Indicators of Sustainability To The Mine PDF

A WORD OF CAUTION
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Carajás, Oriental Amazon, Brazil

June 2002
Roberto C. Villas-Bôas
Christian Beinhoff
Editors
Summary
Preface
Current Issues on Sustainable Development that Impacts
the Minerals Extraction Industries - Roberto. C. Villas-
Bôas .................................................................................................... i
I – Working concepts and ideas
Sustainable Development: Concepts, Scenarios and
Strategies for R&D, Roberto C. Villas Bôas and Maria Laura
Barreto ............................................................................................... 3
The Indicators of Sustainability In Mining - Juan Manuel
Montero Peña................................................................................... 23
Qualitative Analysis of Mining Environmental
Sustainability: Myth and Reality - Adilson Curi and
Hernani Mota de Lima..................................................................... 47
A Geo-Environmental Data Base Due to Elaborate
Geoindicators Scenarios Based on Engineering-
Geological Criteria - N.C. Diniz.................................................... 61
Mining & Sustainable Development: The Economic
Dimension in the Selection of Indicators - Eduardo Vale............ 79
General Criteria of the Sustainability for Mining Activity
- Diosdanis Guerrero Almeida and Roberto Blanco Torrens .......... 89
Sustainability Indexes for the Mining Industry - Enrique
M. González .................................................................................. 111
Concurrent Resources: Sustainability Depends on
Agreement - José Enrique Sánchez Rial....................................... 117
Ideological Foundations of Sustainability Indicators,
Sonia Osay..................................................................................... 139
II – Mine: Case studies
Uranium Mining and Energy – Environmental,
Economical and Social Sustainability Indicators -
Lamego, Fernando; Fernandes, Horst; Franklin, Mariza............... 153
Environmental and Social Performance Indicators and
Sustainability Markers for Two Mining Groups in
Colombia - Elkin Vargas Pimiento............................................... 167
Sustainable Indicators of the Small Coal Mining in
Colombia - Liliana Betancurth M................................................. 201
Modeling of gold heap leaching for criteria of
sustainability targets, Luiz R. P. de Andrade Lima, Roberto
C. Villas-Bôas, Hélio M. Kohler ................................................... 225
III – Country: Case studies
Towards Sustainable Development Indicators for the
Mining Sector (1st Stage) - Verónica Alvarez Campillay ............ 247
Mining Sustainability in Bolivia - Ana Maria Aranibar
Jimenez .......................................................................................... 315
The socioeconomic impacts of the Bajo la Alumbrera
project and an approach to the economic indicators of
sustainability - Luis Manuel Álvarez ........................................... 321
Sustaining Indicators on Mining. Their Manifestation in
Cuba - Mercedes M. Valdés Mesa................................................ 339
Proposal of Sectoral Environmental Indicators for the
Territory of Moa - Rafael Guardado Lacaba and Olga
Vallejo Raposo .............................................................................. 351
Sustainable Mining? Gold in Northern Peru - Ivan
Merino Aguirre .............................................................................. 367
Practical Sustainability Indicators Mining: The Case of
Ecuador - Cornejo Martínez Mauricio, Carrión Mero Paúl ......... 385
Sustainability Indicators in the Spanish Extractive
Industry - Arsenio González Martínez and Domingo
Carvajal Gómez ............................................................................. 409
Indicators of Sustainable Development in Colombian
Mining - Jorge M. Molina and Alejandro Cardona A................... 433
Sustainability Indicators in Metallic and Non Metallic
Ore Mine Districts in Venezuela: Investigatión Proposal -
Alba J. Castillo, Aurora Piña and Sixto Jaspe ............................... 451
Proposal for the Use of Indicators for the Resolution of
Conflicts Affecting Peruvian Mining – Maria Chapuis.............. 467
IV – Region: Case studies
The Utilisation of Sustainable Development Indicators
Within the EU Mining Industry - Luís Martins ......................... 479
Strategy of the Organization to Achieve Sustainability in
Projects Related to Mercury Pollution of International
Waters Caused by Small-Scale Gold Mining – Christian
Beinhoff......................................................................................... 491
V –Vale do Rio Doce Company
Vale do Rio Doce Company - CVRD ......................................... 511
Preface
Indicators of Sustainability i
for the Mineral Extraction Industries
CURRENT ISSUES ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

THAT IMPACTS THE MINERALS EXTRACTION
INDUSTRIES
Roberto. C. Villas-Bôas
CYTED-XIII
IMAAC/UNIDO
e-mail: villasboas@cetem.gov.br
ABSTRACT
This discussion addresses some SD issues associated to the
extracting and processing of mineral commodities that are of major
concern to the mining enterprises , mining communities and that are
the focal point of research engineer or mineral scientist in an attempt
to design sustainably sound processes and products.
Also, at the end, a section on Sustainability Indicators , the
main object of this book , is ,as well indicated.
It is observed that several versions of this discussions were
made available by the author, due to the interest it raises in several
forums of debate and discussion on Sustainable Development and the
Minerals Extraction Industries .
INTRODUCTION
The production and utilization of materials in general, and as
consequence those of ores and metals, obey, within a given
framework of industrial development, the economic cycles that are in
effect in a certain time period. These cycles have been well-discussed
in the literature and might reflect a world, a local or a geopolitical
trend.
Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

ii Indicators of Sustainability
As the selection of a given set of materials depends upon the

predominant cycle in the industrialized countries, these determine, to
a greater or lesser extend, the consumption pattern of a given
commodity, inducing the market to adapt itself to such a new reality.
In materials based industries two general strategies arise:
there is a search for materials that suit an available technology, and
the development of technology for an available material.
The recycled materials, which magnitude of use of the
industries varies from economy to economy, need, as a general rule,
lower capital and energy expenditures although, in a whole, still
requires considerable manpower than that of the primary processing.
Also, they require lower pollution control costs than the primary ores.
Recycling is more intense as the sophistication of the economy
increases, since viable quantities of recycled materials must be
available in order to reutilize them.
However, as important as they are in the world's economy,
materials to be produced promote changes in the environment and
surrounding communities : they require energy to be processed, land
to be installed, disposal sites to receive tailings or disposals, give off
gases and dusts, and require water and earth movings. In fact, since
early times such environmental and social impacts have been
recognized and some actions and concerns arouse, here and there, to
minimize them or at least leaving them within a tolerable acceptable
limit.
Such acceptability, of course, changes from time to time, as
social pressures increases, forcing legislative decisions which
promote technological alternatives that will reflect back on the whole
of the economical activity.
As regard to the environment, two major questions are
receiving worldwide attention:

Indicators of Sustainability iii
1. what are the effects linked to the production, disposal and use of
materials ?
2. what are their availability in a foreseen future?
As for the communities, several important issues are
emerging from all forums concerned, such as :
a. is the “Dutch disease ” a rule or an exception ?
b. relocation of jobs and opportunities !
c. mining in indigenous lands !
d. mine closure
This discussion will focus on question ONE related to the
environment and issue d.- on the community side . However, in the
several chapters of this book , all aspects of SD and mineral
extraction , attempting to derive Indicators of Sustainability for the
Minerals Extraction Industries, and some case – studies as well will
be presented .
THE AVERAGE METAL RECOVERIES AND THE

PRODUCTION STEPS
For any material to be produced there are corresponding
steps in which discards are also produced. These discards might be
of two broad cathegories: losses and effluents. Losses are those
discards readly identified to the main material produced, i.e., parts of
that material that are left behind throughout the production steps.
Effluents are the discards coming from these same steps and that are
inherent to the applied technology within each production step, but
not necessarily identified to the main material.
- The average metal recoveries

iv Indicators of Sustainability
In order to systemize the analysis of the environmental

impacts of the discards an attempt is going to be made in quantifying
such average metal losses.
It is well recognized that ore recoveries, from mining to final
metal product varies from country to country, from economy to
economy, as a function of technology, skill, regulatory laws, finantial
capability, etc...; so are the environmenal impacts caused by primary
and secondary metals production.
Therefore, recoveries and losses data from metal to metal and
even for the same metal from country to country, even when
apparently similar technologies are used, do vary substantially due to
the so called "particularities" of the mining world: the cut-off-grade
and the compromise between grade versus recovery optimal
combination, making each orebody unique in its physical and
economic characteristics.
Other things being equal, the lower the grade or the poorer
the quality of the ore, the higher will be the cost of recovery of the
valuable products. To the extent that there is a choice of the grade of
the ore to be mined, there is also a choice of the total tonnage and of
the total product recovered; the lower the permissible grade, the
higher the tonnage. Therefore, the fixing of the cuttoff grade in
deposits of irregular grade-distribution may require several
computations of alternative tonnages and grades on the basis of
different assumptions as to mineable limits.
Equally important with grade is the workability of the ore
which is measured by the cost of physical removal of the rock. Other
factors, such as accessibility from mine openings, thickness and
regularity of the ore zone, hardness and toughness of the ore,
presence of interfering structures, such as faults, weak ground, et
allia, all must be evaluated when the decision on which ore must be
taken should be made.

Indicators of Sustainability v
Variations in the grade in the workability of an ore body, may

go side by side, or they may partly compensate each other. Ores of
many different grades and many different costs, but sufficiently
similar in other qualities to be amenable to the same treatment
process may be mine or blended to profitable recovery of otherwise
para marginal ore.
Complete removal of all available ore from mine, or complete
extraction of all available ore is never achieved. Cost per unit
recovered rise almost continuosly and usually with increasing steeps
as attempts are made to increase the percent extracted. In the short
run, with the recovery plant given, the percent extraction of metal
will depend, to some extent, on the grade of the ore itself; the mining
method usually limits the recovery of the ore in the mine.
As well as the utilized processing technology. For gold
leaching, for example, the recovery figures are those shown in Table
1.
Table 1. Gold leaching recoveries.
OPERATION PARTICLE METTALURGICAL COSTS
SIZE RECOVERY
Agitation < 0,1mm 90 - 95% > 20h ↑IN ↑OP
Vat < 10mm 70 - 80% 3 to 4h ↑IN
Heap > 10mm 40 - 60% ↓IN ↓OP
3 to 4w
IN = investment costs h = hour
OP = operational costs w = week
Lets have a look on some select mineral commodities, as
regarding recoveries and grades, as shown in Table 2.
It can be readly seen that the problem associated to earth
moving and tailing disposal is quite a severe one, since from the

vi Indicators of Sustainability
grade of the ore up to the production of a salable concentrate, the

mass of the produced concentrate, as related to that of the ore total
(MC) and the mass recovery itself (MR) are, of course, far from the
sustainable target of total utilization, for the aforementioned reasons.
Table 2. Selected mineral commodities recovery/grade
ORE RECOVERY GRADE COMPANY
Nb2O5 (3,0%) MC = 3,3% Ore 60% Nb2O5 CBMM (9)
piroclore MR = 66% Conc.
TiO2 (1,5%) MC = 2,2% 55% TiO2 RIB (9)
ilmenite Ore MR = 81% Conc.
Cr2O3 (17%) MC = 28% Ore 37% - 46% Cr2O3 FERBASA(9)
chromite MR = 65% Conc.
WO3 (0,5%) MC = 0,49% Ore 75% WO3 TUNGSTÊNIO (9)
scheelite MR = 74% Conc.
Sn (1,3%) MC = 1,9% Ore 48% Sn RENISON (10)
cassiterite MR = 69,1% Conc.
Ta2O2 (0,16%) MC = 0,22% Ore 49% Ta2O5 BERNIC (10)
tantalite MR = 70% Conc.
As already pointed out MC stands for the mass of produced

concentrate, as related to that of the ore total, in percent, and MR is
the mass recovery, i.e., the recovered amount of the valuable
commodity as related to the original amount in the ore.
A very illustrating example of recovery, grade, mass

recovery, earth moving, generated by-products is the production of
phosphate fertilizers, from volcanic rock, that besides the usual earth-
moving and disposal problems associated to the production of the
concentrate, it generates five times the mass of gypsum as that of the
concentrate, P2O5 based, when such a concentrate reacts with
sulphuric acid to produce the fertilizer.

