middle of the 20th century.
Dynamo-Michael Faraday 1832
The dynamo was the first electrical generator to power
factories. This produced direct current DC electricity
This dynamo, connected directly to a high-speed
steam engine produced direct current
DC at Thomas A. Edison's electric power station in New
York City. Edison set out in
1878 to provide an electrical distribution system to bring
lighting into houses. His first
filament lamp lit on October 21, 1879.
Tesla AC Motor-Nikola Tesla 1888
Also called an alternator, Tesla's motor produced
alternating current AC. This was more efficient in
providing electricity over great distances than Edisons
DC dynamo. It has since been adopted as main source of
power for industry and residential housing.
Electric Trolley
In the 1880s and 1890s due to the availability of
electric generating equipment urban electric tramways
became popular and electric traction on subway systems
were used such as the London Underground.
Petroleum
The main demand for crude oil at first was for the
kerosene, the middle fraction distilled from the raw
material, which was used as the fuel in oil lamps. The
heavy fraction also yielded paraffin wax and lubricating
oils for machineries and asphalt for paving roads and
waterproofing boats. Most of the other products were
discarded.
In America in the late 1700s explorers reported the
Seneca Indians practice of skimming oil from
bituminous matter floating at the surface of oil springs at
Oil Creek, Pennsylvania. In 1859 Edwin L. Drake bored
successfully to strike oil. The success of the well, plus a
demand for kerosene, triggered an oil rush thus
inaugurating the search for and exploitation of the deep
oil resources of the world. It marked the beginning of
the modern petroleum industry.
Oil Refinery
The most volatile fraction of the oil, gasoline, remained
an embarrassing waste product until
it was discovered that this could be burned in a light
internal-combustion engine; the result
was an ideal prime mover for vehicles. The way was
prepared for this development by the
success of oil engines burning cruder fractions of oil.
Kerosene-burning oil engines, modeled
closely on existing gas engines, had emerged in the
1870s, and by the late 1880s engines using the vapor of
heavy oil in a jet of compressed air and working on the
Otto cycle had become an attractive proposition for light
duties in places too isolated to use town gas.
International Combustion Engine
The problem with the steam engine and its boiler and
with electrical generators are they are too big to be used
for small vehicles.
A new machine had to be developed that has to be
sufficiently small and light to be carried by the vehicle.
An example of this is the internal combustion engine.
Lenoirs Engine Using Natural Gas
Etienne Lenoir made the first successful gas engine in
Paris in 1859. It was patterned
after the horizontal steam engine, with an air-gas natural
gas mixture ignited by an electric spark and introduced
on both sides of the piston. The engine was expensive to
operate but was technically satisfactory.
Otto Gas Engine
It was not until the refinement introduced by the
German inventor Nikolaus Otto in 1878 that the gas
engine became a commercial success. He used gasoline
rather than natural gas for its fuel. Otto adopted the four-
stroke cycle of induction-compression-firing-exhaust
that has been known by his name ever since. Gas
engines thus replaced steam engines with their big
boilers and high maintenance costs as the new power
source for small industrial establishments.
Internal Combustion Engine-Gottlieb Daimler 1886
The internal combustion engine used gasoline to
power an engine. The first engines were used in
industry. This would later on provide power to the first
automobile.
The Diesel Engine
The greatest refinements in the heavy-oil engine are
associated with the work of Rudolf Diesel of Germany
in 1892. Working from thermodynamic principles of
minimizing heat losses, Diesel devised an engine in
which the very high compression of the air in the
cylinder secured the spontaneous ignition of the oil
when it was injected in a carefully determined quantity.
This ensured high thermal efficiency, but it also made
necessary a heavy structure because of the high
compression maintained, and also a rather rough
performance at low speeds compared with other oil
engines. It was therefore not immediately suitable for
locomotive purposes, but Diesel went on improving his
engine and in the 20th century it became an important
form of
vehicular propulsion.
Diesel Engine-Rudolf
Diesel 1892
The diesel engine designed for the vehicle proved fuel
could be ignited without a spark by using petroleum.
This was in contrast to the engine developed by Daimler
Benz which ran on gasoline and needed a spark.
The First Gasoline Automobile
Meantime the light high-speed gasoline petrol engine
predominated. The first applications of the new engine
to locomotion were made in Germany, where Gottlieb
Daimler and Carl Benz equipped the first motorcycle
and the first motorcar respectively with engines of their
own design in 1885. Benzs horseless carriage became
the prototype of the modern automobile, the
development and consequences of which can be more
conveniently considered in relation to the revolution in
transport. By the end of the 19th century, the internal-
combustion engine was challenging the steam engine in
many industrial and transport applications.
The Wright brothers-Orville and Wilbur were two
American pioneers generally credited with inventing,
building, and flying the world's first successful motor-
operated airplane. They made the first controlled,
sustained flight of a powered heavier-than-air aircraft
with the Wright Flyer on December 17, 1903.
Advances in Communication
The great innovations in communications derived from
electricity.
The first was the electric telegraph invented by two
British inventors, William Cooke and Charles
Wheatstone, who collaborated on the work and took out
a joint patent in 1837. Its first use was for signaling on
the British railways
Almost simultaneously, the American inventor Samuel
F.B. Morse who devised the signaling code called the
Morse Code that was subsequently adopted all over the
world..
The electric telephone, invented by Alexander Graham
Bell in 1876 and adopted quickly for short-range oral
communication
By the end of the century, Guglielmo Marconi had
transmitted messages over many miles in Britain and
was preparing the apparatus with which he made the
first transatlantic radio communication on Dec. 12,
1901.
The smaller Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph
instrument, now believed to date from about 1849
Science Museum Science or Society Picture Library.
The First Electrical Communication Device
In 1837, invented by Samuel Morse came the
Electrical Telegraph. With this device he sent the first
public message in 1844.

The First Telephone

The first telephone was invented on March 10th of
1876 by Alexander Graham Bell.
The first sentence said over the first telephone was, Mr.
Watson-come her- I want to see you.
He patented it as the talking telegraph
The First Typewriter
 In 1829, the typewriter was invented by W.S Burt on
the 4th of April. It was the most important device of its
days.
The Improved Typewriter
The improved typewriter or the modern typewriter was
made on the 4th of April in 1867. Christopher Scholes
invented it in 1867. Even though it is improved from the
last, it still has similar functions.
The typewriter gave more jobs to women who did
clerical work and the main task was to type.
Guglielmo Marconi Italian-1874-1937
Developed technology to send the first long-distance
wireless radio telegraphs
1897-started the Marconi Wireless Telegraph
Company
1899-transmitted a message across the English
Channel
1901-transmitted a message across the Atlantic
Ocean