Indicators of Sustainability vii
- The Production Steps

Lets describe such production steps and their discards, for
the purposes of this presentation, identifying four steps, namely
extracting, processing, fabricating and manufacturing, as follows:
- extracting step, i.e., the mining and beneficiation of the ore to a
commercial concentrate. The losses are dependent upon the
mining method (open pit, cut-and-fill, room-and-pillar, etc...) and
beneficiation techniques (gravity separation, flotation, etc...); the
effluents generated are COx NOx from machinery and equipment,
process waters and contaminated freatic waters, particulate
material, and earth moving disposals/rearrangements;
- processing step, i.e., the extractive metallurgy or chemical
operations to convert a concentrate into a metal; losses are depend
upon the chosen technologies and skills involved (pyro, hydro
and/or electro), and the effluents generated are gases (COx, NOx,
SOx), liquids (heavy metals contamined waters) and solids
(sediments, and heavy metals dusts);
- fabrication step, i.e., those operations devoted to produce rods,
bars, sheets, etc...; the losses are scrap materials resulting from
those operations, denominated "home scrap" endlessly
recirculated, without any net loss of metal; the effluents are waste
waters and industrial gases;
- manufacturing step, i.e., the application of mechanical
operations for the shaping of metals by machining, stamping and
forging, other than those of the fabrication step; the losses are
parts of metal resulting from such mechanical treatments that does
not produce the aimed product, being denominated "new scrap" or
"prompt scrap", which recycling is well organized and efficient;
the effluents are water vapors and industrial gases.

viii Indicators of Sustainability
The utilized average metal recoveries figures from ore to

metal, involving the extracting and processing steps are those of
HASIALIS and for the manufacturing step that of MAR. It is
acknowledged that this last figure is well obsolete for the U.S. where
it was obtained in 1954(!); however in the developing world this
figure might be still reasonably valid. As for those of HASIALIS they
are average figures, and large departures from these figures, for a
given particular case, do exist , i.e., the statistical variances !
The production steps, as indicated, are all illustrated in
Figure 1. Such a flowchart, or Sankey diagram, helps to seek
solutions related to the discards involved in each production step. A
similar chart might be attempted in terms of overall mass flows
(MC's), if defined for each production step, resulting in more
impacting figures, since earthmovings, then, would be included.
Tunneling into each of the aforementioned four production
steps, a clear picture, hopefully, will then be achieved. Lets try that!
For this, some explanations are needed to follow Figures 1
the remaining Figures of the text:
Figure 1. The production steps

X = the metal content of the "in situ" ore
LE = is the loss in metal resulting in the extracting step, and is
equivalent to 0,3625 X.

Indicators of Sustainability ix
PE = is the product in metal originated from the extracting step,

and is equivalent to 0,6375 X.
LP = is the loss in metal resulting from processing, and is equivalent
to 0,06375 X.
PP = is the product in metal resulting from processing and is
LF = is the loss metal resulting from fabrication and is equivalent to
O X (endless recirculated).
PF = is the product in metal resulting from fabrication, and is
equivalent to PP.
LM = is the loss in metal resulting from manufacturing, and is
PM = is the product in metal resulting from manufacturing.
Ei = is the effluent, generated in each stage.

x Indicators of Sustainability
LE
LOSSES
Left Ore
+
Min. Proc. Tailing
0,3625X
Bulk "in situ" ore Concentrate

EXTRACTING PE
X (Mining + Min. Proc.) 0,6375X
EE
ENERGY*
< 17,5MWh/ton EFFLUENTS
*See footnote Table 3. Gases from Machining
H.M. Waste Waters
Particulate/Dust
Earth Movings
Figure 2. Income/outcome of the extracting step.

- Identifyable environmental impact and prospects in the
extracting step
From Figure 2:
A. Energy:
Taking up of energy. There are technical rooms for
improvements. Figures in kWh (thermal), per tonne of primary metal,
as reported in ref. 16; Al (10,175); Cu (17,420); Zn (1,240).
B. Losses:
B.1 Left ore, function of cut-off and mining method, there are
technical rooms for improvement.

Indicators of Sustainability xi
B.2 Mineral Processing tailings, rooms for gains pending on

improvements in the next step (processing), since commercial
grade concentrates are inputs to a given processing technology.
C. Effluents:
C.1. Mining, earth moving impacts associated to land reclamation;
rooms for improvement based upon compromises between
legislation (function of social pressures) and costs of reclayming.
Physical disturbances are permanent; dust
C.2. Mining: gases from machinery and equipment (as well as noises
and vibrations), there are technical rooms for improvement.
C.3. Mining: disruption of water regimes. Little room for
improvements in present day mining methods.
C.4. Mineral processing: process waters and dust, still technical
rooms for improvement.
C.5. Mineral processing: tailing disposals, solids, and control of acid
generation.

xii Indicators of Sustainability
LP
LOSSES
Slags, Sludges,
Dusts, Process
Waters
0,06375X
0,6375X Metal
PROCESSING PP
0,57375
PE (Extractive Metallugy.)
OX
ENERGY* EP
< 113 MWh/ton EFFLUENTS
*See footnote Table 3.
Generated Gases
Waste Waters
Particulate Solid Wastes
Figure 3. Income/outcome of the processing step.

- Identifiable environmental impacts and prospects in the
processing step
From Figure 3:
A. Energy:
Taking up of energy. There are rooms for improvements.
Figures in kWh per tonne (thermal) as reportes in ref. 16; Al
(35,384); Cu (26,520); Zn (17,560); Mg (103,000). Other figures are
reported for Al and Mg if hydro-based power is available (much
lower figures).

Indicators of Sustainability xiii
B. Losses:
Left metal as function of the process technology utilized,
skills and legislation. There are rooms for improvements, specially
those devoted to recover metal from slags, sludges and dusts of
existing technologies or new technologies based on decreasing the
number of operations/equipment stages (i.e., continuous converting
for Cu and the still pending solution to the red mud problem in Al.).
C. Effluents:
Generated process gases (COx, NOx, SOx); waste waters
after eventual removal of metal(s) from process waters; particulates
throughout the processing stages and solid wastes other than slags,
sludges, etc... (for the Al industry, for instance, spent potlinings,
drosses, electrodes, etc...),still rooms for technical improvements.
LF
LOSSES
Home Scrap
OX
0,57375X Metal Bards Rods

PF
FABRICATING
0,57375X
PP
OX
EF
ENERGY*
< 6 MWh/ton EFFLUENTS
*See footnote table 3
Industrial Gases
Waste Waters
Figure 4. Income/outcome of the fabrication step.

xiv Indicators of Sustainability

fabricating step
From Figure 4:
A. Energy:
Taking up of energy. There are rooms for some
improvements. Figures in kWh/tonne (thermal), as reported in ref. 16;
Al (4,937); Cu (5,970); Zn (1,492).
B. Losses:
Generation of home scrap, no net losses. However, rooms to
reduce such generations as fabrication operations/equipments become
more efficient.
LM
LOSSES
New Scrap, Borings
Trimmings Rejects
0,11475X
0,57375X Metallic Product

PM
MANUFACTURING 0,4590X
PF
OX
ENERGY* EM
<<6MWh
*See footnote table 3
EFFLUENTS
Industrial Gases
Water Vapors
Figure 5. Income/outcome of the manufacturing step.

Indicators of Sustainability xv

manufacturing step
From Figure 5:
A. Energy:
Quite variable depending on the particular metallic product
through forging, stamping and machining. Much less than any other
of the previous production stages.
B. Losses:
They are the so called new scrap that usually goes to
secondary production.
C. Effluents:
Industrial gases and water vapors.
ROLE OF THE RESEARCH ENGINEER OR SCIENTIST

For an account of the role of hydrometallurgy in achieving
sustainable development the interested reader is referred to the
literatture, for instance (17 and ) where acidic mine drainage, metals
removal from waste streams, arsenic management, reduction of
gaseous pollutants and energy conservation, cyanide destruction,
waste processing and product recycling are matters discussed through
selected examples of hydrometallurgical technologies as applied to a
better environment.
The points to be raised, in this section however, are those of a
general nature that may guide the hydrometallurgist towards a better
understanding of the overall effect a given process has upon the
environment, thus hopefully enhancing his/her chances of designing
environmentally sound processes which in turn produce products.

xvi Indicators of Sustainability
Let's raise some major points in each of the income/outcome

of the production steps, namely energy, losses and effluents.
Energy
Table 2 lists the energy taken up in each production step.
Table 2. Energy utilized in each production step
PRODUCTION STEPS ENERGY
(MWh [thermal]/ton*
Extracting < 17.5
Processing < 113.0
Fabrication < 6.0
Manufacturing << 6.0
* Figures as mentioned, not averages but maximum, for a selected class of
metals (Al, Cu, Zn, Mg, Ti)
The role of the research enginner is to seek for processes that
minimizes energy consumption; his/her tasks are, thus, primarely
devoted to the processing step, following the extracting step and,
then, fabrication and manufacturing.
Indeed, the efficiences of processing operations have been
compared by CHAPMAN & ROBERTS, appearing in other papers
dealing with the subject of environment, metals production and
energy such as YOSHIKI-GRAVELSINS, et al., and FORREST &
SZEKELY.
For the purposes of this article, the overall energy efficiences
in the processing step, i.e. the energy take up by the whole step and
not just the direct one, as compared to the thermodinamical Gibbs
Free Energy, ∆G, for that same processing step, are of interest, since
they give a strong indication to where to search for process
improvements, energywise. Table 3 lists some selected metals and
their overall efficiencies.

Indicators of Sustainability xvii
Table 3. The processing step overall energy efficiences for

selected metals.
PRIMARY METALS OVERALL ENERGY
EFFICIENCIES* (%)
Al 13
Cu 1.4
Zn 5.5
Mg 6.1
Ti 4.1
* Energy take up by the whole step, as related to the Gibbs Free Energy.
Of great concern to the hydrometallurgist is the power
source of energy, i.e., hydro or coal based, due to the greenhouse
effect. Such a concern was extensively dwelled by FORREST &
SZEKELY.
Losses
Table 4 list the average metal losses to the environment, per
production step.
Table 4. Metal losses to the environment per production step.
PRODUCTION STEP AVERAGE METAL LOSSES*
Extracting 0,3625 X
Processing 0,06375 X
Fabrication 0
Manufacturing 0,11475 X
Average metal loses as referred in the text.
Here, the research engineer has to focus his/her attention to
the extracting step, first, and to a lesser degree to the
manufacturing step.

xviii Indicators of Sustainability
It is worthy point out, however, that those average figures

may be misleading. For each particular metal/substance that the
hydrometallurgist is studing he/she has to refer to the actual values
that are particular to the mining method, metal, process, skill,
country, etc..., as previously discussed.
Nevertheless, mining and minerals processing techniques are,
in general, responsible for the greatest losses. In-situ mining
techniques, that usually refer to the injection of a leach solution
through boreholes into the ore are to be taken into account whereas
possible.
The losses of the manufacturing step usually goes to
secondary recovery and besides the strategic/economic aspect to the
enterprise itself, as discussed by CHAPMANN and ROBERTS
through the GER (gross energy requirement) concept, no major role
of the hydrometallurgist is to be foreseen, since such efficiencies are
rather linked to the mechanical/electronics/physical metallurgical
aspects of the issue.
In the processing step, several improvements have been and
are still made through process optimization and process
improvements.
Effluents
Regarding the effluents, the discards to the environment are
several assuming the liquid, the gaseous and the solid states, giving to
the hydrometallugist an extraordinary opportunity and offering
several challenges.
Table 5 gives a list of problems that seek solutions at each of
the production steps, compairing in relative terms the land, water and
air impacts; the relationship is made referring to acceptable
environmental standards in OECD's countries and they may vary
considerable from country to country and from metal to metal.

Indicators of Sustainability xix
Table 5. Comparison between the impacts of the effluents in each

production step.
PRODUCTION LAND IMPACT AIR
STEP WATER
Extracting S S M
Processing M→S M→S S
Fabrication L L S
Manufacturing L L L
L ≡ low impact
M ≡ moderate impact
S ≡ severe impact
For the identification of the specific problems that face the
particular metal industry, the reader is referred, for instance, to
references.
Thus the role of the hydrometallurgist in developing
environmentally sound processes has to be focused on the extracting
step (i.e., land disturbance, soil erosion, mine run-off water, water
regimes, dust tailing disposal, revegetation, etc...) and the processing
step (i.e., acid generation, heavy metals effluents, disposal of solids,
gas generation), primarely. For the specific techniques (biosorption,
liquid-liquid exchange, electrowinning of dilute solutions,
membranes, etc... see references). Table 6, lists some environmental
impacts associated to selected mineral industries.

xx Indicators of Sustainability
Table 6. Major environmental impacts for selected mineral

industries.
METAL IMPACT
Al Red mud slurry; HF; CO2; tar pitch volatiles;
spent pot linings; cyanide
Cu SO2; metal fumes; heavy metal effluents
Zn Iron oxide; SO2; Cd; heavy metal effluents
Mg CHCs; dioxin
Ti FeCl3; volatile chlorides; CO2
Ni Metal carbonyl; heavy metal leachate;severe
dusts and particulate emissions
P2O5 Gipsum, water consumption and disposal;
radiation (whenever present)
MINE CLOSURE
Mine closure , as seen today is a process that may be
envisaged as a mine unit operation starting from the design stage of a
mine site taking into consideration every environmental , social and
community aspect that might be affected or modified during an ore
body exploitation .
Conceptual , as well practical examples of succesful and
unsucessful mine closure experiences were recently discussed (27)
and represent some very useful examples were to base future
operations .
However, if the technical aspects of mine closure, although
now-a-days costly, might be overcomed , the social aspects of it are
still far from being equationed .

Indicators of Sustainability xxi
In the near past mining might be considered as being built up

by four major unit operations :
- access and cleaning the mining place place : in order to get to the
ore .
- blasting : to crack down the ore .
- transporting : to transport the broken ore to the primary crusher .
- reclayming : to let the are suitable after mining .
However, how “suitable” is suitable ?
This last unit operation is being proposed to change looking
for the technical side of mine closure from the very start of the design
phase of the mine .
It is well recognized that mine closure has its technical and
social side as well ; the technical one has to be focus as a mining unit
operation with its costs being taken as operational costs throughout
the life-time of a mine ; the social one , is , in the process of mining,
the cost necessary to relocate jobs and careers after mining has gone !
Since these issues are quite recent , the environemnetal and
social heritages of mining , and other industrial activities , are still at
discussion and several viewpoints have been emerged throughout the
literature
It is worthy remember, at least, that minerals may be viewed
not just as vilains, but as well as helpers to the environment.
Tightening environmental legislation are forcing that the rules
governing waste water treatment and disposals be stricter; bentonite,
lime, soda ash, magnesium hydroxide and zeolites are reported as
environmental helpers in the literature and open, as well, a vast field
of investigation to the research engineer or scientist as a whole.

xxii Indicators of Sustainability
INDICATORS OF SUSTAINABILITY
As we shall present and discuss throughout thie e-book text
effective indicators will possess relevance , easiness to grasp and
understand , reliability and based on accessible data .
It is quite important that the information provided be timely ,
when still there will be time to act and propose solutions for a given
set of problems.
However, as it may happens frequently , the suggested best
indicators normally lacks data and those for which data is available
do not fullfil the needs as indicators of sustainability !
Various sources of data and discussion are available on the
internet and some will be listed herein :
- Sustainable Community Roundtable’s 1995
http://www.olywa.net/roundtable/ ;
- Simple Living Network http://www.slnet.com/
- Interagency Working Group on Sustainable Development
Indicators http://www.sdi.gov/
- Environment and Sustainable Development Indicators Iniciative
(ESDI ) http://www.nrtee-trnee.ca
- Sustainable Development Criteria and Indicators for Minerals and
Metals http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/mms/sdev/sdrcrit-e.htm
CONCLUSION
It is hoped that the presentation of the production steps
always present in the production of materials, namely, extracting,
processing, fabrication, and manufacturing that incorporates the
incomes/outcomes for each of these steps, namely, the input/output
of materials, energy, losses and effluents, and their discussions,

Indicators of Sustainability xxiii
have helped the stakeholders to choose the relevant areas of their

research interests for the sake of designing environmentally sound
processes to promote sustainability.
An overall account of the challenges faced by the mining and
metallurgical industry to meet sustainable development is given in
(26) and the reader is addressed to the issues and solutions therein
proposed. As for mine closure , see reference ( 27) .
LITERATURE
Malenbaum, W. (1978) World Demand for Raw Materials in 1985
and 2000; in University of Phyladelphia Publication Series,
U.S.A.
Tilton, J.E.(1986) Atrophy in Metal Demand; Materials and Society,
vol.10, no 3.
Waddell, L.M. and Labys, W.C. (1988) Transmaterialization:
Technology and Materials Demand Cycles; Materials and
Society, vol. 12, no 1 .
Villas Bôas, R.C. (1987) Strategic Ores: Worldwide and Brazilian
Prospectives; Second Southern Hemisphere Meeting on
Minerals Technology, Proceedings, Rio de Janeiro.
Anon, (1993) Materials and Environment, where do we Stand,
Minerals Today, our Materials World: A Special Edition,
U.S.B.M., April, 1993
Villas Bôas, R.C. (1976) Aluminium: Why Search for New
Production Roules? Proceedings of the IV National Meeting
a Minerals Processing, São José dos Campos, Brasil.
Corry, A. V.& Kiessling, O.E. (1938) Grade of Ore, Works Progress
Administration, National Research Project, Mineral

xxiv Indicators of Sustainability
Technology and output per Man Studies, USBM, Report E-

6, August, p. 114.
Bahr, A. and Priesemann, Th.(1988) The Concentration of Gold
Ores, Workshop Rare and Precious Metals, Castelo
Ivano,Universitá di Trento, Italy.
Benvindo da Luz, A. et all (1990); Manual de Usinas de
Beneficiamento, publicação avulsa, CETEM, Rio de Janeiro.
Ottley, D.J. (1979) Technical Economic and other Factors in the
Gravity Concentration of Tin, Tungsten, Blondion and
Tantalum Ores, Minerals Sci. Engng., vol. 11, no 2, pp. 99-
121.
Beever, M.B. (1982) Materials, Technology Change and
Productivity, Materials & Society vol. 6, no 4.
Beever, M.B. (1976) The Recycling of Metals: I - Ferrous Metals; II -
Non-Ferrous Metals, Conservation & Recycling, vol. 1.
Chapman, P.F. and Roberts, F. (1983) Metal Resources and Energy,
Boston, MA: Butterworth.
Mar, J.W. (1981) Testimony at Hearings of the Subcommitee on
Science, Technology and Space of the Comittee on
Commerce, Science and Transportation of the Senate,
Washington. D.C., U.S.G.P.O.
Hasialis, M.D. (1975) Improvements in Minerals Recovery, National
Materials Policy. Proceedings, National Academy of Science,
Washington, D.C.
Yoshiki-Gravelsins, K.S. et al.(1993) Metals Production, Energy and
the Environment, Past I: Energy Consumption, JOM, pp. 15-
20, May.

Indicators of Sustainability xxv
Conard, B.R. (1992) The Role of Hydrometallurgy in Achieving

Sustainable Devolpment, Hydrometallurgy, 30, pp. 1-28,
Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Doyle, F.M. & Duyvesteyn, S. (1993). Aqueous Processing of
Minerals, Metals, and Materials, 1993 Review of Extraction
Processing, JOM, pp. 46-54, April.
Nicol, M.J. (1993) Progress in Electrometallurgy Research and
Applications, 1983 Review of Extractive & Processing, JOM,
pp. 55-58, April.
Hancock, G.F. (1984) Energy Requirements for Manufacture of
some Non-Ferrous Metals. Metal Technology, vol. 11, vol.
11, July, pp. 290-299.
Whitter, W. and Hoskins, C. (1984) Energy Required to Process
Ingots semis, and finished products, Metals Technology, vol.
11, July, pp. 307-307.
Forrest, D. & Szekely, J. (1991) Global Warming an the Primary
Metals Industry, JOM, pp. 23-30, December .
UNIDO. (1987) Pollution Problems and Solutions in the Non-
Ferrous Metals Industry, First Consultation on the Non-
Ferrous Metals Industry, ID/WG. 470/3, Budapest-Hungary.
UNEP. (1993) Environmental Management of Nickel Production:
A Technical Guide. Paris, (Technical Report, 15).
Harries-Rees, K. (1993) Minerals in Waste and Effluents Treatment,
Industrial Minerals, pp. 29-39, May.
Villas-Bôas, R.C. and Fellows Filho , L . Technological Challenges
Posed by Sustainable Development : The Mineral
extraction Industries , p.408 , IMAAC/UNIDO and CYTED ,
Rio de Janeiro , 1999 .

xxvi Indicators of Sustainability
Villas-Bôas , R.C. and Barreto , L. Mine Closure in Iberoamerica ,

p. 581 , IMAAC/UNIDO and CYTED , Rio de Janeiro , 2000.

I. Working concepts
and ideas
Indicators of Sustainability 3
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: CONCEPTS, SCENARIOS

AND STRATEGIES FOR R&D
Roberto C. Villas Bôas
CYTED-XIII and IMAAC
Maria Laura Barreto, Heloisa Medina, Carlos Peiter
CETEM
INTRODUCTION
This paper discusses the contemporary debate about the
concept of sustainable development, also introducing two possible
scenarios of S.D. and their effects on technological research. This
proposition is appropriate for the term sustainable development has
been taken by different groups of the society, i.e., environmentalists,
politicians, scientists and others, that refer to it as an aprioristic
concept. If the frequent use of the term is important, as it shows
general public acceptance, on the other hand the absence of a clear
definition results in a lack of content; hence, it is often misunderstood
as a mere environmental concern. This obviously brings serious
consequences when it is needed to define policies since the
conceptual unclearness leads to a an irresolution of the ways to take.
The concern over the concept of sustainable development is not only
academic but it is also related to the practice without which the term
sustainable development lies empty and useless, reduced to a modern
rhetorical resource.
The need of such discussion lies in the fact that this debate is
gaining the media and forcing a public opinion commitment that
eventually leads to social pressures against changes in legislation that,
in its turn, are translated into more restrictive codes of behaviour of
certain economic activities.

4 Indicators of Sustainability
This paper is divided in four parts: first, the concept

according to the international organisations; second, the theoretical
concept; third, the scenarios and finally, the fourth part and last, the
projections of the scenarios on R&D.
1. THE CONCEPTS ACCORDING TO THE

INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS
Discussions about the concept of sustainable development go
back to the 70’s when, during the Founex meeting (Founex
UN/EPHE, 1972), a new development option was outlined,
incorporating "environmentally suitable strategies for fostering more
equitable socio-economic development"1, called ECO-
DEVELOPMENT.
The 1972 Stockholm Declaration and the 1974 Cocoyoc
Declaration reasserted the concept and the proposals of eco-
development. However, it was in 1980 in a document entitled
"World Conservation Strategy", prepared by the International Union
for the Conservation of Nature, that the words Sustainable
Development were acclaimed.
The concept arose closely followed by strategies of action for
its implementation. In this sense it is not a theoretical concept strictly
speaking, but it is instrumental; and here lies the criticisms, according
to Baroni, by Khosla and Sunkel. Khosla criticizes the Stockholm
Declaration because it establishes a "strategy confined to live
resources, focused on the need to maintain genetic diversity, the
habitats and the ecological processes and incapable of dealing with
controversial matters related to international political and economic
order, wars, as well as armament, population and urbanisation
problems"2.
Sunkel makes a second criticism of the document to the effect
that the strategy presented "was essentially concentrated on the

supply side, assuming that the structure and the level of demand were
autonomous and independent variables, and ignoring the fact that if
a style of sustainable development must be pursued, hen both levels
and particularly the demand structure, must be fundamentally
changed"2.
A series of Workshops were held and reports were produced
by international organisations, intending to give substance to the term
and to establish principles. Among the most important is the United
Nations Programme for Environment (PNUMA) which supports the
document "World Conservation Strategies". Finally, the World
Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) took up the
concept of sustainable development as being development that
satisfies the needs of the present without jeopardizing the abilities of
future generations to satisfy their needs.
This same Commission (WCED) elaborates the first
document which tries to express the concept concretely: the
Brundtland Report, presented at the UN General Assembly in 19873.
The Report exhaustively defines the so-called “imperative
strategies”.
The great merit of this report seems to be the effort to make
the concept of sustainable development operative, expressed in the
imperative strategies, as well as to seek establish itself as a platform
for international negotiations. For Baroni, the greatest criticism is
that referring to the withdrawal of the "requirement established
originally in 1986 at the Ottawa Conference, regarding the need for
equity and social justice for sustainable development"2.

2. THEORETICAL CONCEPT
The literature dealing with theoretical analysis of S.D.,
basically two concepts of are found, according to the interpretation of
development and sustainability, or of the binomial development/
environment.
For Baroni, for example, when seeking to define development
and sustainability, the different and even contradictory concepts are
quite clear, whereas for Acselrad, the differentiation of the concept of
sustainable development emerges when the environmental crisis is
interpreted. He says: "The first (meaning of the term) recognises the
market's inability to respect the environment's limits and proposes the
creation of signalling elements that would make it possible to assure
the continuity of the capitalist development model. The second line of
interpretation sees the environmental crisis as a manifestation of a
crisis in the capitalist development model and finds ways for
overcoming it in the introduction of changes in the structure of power
over natural resources”4.
In fact, both authors share the opinion about the existence of
two ways of interpreting the term sustainable development and come
to the same conclusions along complementary routes. As a matter of
methodological option in this paper it is being used the differentiation
of the term proposed by Baroni, since it will allow the two viewpoints
to be more precisely distinguished.
In the first meaning of the term, sustainable development
means economic growth. For this viewpoint there is no contradiction
between growth and sustainability because "governments concerned
with long-term sustainability do not need to limit the growth of the
economic product as soon as they stabilise the consumption of
aggregate natural resources". Still adhering to this viewpoint, a
more positive argument in favour of economic growth starts from the
presupposition that poverty is largely responsible for environmental
degradation. The elimination of poverty would be a condition for

ecological sustainability and the role of economic growth in that

process would be fundamental, with the need to change the quality of
such growth. Baroni says "It is argued ... that economic growth is
absolutely necessary for sustainable development"2. Here, social
objectives such as improving the quality of life and the end of
poverty are objectives of sustainable development, although based on
an operational strategy of economic growth.
The term sustainability, for this meaning of sustainable
development, contemplates basically the ecological dimension, and
not social policies. Hence, it would be "the existence of ecological
conditions necessary for providing support for human life at a
specific level of well-being through future generations"5. Acselrad,
on this point, says: "Concerned with sustaining the basis of natural
resources for future production, this concept proposes the
introduction of a new environmental restriction (...). Ignoring the
conflict for control over natural resources, it seeks to create
conditions for saving natural resources, without, however,
considering the socio-political conditions that govern the control and
the use of such resources”4 The concept of sustainability, from this
viewpoint has evolved from the simple intention to preserve natural
resources to identify the environment as a capital in terms of
accounting system.
David Pearce elucidates this thinking: "sustainable is the
development which considers the expansion of environmental capital
in proportion to the population growth" and "Sustainable is the
development that reinvests in the environment to assure its
conservation and its recovery”.4
Nature, which until then had provided the working capital
(raw materials and input) and free services (water, soil and air for
disposing of waste), begins to provide fixed capital elements, that is,
those that need to be conserved throughout the productive cycle.

For Acselrad, the "diagnosis of this line of thought says that

the roots of the environmental crisis are in the fact that capital
considers the environment to be a free asset, and environmental
damages as externalities (...) this system sanctions only what is the
subject of private appropriation (...) all damage caused to the public
interest is not expressed in prices. In this sense, the environmental
crisis results from the inability of capitals to calculate the
environmental damages that their activities generate (...). The
solution would be to correct the short-sightedness of entrepreneurs
and start seeing the environment as an economic asset, with a price.
(...) what is put forward as a solution... the 'internalization of
environmental costs”.4
The second meaning of the term sustainable development sets
development against economic growth, considering sustainable
growth to be a contradiction.
For this meaning, development would therefore involve a
socially desired phenomenon assuming two basic objectives: the end
of poverty and better distribution of income, which are not very
unlike the traditional development declared goals. The so-called
limitation of the ecosystem's ability to support, which appears in the
two senses of development, has a special meaning for the latter,
involving the redefinition and even limitation of humanity's
consumption habits, which would be determined socially.
The term sustainability, for this meaning of sustainable
development, assumes the concept of ecological, political and social
sustainability, and in this sense, for both concepts, there is the matter
of environmental rationality, strange because new, and which
opposes, or aggregates, to the traditional economic rationality. The
difference lies in how strategies should be established for attaining
sustainability. In this meaning, what can be sustained, how and for
how long, are answers socially determined in a process through
participation of society and even a social consensus. Hence, while

for the first meaning of the concept of sustainable development the

internalization of environmental costs depends upon the existence of
basic instruments which make it possible to define parameters of the
limits on the ecosystem's ability to support, and also the
"measurement" and defining the problems of environmental damage,
for the second meaning the non-existence of such instruments does
not represent such an important technical-scientific barrier, to the
point of significantly interfering either in the debate or in the
definition of strategies for action.
For this latter point of view, the origin of the environmental
crisis is exactly in the given model of development and in the way of
usage of nature that it implies. In logics of capitalism, the utilization
of natural resources is the result of the private economic reckoning of
enterprises, which only consider those market elements that are
expressed through the prices system - such as raw materials and land.
The conditions and the global equilibrium of the environment are not
of consideration. In this way, sustainable development would only be
possible if the limits on the control of capital are put on the use of the
environment, through a predominantly political action. It can,
therefore, be seen that sustainable development would involve a
change, or even societal rupture.
Lélé, quoted by Baroni says that, the prevailing interpretation
of sustainable development is "a form of societal change which, in
addition to the traditional development objectives, has the objective
or the restriction of ecological sustainability. Obviously, this is not
independent of other objectives (traditional) of development. Trade
off normally have to be made between the extent and the rate at
which ecological sustainability is attained vis-à-vis other objectives.
In other cases, however, ecological sustainability and traditional
development objectives (like satisfying basic needs) can mutually
strengthen each other”.2

3. SCENARIOS6
The scenarios constitute methods of anticipation which
indicate ways to future development. In this text, two large
alternative scenarios were adopted: Scenario I, inertial or trendy ,
which is characterised by the continuity of present day dominant
tendencies and another of change or rupture, Scenario II, based on the
discontinuity of present courses and wider ranging transformations.
The time horizon considered is the year 2015.
In order to give substance to the scenarios and rebate them
into R&D actions, materials were chosen as the industrial area of
interest.
Scenario I
This scenario describes and explains the results of continuity
and the expected evolution of the main tendencies noted at present
with regard to factors that are critical in the future of the materials.
The standards of consumption and production in the
industrialised countries undergo continual pressure from the
environmental groups. As a consequence, there is a growing
incorporation of new technologies that increase energy efficiency,
intensive recycling of materials and the substitution of scarce
materials, specially rare metals, with abundant materials.
The trendy scenario adheres to the modern line of
globalisation of the economy, imposing a model of competitive
insertion under the terms dictated by the "world class standard"7,
i.e., that which today’s best business is able to achieve... In the
current environment of “continual improvement” the better
businesses are constantly redefining what is understood by “world
class”. That is, the parameters are always changing, in which the
more dynamic sectors are those that are more intensive in technology,

i.e., the electroelectronic, aerospace, information technology and

communications sectors. Control over the new technical production
paradigm (new ways of organising production, greater flexibility in
productive processes and intensive use of new technologies) is
exercised by the developed countries, to by-pass environmental
restrictions and to exploit their availability of natural resources.
Technological innovation is seen only as a competition factor, that is,
technology is conceived as a strategic element to be incorporated into
products so as to increase their penetration in world markets.
The market is the conductor of the logic of the economic
growth process, where external competitiveness is the basic indicator,
with little emphasis on social problems. Political and socio-economic
inequalities are heightened between developed and developing
nations, as well as in the interior of the less developed countries,
where levels of absolutely poverty get worse.
In international trade, there is a prevailing tendency to greater
liberalisation with regard to industrialised products. With the new
technical production paradigm, there is an accentuated reduction of
trading in primary products and particularly non-renewable products.
The internationalisation of markets, however, heightens the
concentration of trade among industrialised countries, strengthening
integration in the regional economic blocs, and increasing the North-
South lag. Technological development, pressured by
environmentalist interests, has a strong reducing impact on the
exports of the developing countries which are mainly concentrated on
primary products. Without foreign exchange revenues, these
countries are not participating in the growth of world trade. The
access of the countries of the South to the new technologies is
restricted on account of their strategic value in global competition.
Another significant aspect in this scenario is its
environmental protection model. It brings two main characteristics,
firstly, because it fosters a process of imposition, where the emphasis

is put on the exercise of authority, particularly through regulatory

mechanisms that inhibit and penalize. Secondly, in this scenario, the
technological capability necessary for dealing with environmental
problems remains all virtually concentrated in the developed
countries, which make a point of exercising a monopoly over such
technologies.
In this context, however, there are less possibilities of
environmental protection measures really being effective at long
term, since they are carried out "from the top downward", without
being essentially rooted in social participation and specific ecological
awareness for each local context.
In connection with this model of environmental protection, it
is noted that there is a predominance of a "cultural mimicry"
distinguished by a dual reality: on one side, a First World where the
consumption standards derive from a particular culture and are
compatible with the rates of growth and of spatial distribution of their
populations; and, on the other, a Third World that yearns after the
First World's consumption standards. In this way, the First World's
style of society and values are hegemonic and conduct all the
appraisals of level of development and quality of life, specially with
regard to the ecological issue. In the meantime, while the First World
seeks to keep up its standard of living, with some incremental
alterations already under way in its consumption standards, it tries to
prevent the less developed countries from attaining this standard of
living, and to stop their economic exploitation of their natural
resources, alleging that the environment must be preserved. With
regard to the environmental issue, the developed countries still are,
with their development model, the greatest polluters. All the same,
some attenuation of this process has already been felt since the 70’s,
when the crisis of the model began at world level, such as: less
intensive use of natural materials, greater efficiency in the productive
process with regard to raw materials and energy input in general,
greater emphasis on recycling, of products and materials, among the

principal changes. That is, the change began on the production side,
exactly to avoid the level of material consumption of the developed
societies being affected.
In this scenario, the role of the state is marked by the fact that
it is in the hands of two large groups of economical interest: that of
the big companies and, on a smaller scale, that of the international
environmentalist movements. The financing criteria for sustainable
development are thus dictated by international organisations.
The feasibility of the trendy scenario has its bases in the
political-economic hegemony of the developed countries, that forces
their proposals to prevail, dictating the rules and institutional models
that govern international affairs. They preponderantly establish and
benefit from pacts, blocs and political and economic alliances among
nations. This scenario represents the strengthening of the
"hypercolonialist" positions in the world context, the reduction of the
sovereignty of States of the developing countries and the
strengthening of the role of transnational capital.
The political support of such a model of international
inequality is based on the performance of the industrialised countries.
The new technical production paradigm applies, essentially, to the
industrial sector which - since it saves labour - causes technological
unemployment. To avoid the political and social consequences of
unemployment, governments are obliged to direct their economies
toward greater verticalization, fostering technologies that will take
advantage of their natural resources to use up the workers in excess
from primary production.
The peripheral countries will face serious economic
difficulties. Their exports are faced with the barriers of the regional
blocs, their products are in sectors where there is declining demand
and they have no access to technology. In view of the strong social
tension deriving from the growing socio-economic disparities and
from the strengthening of ethnic movements, there will be a

proliferation of regional military conflicts, mainly involving

peripheral countries. This political instability involves the
industrialised nations which, through international organisations, are
called upon to mediate in the conflicts and take the refugees,
problems.
In view of this situation of economic and social inequality
and growing conflicts, migrations from the less developed countries
to the more developed countries grow in volume, increasing their
unemployment problems.
In spite of the pressure from the international organisations
and environmentalist groups, the developing countries do little or
nothing to alter their standards of natural resources exploitation, nor
to restrain the degradation of the environment. The environmental
consequences, of the rain forests disorderly occupation, of the
atmospheric pollution caused by heavy industry and the military
conflicts, are world-wide. The environmental gains achieved in the
industrialised countries are outweighed by the environmental
degradation in the peripheral countries.
Scenario II
This scenario represents both a deep discontinuation of the
historic tendency of competition and a global political economic and
technological restructuring. These changes favour a more equitable
and balanced international development.
In this scenario, the logic of the market coexists with the
logic of its control and social satisfaction, where the principles of
reciprocity and redistribution in the conducting of economic and
social activities are strengthened. Economic sustainability is
provided by the pursuit of efficiency in macrosocial terms, and not
only according to the microeconomic profitability criteria. The
growth rates are not so important as absolute indexes, but rather seen

as being related to the social and spatial distribution, of the

population's quality of life. Socio-economical development is
fundamentally the result of production focused on raising the
majority of the population living standards and not to satisfy the
sophisticated standards of those who are already part of the select
consumer market. In this way, the market grows by absorbing those
at present excluded.
In this scenario there is in fact a depolarisation in the present
pattern of North-South relations, as much in terms of trade as in
financial and scientific-technological affairs. The more developed
societies are able to provide the less developed societies with funds to
facilitate the acquisition of the linguistic, educational and
professional attributes necessary for keeping up with them and also to
influence in the redirecting of the "global development model".
Access to science and technology, as well as the development
and redirecting of such knowledge, are the highlights of a new
standard of international co-operation, particularly because of the
need for new ways of using natural resources and of adapting to
different ecosystems, in order to achieve environmentally healthy
development.
In this scenario, there is a greater balance of forces between
the different players, while the dominant political force comes from
the civil society, which begins to have more availability and access to
information.
The environmental protection model is marked by
encouragement and by making use of opportunities offered by a new
paradigm that is global rather than ecologically healthy, motivated
primarily by endogenous ecological awareness adapted to each
regional and local context in accordance with each other. It is this
new awareness that alters the market conditions which, in their turn,
point to environmentally suitable productive practices. At the same
time, technical-scientific capability in the environmental area of

developing regions is strengthened by the co-operation and by the

financial support of the more developed regions.
In the context of scenario II, competition is replaced by an
interpretation of the concept of "competitiveness", which gains force
in the relations it establishes with other concepts (equity and
sustainability) and social values (democracy, human rights and social
participation). In this interpretation, competitiveness is not
interchangeable with competition, but also it has not yet been able to
manifest its own status as a concept.8
The new productive paradigms may be described as a
"partnership" between the developed regions and those that are
developing technologically. The consumption and production
standards will be profoundly altered in favor of energy efficiency,
diversification of sources of energy (specially renewable sources),
greater durability of products, recycling of materials, the substitution
of scarce materials by abundant materials, and by the miniaturisation
of components and products. In fact, scarce natural resources are
being progressively replaced by intellectual resources, with much
benefit for the protection of the environment.
Finally, attention should be drawn to one aspect which could
be called "unfinished" in Scenario II, whose main difficulty results
from the generalisation of promises of social participation, equity and
control of the environment. In the case of Scenario I, if the social
security and unemployment aspects are not embodied, in rebuttal the
actual continuity of the current economic rationality points to what
should be done at a micro and even sector level. Whereas in
Scenario II, as the paradigmatic behaviour of the competition
inclines toward a more complex competitiveness, the routes of this
"world model-to-be" are less clear even at the micro and sectorial
level.

Scenarios and Ideology

In the different approaches here presented it is seen that, at
the present, there is an ideological struggle to appropriate the term
sustainable development.
Actually, this struggle is not explicit however present in
several documents issued by the international organisations and in the
literature concerned with a conceptual definition. A deeper
discussion on the aspects of the different definitions presented is
usually avoided - especially at the level of international organisations
- since an agglutinating concept of sustainable development is
intended. The concept should bring together the various interests of
the UN countries and not separate them, as the old and well-known
Third World discourse or even the North/South dialogue. This aspect
could explain the lack of debate upon the term sustainable
development.
It is to notice that the implementation of the sustainable
development could only be possible if it is global - at least according
to one conception. It would not be possible the existence of the
sustainable development in one single country or in a single group of
countries. Moreover, for those who adopt this conception, the
wealthiest countries should contribute to the development of the
poorest ones by providing them with financial, technological and
human resources, lowering, in this way, their own consumption
standards. All these objectives would only be achieved by means of a
global political commitment. To reach this political commitment the
concept of sustainable development should agglutinate the interests
rather than separate. Actually, if something can be considered
agglutinating, it is not the concept of sustainable development, but its
cause: the environmental crisis. Thus, sustainable development
would be seen as a necessity, for the lack of an option before the
imminent environmental crisis. Sustainable development would be

the only alternative for rich and poor countries to avoid a crisis that
would equally affect them.
The two scenarios may be viewed as shown in Table 19.
SCENARIO 1 SCENARIO 2
Social dimension: Social dimension:
Social aspects are not stressed; Involving more equality in the
growing inequalities of income distribution of income property and
among individuals and nations. access to goods.
Economic dimension: Economic dimension:
Emphasis in international Macro-social factors overcome micro-
competitiveness imposed by the economic profitability, as decision
technical standards of production in criteria, mainly for improving well-
the developed world. being and valorizing work.
Ecological dimension: Ecological dimension:
Emphasis on preservation and Creative use of each ecosystem’s
recuperation of the physical potential; rational use/conservation of
environment through technology. energy and natural resources;
Environmental cost penetrate the reduction of the volume of discards
decision criteria. and pollution.
Political-institutional dimension: Political-institutional dimension:
“Global commitment” is imposed by “The global commitment” is achieved
the proposals, rules, and institutional by a new agreement, among policy-
models of the developed world. makers and domestic and international
agents.
Cultural dimension: Cultural dimension:
The consumption standards in the The search for sustainable solutions is
developed world are maintained and mainly oriented by the increasing

used as reference for the rest of the importance of local conditions,

world, in spite of the modifications looking for better standards of life all
in way of life caused by over the world.
environmental factors..
4. THE REBATE INTO R&D IN THE MATERIALS SECTOR

OF THE ECONOMY
The rebate to the strategies of the respective R&D needs are
shown in Table 2.
Social dimension: Social dimension:

Emphasis on materials intended for Emphasis on materials intended for
increasingly selective and meeting social needs and generating
sophisticated consumer markets, and accompanied by training local labor.
highly specialized jobs.
Economic dimension: Economic dimension:
Emphasis on materials intended for Emphasis on strategies for materials
increasing competitiveness in the that produce a positive effect one
external market. earnings and employment.
Ecological dimension: Ecological dimension:

Emphasis on substituting materials Emphasis on materials based on
that are scarce in the developed renewable and/or abundant resources,
countries. according to the availability of local
natural resources.
Political-institutional dimension: Political-institutional dimension:

Technological control by the International technological co-

developed countries. operation in the materials field.
Cultural dimension: Cultural dimension:
Materials based on consumer - Materials based on the endogenous
standards imposed by the natural and mineral reality;
globalization process.
- Materials based on endogenous
S&T and business
experience/capability;
- Materials intended for the local
consumption standards.
Spatial dimension: Spatial dimension:
Spatial concentration of activities on - Materials that can be processed
materials. locally;
- Regional co-ordination in the
materials;
- Balance in the territorial distribution
of activities in materials (at
international and local levels).
In a deeper study and effects of these scenarios into R&D

goals, a precise identification of materials, a menu, was developed9;
for the purpose of this paper no such presentation is to be conducted.
5. IN CONCLUSION
The debate over a clear definition of S.D. and its role in T.F.
is still open, needing deep theoretical socioeconomical analysis and
propositions10.

The technology Foresight S.D.’s scenarios discussed in the

paper, i.e., the so called trendy and that of a rupture of paradigm are
very useful tools for expressing different concerns over R&D.
This exercise was made over the materials sector of the
economy, showing distinct tendencies for diverse materials when
subjected to a given S.D. scenario.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SACHS, I. Estratégias de transição para o Século XXI. In
Desenvolvimento Sustentável. BURSZTYN, M., et, Editora
Brasiliense, 1993.
BARONI, M. Ambigüidades e Deficiências do Conceito de
Desenvolvimento Sustentado. In Revista de Administração de
Empresa. São Paulo, 32(2). Abril/Junho, 1992.
WCED - The Report of The World Commission on Environment and
Development. Sustainable Development: a guide to our
common future. Genève, 1990.
ACSELRAD, H. Desenvolvimento Sustentável: a Luta por um
Conceito Revista Proposta n° 56, Março, 1993.
LELÉ, S.M. in BARONI, M. Ambigüidades e Deficiências do
Conceito de Desenvolvimento Sustentado. In Revista de
Administração de Empresa. São Paulo, 32(2). Abril/Junho,
1992
MEDINA, H.V.; BARRETO, M.L.; MARQUES, I.C.
Desenvolvimento Sustentável e Microeletrônica no Brasil.
Mineral/CETEM, 1994.
SEQUEIRA, J. In “World Class Manufacturing in Brazil: A Study of
the Competitive Position”, presented by the American

Chamber of Commerce and FIESP (Federation of Industries of

the State of São Paulo), 1994.
MÜLLER, G. A Competitividade como um Caleidoscópio, São Paulo
Perspectiva, v. 8, no 1, pp. 23-32, 1994.
VILLAS BOAS, R.C. et al. Sustainable Development and the
Advanced Materials: The Brazilian Case. R.C. Villas Bôas -
Editor. IDRC/CRDI-CETEM/CNPq, 1995.
BARRETO, M.L. Desenvolvimento Sustentável: Uma Abordagem
Conceitual. Mimeo/CETEM, 1995.

THE INDICATORS OF SUSTAINABILITY IN MINING

M.Sc. Juan Manuel Montero Peña.
Cuba
The concept of sustainable development suggests the

immediate necessity to know the impacts that a certain economic
activity causes on the environment by means of the previous
establishment of indicators that can be expressed in figures. This is an
idea which is present in this economic model's theoretical budgets
which accelerates the development where the use of resources is
proportional to their natural renovation or to the generation of new
substitutes in the productive processes. The idea that the rates of
emission of waste should be proportional to the rates of natural
absorption is also included.
With today’s technologies, man cannot determine up to what
extent the immediate ecosystems and those under the same chain are
being affected. As a result, the author considers that an activity
contributing to the economic development of a region can be
measured and it is also determined the impacts on the environment so
as to create conditions to facilitate the realization of the social
projects of a certain group, yet not knowing with accuracy the
impacts that it causes.
In mining, to know if an activity is not sustainable, (Montero,
Mining and Geology, No.4, 2001) it is necessary to possess a series
of indicators that enable to know the viability of this activity for the
society. It is already known how this activity generates conditions for
the appearance of alternative economic activities but not the extent to
which it is sustainable.

THE INDICATORS OF SUSTAINABILITY AND THE

APPROACHES TO MEASURE SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
The speech on sustainable development has established the
debate about the necessity of measuring the impacts of man’s
activities on nature. However, nowadays we don't possess the
necessary instruments to put it into practice. The levels of extraction
of some raw materials can be quantified, when dealing with physical
resources as wood, coal or the quantity of material needed so as to
obtain a certain quantity of mineral. But it is impossible, at present, to
determine the magnitude of damage that these activities cause.
Some authors studying these issues suggest different
indicators to reach sustainability without defining previously the
sphere that they really want to quantify. In our opinion it is firstly
compulsory to define, if it is sought to measure the rate of the use of a
resource, the quantity of raw materials needed to obtain a final
product, their profits based on the prices imposed in the market or the
impacts on the environment.
If sustainability is viewed in its wide concept as an
interaction between ecological, environmental, social and political
elements, it would have to possess indicators to determine the
impacts on each of these elements. As it may be understood this is not
possible at present.
And it is impossible because these indicators or approaches
don't have a universal character. It is necessary to adapt them to the
cultural contexts, in all their dimensions. They demand local, regional
or municipal analysis and of the presence of all the community
factors, from the state to community organisations.
The proposal discussed in this project is based on the idea of
evaluating how the activity in question contributes to the appearance
of alternative to the current productive processes, an unquestionable

way to achieve sustainability in terms of this economic model's

classic vision.
INDICATORS OF SUSTAINABILITY OF MINING

RESOURCES
The situation referred previously has created an increasing
interest in the formulation of the appropriate indicators to measure the
impacts of human activities and the availability of reserves taking
into consideration the current rhythms of growth of the world
economies and analysing the budgets of the 1992 Summit of Earth,
and of the standards of the international organizations that claim to be
in favour of sustainable development.
In this sense we can assure that indicators supposedly
intended to measure the economic progress have been developed;
such as, the System of National accounts of the United Nations;
which analyses the international competitiveness of the World
Economic Forum; the level of Economic Freedom of the Fraser
Institute. Likewise, it is being analysed the creation of social
indicators where the Human Development Index of the Program of
United Nations for Development (PNUD) is highlighted. With regard
to the environmental indicators, these have a more recent history,
standing out the works of the Organization for Development and the
Economic Cooperation (OECD), of the governments from Canada
and Holland; in Latin America, Costa Rica and Venezuela have taken
the lead. But great part of the work has been concentrated on the
influence humans exert on the environment, as in the emissions of
pollutants to the atmosphere.
Every year Cuban authorities make big efforts to measure
accurately the indicators of the Index of Human Development, which
include aspects directly related with the use of natural resources.
Cuban State companies focus their greatest attention on this indicator

under the current conditions, in spite of the country’s critical

economic situation. However, it is necessary to point out that they
still don't have indicators specially designed to measure humans'
actions on the environment.
The elaboration of sustainability’s indicators considering the
magnitude of sustainable development has to include three essential
aspects: the economy, equity and the ecology. These aspects cannot
be analyzed separately, otherwise they would not function as a
system, fact which is important to bear in mind when trying to
establish sustainability’s indicators. These elements provide a more
concrete vision of man-world relationship insofar it shows all those
included in the wide definition of environment, as the interaction of
lifeless, living and socio-economic elements.
It is certainly very easy to determine if an activity is
sustainable or not, for which it is only required to simply identify the
negative impacts on the environment; however, the truly difficult task
is to be able to specify when sustainability is attained.
Unquestionably, this is a scientific responsibility of great importance
and this is even more complex if the question concerns minerals. The
scientists of the area of human knowledge don't have all the necessary
elements to qualify an economic activity as sustainable or not,
because they don't possess the necessary indicators to evaluate it.
This article presents some indicators that could provide
reasonable elements so as to determine whether a mining activity is
sustainable or not.
The basis of this analysis is focused on the characteristics of
the mineral resources used if they have any application after being
worked in a manual or industrial way. In this respect C. Miranda
states that the concept of natural resources depends on their
usefulness to society. This occurs under, at least, four circumstances:

- When the properties of the natural resource are known and

applied to meet human needs.
- When the necessary techniques to transform those elements into
desirable products are available.
- When the technological knowledge can be implemented in
production.
- When the final product effectively meets the demand of clients.
(Miranda, 1999).
From these elements it is possible to conclude the existence
of certain indicators that should be considered as starting points in the
analysis of a mining activity to determine if sustainability is under
control. In this aspect, nature is regarded as a source of raw materials,
waste deposits and an element providing a status of life and well-
being when interacting with communities. These indicators would be:
geologic knowledge, technology, economic feasibility, the availability
of waste deposits, knowledge of by-products, the integration of
resources to nature, the determination of alternative activities and
legal approaches.
A quantitative operation of these indicators is required for its
full realization, which implies to express them in figures. The
analysis is regional in nature for it suits the interests of different
inspecting groups and therefore, of the characteristics of the
surroundings in which the evaluated object is. For that reason, we
cannot provide a unique method to measure sustainability; in other
words, these indicators merely give us a methodological guide for the
desired measurement. This is valid taking into account other
indicators of social and economic development based on the different
areas where mining indicators should be applied.
Mining as a branch is a part of an economic system which
contributes to the Gross Domestic Product of those countries having
mines in exploitation. This means that it should not be measured

separately but as a whole and a part of the home economy where

macro-economic indicators play an important role. Hence, our efforts
are focused on analyzing, from the particularities to the generalities,
how mining favors sustainability.
Mining - geologic knowledge
Provides us information on the properties of a given mineral
resource and its duration as a means of satisfaction to present
generations’ productive needs. These studies allow us to know the
evolution of the location through the different geologic eras and the
natural conditions that intervened in their origin. It is also possible to
establish the relation between a certain mineral resource and those
under the same system.
With this indicator, specialists can not only assess how the
exploitation of a mineral would be, but also the consequences of this
activity on the mining area. In this sense, we refer to pressure
indicators, which can be quantitatively expressed. Factors as the
waste generated by a given mining activity and the magnitude of the
ecosystems’ endurance are previously known. Based on this analysis,
it is possible to determine whether an activity is sustainable or not
reporting the degree of negative influence upon the mining area.
Logically from this point of view a set of necessary strategies should
be previously discussed to minimize negative effects and to preserve
the areas where the mine is located. This indicator is not only
important for non-renewable resources, but for the renewable ones, as
well. In this sense, it is necessary to point out that mining - geologic
knowledge sets the limits to the exploitation of a resource if it is
expected its natural renovation during a reasonable period so that
present and future generations may use them.
Moreover, this knowledge provides the necessary elements to
indicate the limit of reserves, the type of mineral and the possible
technologies for their exploitation. This last aspect suggests that

technology or modifications should be used taking into account the

type of mineral.
It is of paramount important to widely know about the
situation of deposits through extensive mining geologic research on
the length of waste assimilation, which indicates the relation between
the amount of effluents, and the level of absorption. In this case,
specialists are to establish rates to determine the degree of
assimilation of the different deposits: water, air and soil. This serves
to evaluate the quality of life as regards to the environmental
conditions.
The establishment of rates of the relation between the
exploitation of renewable resources and the length of their
reintegration to the different production systems is decisively
required. The rates should be established on the basis of an estimate
of errors determined through a wide knowledge on the mining object
in question.
Lastly, with mining - geologic knowledge, it is possible to
know the accompanying minerals and to determine possible strategies
for the application of technologies, accordingly. All this favours
decision making in the establishment of a more effective management
of resources and toward what sectors possible investments should be
addressed.
Technology
Constitutes an essential indicator to determine if the
exploitation of a resource is sustainable or not. Man-nature relation is
a part of it; that is, technology identifies both positive and negative
impacts on the environment. In economic terms, these impacts could
be measured considering figures of possible losses that the
application of a given technology might generate in mining processes
based on the world market prices.

Technology is also a value generating new values and it

modifies the existing ones, this vision allows us to understand its role
in the achievement of sustainability. Technology should be viewed as
a cultural element, a social process, a result of the society’s
development. It is necessary to have a wide concept of technology;
that is, the device and knowledge viewed as a whole.
Technology, in the case of minerals, is sustainable if the
objective for which it was designed is accomplished in the
exploitation of reserves without affecting the capacity of nature to
regenerate. It is equally sustainable if it is able to create open
technological systems capable of using industrial waste, obtaining
other productions and using accompanying minerals. In mining
industries, it is a common practice to keep waste in deposits which
are quickly saturated, and that waste, due to its characteristics, is
transported outdoors, and this represents a dangerous source of
environmental contamination.
The solution to this issue relies on the original design, if
based on the real knowledge of the ore technology, it is used in
accordance with the concrete characteristics of that object.
Technology is an essential element to have a certain compensation for
the exploitation of non-renewable resources. Thus, if well handled the
environment’s quality is hardly damaged and it also enables the
application of other technology in the exploitation of remaining
minerals.
Flexible technologies are required in mining because it is
simply not sustainable to design a factory to exploit a single mineral.
The existence of debris produced by current productive systems is a
sample of technological incapacity; which represents a serious threat
to the environment. Those residues contain other minerals that cannot
be exploited at present. Their interaction with natural and artificial
agents, resulting in erosion, constitutes a source of contamination.

In production, technology reflects a relationship of the

subject - object type, in which subject is represented by humans and
all the social relationships in which their economic life is developed.
On the other hand, the object is nature viewed in two different ways:
the first of them, as that portion that interacts directly with man in
production and upon which a given technology acts. The second
portion is not directly connected to humans, no human work is
involved; however, it receives the negative influences of the use of
dangerous technologies.
These impacts are evaluated through the use of a technology,
the one that expresses the degree of man's domination of nature and at
the same time his commitment with it. To evaluate if a specific
technology stimulates the protection of nature, it is required to assess
its capacity to influence the generation of negative and positive
impacts.
The application of modern technologies generates artificial
raw materials which substitute the natural ones in the production
process. This helps to protect a great number of resources, especially
with legal restrictions imposed; and it also contributes to the process
of natural regeneration as they are no longer subjected to the current
rate of exploitation.
Economic feasibility
Is other indicator to be considered in the determination of
sustainability of mineral resources. In first place, it is necessary to
point out that the exploitation of a given ore, having this indicator as
reference, is sustainable if it provides large incomes relative to the
applied assets during its execution. Environmental elements are
included in spite of the fact that they fail to express quantitatively the
value of natural resources. That is to say, a company has to generate a
margin of income, having the market as reference, so as to increase
all its assets and internally negotiate the environmental demands.

For the determination of the economic feasibility of an

activity it is essential to make an overall analysis expressed in
economic figures of the capital invested in the ore exploration, the
construction of mining facilities, the acquisition of material resources
and manpower, trade, taxes, customs, etc; in other words, to quantify
all the expenses made since the installation of the mining complex to
the commercialisation of the final product. With this and with market
studies, specialists can affirm if the development of a mining object is
feasible or not for which they have to include taxes and the
environmental regulations enforced in the area. For that reason, we
disagree with the idea of setting standards to apply it in any place
regardless of its particularities. These elements can be quantified and
become expressed variables by means of the design of software and
other scientific methods including mathematical models.
In short, companies have to include environmental factors in
their production planning. In second place, it is absolutely important
to bear in mind that as the economic feasibility depends on the ups
and downs of the market, a mining company should, under these
circumstances, be flexible in identifying alternative productions that
compensate the losses caused by lower prices or less demand.
These compensations are possible by reducing production
costs and enhancing the quality of the final product making it more
competitive in the market. However, it would be more economical to
possess flexible technologies that enable producers to adapt
themselves to the demands of the market, which changes under the
influence of such external factors as the increase of demand, high
prices, and the crisis of traditional producers, etc.
When the different mechanisms of the market, regulators of
production, are being altered the strategy to follow is to find mineral
substitutes or complementary ores as demand decrease requires or if
reserves are exhausted due to its increase. The answers are in a deep

mining - geologic knowledge and in the existing technologies

permitting the so-called industrial re-modifications.
Surveys should be made on these reserves so as to quantify
them in concrete economic values; that is, to know the amount of
resources needed to carry out modifications in a particular company
and study the actual possibilities of exploiting remaining minerals
identified in previous investigations. This implies that a mining
project is economically effective if the costs of studies on a necessary
and unavoidable industrial re-structure, considering possible
resources to be exploited with modified technologies are included in
investment expenditure.
Feasibility studies should make reference to mine closing.
This is a new issue that apparently is not connected to investment;
however, this raises the question involving sustainable development
and intergenerational justice, how present mining communities might
compensate the irreversible consequences of mining activities on the
environment on which future generations depend. We do not refer to
the availability of mineral resources but to the vital spaces where to
live in.
Beyond any doubt, this problem has apparently nothing to do
with a project’s investment, it is alien to investors. This assertion
might be true if only the economic variable is taken into account
disregarding possible activities to be carried out by communities in
case of the exhaustion of resources.
Applying logic, economic feasibility involves the necessity to
know the way in which necessary conditions evolve in a concrete
mining activity for the identifications of new economic activities.
That is to say; in their development strategies, companies should
include policies to foster a wide profile training for workers, technical
and management personnel so that they can face difficult situations
effectively once their source of exploitation is exhausted. This vision
is complete if we start considering that certain technologies that

become heritage of these communities are developed and that they

can be used as a way of living.
Economic feasibility applies if all these factors are analyzed
systematically, giving them economic values as a way of
guaranteeing their qualitative evaluation.
Knowledge of by-products
Is an important indicator to achieve economic feasibility. For
that reason, it is imperative to know in advance which of them
produces a mining activity so as to find ways to sell them as raw
materials or to protect them from erosion. Nowadays, management of
by-products is a part of the general strategy of mining companies
(Espí, 1999).
In this project, by-product management is understood as their
export and the creation of conditions to store them for a further use.
In this case, there would be a logical increase in production costs
which should not exceed the expenses generated in any of the stages
of the productive process. This should be expressed in exact figures
so as to determine whether an activity is sustainable or not, taking
into consideration that this indicator is reflected in human work,
space, the degree of assimilation and the capacity of tolerance of
nature.
A by-product generating company, unable to process them
with modern technologies, is not sustainable. An alternative to
compensate the negative influence of mining might be to design
metallurgic mining complexes for the exploitation of by-products.
For underdeveloped countries, this would be only possible
through technological transference and the opening of companies
around the world.
Integral management of by-products is directly related to the
application of a particular technology of mining and metallurgical

processing, that is, by-products’ generation depends on these factors,

which can be minimized or maximize according to the industry’s
environment. The industrial re-modelling for which representatives of
the industrialized countries claim is practically impossible for
developing nations, for which large investment is required making
mining processes more expensive and less economical.
By-products are classified into: highly toxic, moderately
active and harmless. The first category is represented by those
endangering all kinds of animal species including human beings,
destroying living conditions of the areas home to a wide variety of
species and the environment as well. The evacuation of this industrial
waste is considerably expensive for special conditions of
transportation and storage are required.
The second category is represented by those altering the state
of species; thus, modifying life standards of the population of the
area. This might result in a modification of the genetic information of
species, making them more aggressive, therefore, representing a
threat for weaker species.
The third category is represented by those that could be
assimilated by nature without being a serious threat because their
original compositions are not completely modified. This does not
imply that their integration is inexpensive; on the contrary, it should
be regarded as an additional expense generated in any mining project.
Unquestionably, knowledge of by-products as an indicator
provides important information in feasibility studies for the
commencement of any mining activity; that is why, it is advisable to
design programs using the data provided by this indicator. This
information together with the resulting data of the other indicators
should be analyzed as a whole, otherwise, they would be a mere
series of useless numbers.

The integration of resources to their environment

Represents the core of the society’s compensation in their
development attempts. The fact relies on how to re-incorporate
residues to their source of origin, not in landfills; this means their
gradual and systematic incorporation to the area they belong.
Logically, this integration is artificial as minerals after being
processed lose a high percent of their initial characteristics; however,
these transformations are rather superficial as the re-incorporation
process is not accomplished.
However, the importance of this issue lies in their
incorporation to the system where they interacted with other elements
that no longer exist as a result of the different activities carried out on
completion of mining. That is, if nature is analysed as a system, it is
reasonable to believe that the incorporation of resources to their
origin is not completed efficiently. Even if a partial recovery of initial
environmental characteristics is attained, it is impossible to regain
specific features enabling the return of the species that once lived in
the area.
My proposal establishes a series of factors indicating the real
possibilities of integration based on the degree of regional
development and the type of mining to be carried out so as to
determine if the activity is sustainable or not. In this aspect, we refer
to the re-establishment of environmental conditions and the
conservation of the genetic basis; consequently, taking it as a linking
principle of generations. For this system, it is required the design of
models containing its corresponding numerical equivalent, for which
special equipment dealing with this indicator is to be created.
In this aspect, companies, in their management policy, should
consider the availability of land to be used as deposits. Such analysis
involves the intention to re-incorporate resources to nature. Other
spaces, not used by mining, can be exploited with productive or
social purposes.

It is an economic loss to keep residues outdoors for their

properties are reduced by the action of erosion. Storing those left by
mining in natural spaces preserves their potentialities to be used in
other activities. This is economically feasible because it enables the
use of existing mining facilities in new projects. These losses
represented by numbers pave the way for the analysis of
sustainability of mining projects. Nickel mining is a non-sustainable
activity if we analyse its exploitation with modern technologies and
its waste exposure in deposits technically deficient. In Moa nickel
factories, the content of cobalt in the final product is considered as a
trace element, just to name an example.
The determination of alternative activities
Is an indicator that reaffirms the thesis related to the mining
activity and the possibility of the existence of a type of development
that protects the environment by means of compensations. The
governmental and management authorities are forced to know the
specific work mining employees will perform once resources are
exhausted.
The objective is to analyse different economic indicators
based on the characteristics of a mining project and at the same time
to take them as reference for: the contribution of a given activity to
the Gross Domestic Product of a particular country, the emergence of
new working place, the creation of new productive and social
infrastructures; the construction of highways, hospitals, schools,
business and entertainment centres, and the so-called meeting places,
etc.
The question lies in determining the magnitude of the real
contribution of mining to the different communities in each indicator
above mentioned. That is, to know exactly how much it contributes to
social development creating special conditions for the evolution of
alternative activities, which would be impossible to accomplish if
there are differences in the distribution of wealth and mining projects

are not included in integral programs for development. What matters

is that mining can benefit the social development of countries and this
contribution can be quantitatively measured through the
establishment of parameters for each basic indicator.
As regards to the question related to what activities should be
assigned to workers employed in the existing mining industries, we
refer to the creation of working posts for those workers left without
jobs after closing a mine. This issue is much more complex because it
involves the analysis of the type of activities that entire mining
communities depending on this economic branch will perform and
their re-employment in a different economic field alien to their
culture.
The personnel should be highly qualified in order to assume
other working places in similar or different technological companies.
In the general strategy of the company, for the re-qualification of
workers it is necessary to give priority to training and the use of
flexible technologies.
This policy known as the closing of mines should be
considered prior to the approval of any concession granted to start
exploiting a mine. This concession should include an environmental
permission with a clear identification of the activities to be done after
shutting down a mine.
Firstly, this knowledge is validated by doing research on the
economic environment where the mine is located with the purpose of
knowing in which company mining workers should be re -employed;
secondly, it is necessary to determine possible activities to be carried
out in the mining facilities to be closed.
The evolution of waste deposits
Becomes an important factor to keep in mind because
sustainable development should not only include the source of

resources, but also it is very important to evaluate the location of

residues
Nature possesses the capacity to recycle the strange matters
that humans throw to the different ecosystems. That function is also
limited, contrary to the idea of its unlimited character defended by
some people. This waste needs time to recycle depending on the level
and the possibility of the ecosystem to assimilate it. If the level is
higher than nature’s capacity of assimilation, the balance of the
impacted ecosystems and of those under the same chain is broken.
This relation is determined by means of a ratio between the
emission of residues and the assimilation of deposits. This means to
know the capacity of nature to absorb a given amount of waste and
the real capacity of deposits to assimilate it analysing the degree of
tolerance and their actual burden in a given circumstance.
Sustainable development is a utopia if waste deposits are
saturated, if the capacity of assimilation is surpassed, if the
occurrence of natural cycles of absorption of waste is impossible.
Those that defend the possibility of the existence of sustainability in
the mining field should indicate how to measure the levels of waste
accumulation, otherwise, they will not have elements to support
sustainability.
In the case of mineral waste, after the different metallurgical
processes where they occur as single components or as alloys, the
time for its natural assimilation is long.
Deposits play a double role: as the final destination of the
society’s waste and of industrial production’s residues. In the specific
case of mining industries the waste of production represents a
permanent concern in the different productive directives. They
constitute a permanent source of contamination and a long-term loss
of raw materials for future productive processes.

Legal indicators
Are an essential factor for sustainability. An activity cannot
be approved if it hinders the observance of the laws that a society has
enforced in a certain region. It is necessary to strictly observe the
legislation of countries and the agreements subscribed in the different
international events in order to safeguard the environmental activity
as well as the environmental regulations.
There are international regulations to be considered for the
interest of the agreements signed by a particular country. These
treaties impose obligations that countries should accept and include in
their legislations. From the legal point of view, these elements are
aimed at determining the feasibility of an activity.
Every economic activity and each independent nation rely on
laws that investors have to observe. In Cuba, the enacted Law of
Foreign Investment foments the search for sustainable development
in their investments, especially in mining, an effort expressed by the
Cuban government in the Law of Mines and the Environmental Law.
If they are violated, large fines are imposed to offenders.
This indicator enables to know to which extent an activity
observes the legislation; and consequently, how it contributes to the
restriction of different national projects; that is, how laws become an
instrument for the implementation of a political effort that favours,
beyond economic interests, the achievement of environmental
sustainability. And above all, how laws contribute to the achievement
of the compensation of such an aggressive activity as mining is.
CONCLUSIONS
The determination of sustainability indicators in mining is
possible starting by evaluating how a particular mining project
contributes to the generation of alternative economic activities. That

is, how it educates the present generations of mining workers and

their communities to create the necessary conditions so that future
generations can develop their economies and meeting places.
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QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF MINING ENVIRONMENTAL

SUSTAINABILITY: MYTH AND REALITY
Prof. Adilson Curi and Prof. Hernani Mota de Lima
Escola de Minas da UFOP - Ouro Preto (MG) – Brasil
Curi@degeo.ufop.br
SUMMARY
It is common we hear that a mine is limited to a small area
and it constitutes a temporary land use. These facts would reduce the
mine environmental impact. Indirectly and without this pretence,
these statements are qualitatively evaluating the mine environmental
sustainability. In this article we analyse these and other comments
made, daily, by the people involved with the mining industry in order
to test the truthfulness of such statements. Additionally, we present
some propositions for the environmental protection of areas
threatened by the mining.
Words key: Sustainability, Mining, Environment
INTRODUCTION
In developed countries a movement of approach is observed
between the environmental organizations and the mineral industry.
Certain concerns and common challenges have forced these
organizations and the mineral industry act together. In the effort to
preserve the protection areas several disputes have been occurring
between the parts - sometimes in cooperation, others in conflict.
Why conflict? Some mining projects affect the integrity of
natural areas that can lose up to 100 hectares of land (240 acres) at
every hour (EMCBC, 1998). There are risks of loss of the habitat for
thousands of species of plants and animals and loss of the ecosystems

that maintains the life. In addition, over the last decades the society
has become more aware of the environmental legacy of mining.
Would not be high the price we pay for the daily use of the
minerals? Changes in legislation, technology and attitude in relation
to mining have contributed to improve mining practices in the most
recent years, but it still persists policies and procedures that require
more attention and action by both the conservation groups and the
community in general.
In this article, some of these subjects and concerns are
discussed, particularly considering the perspective of the biodiversity
protection. The aspects related to mining and its environmental
conflicts are reviewed, considering which decisions to adopt in the
future.
By saving examples of habitats sufficiently large and
representative we will be able to save endogens species including all
the biodiversity of the ecosystems. Considering the land use and
ecological protection in the mining influence area there are series of
presuppositions or allegations that can be considered today a
“commonplace” in the mining industry. Mine engineers, geologists
and professionals of the mining industry, as well as, lawyers and
defenders of the mining always repeat these allegations. Necessarily,
anyone engaged in this subject should already have been heard these
statements and in this article we questioned the validity of such
allegations. In the sequence some of these allegations that we
denominated MYTHS will be discussed. We will see that the simple
acceptance of these allegations can commit the environment
protection and biodiversity.

DISCUSSION
What is myth and what is reality considering the mining and the
environment?
Myth # 1:" The impacts related to mining are limited to a small area”
The mining industry and its defenders always relate the
mined area, relatively small, to the generated environmental impacts.
In this case, the impacts would be restricted to the mined area. Really,
in terms of the directly affected surface, this argument can be
convincing. However, the mine, properly, is only a reference point in
a wide range of activities happening before, during and after the
exploitation. The mine is the geographical centre of a net of transport
routes (highways, railways, roads, ore ways), nets of energy
infrastructure, beyond logically, of the waste piles, tailings and ore
treatment plants. Finally, what represents the area affected by a small
quarry in relation to an extensive creation of animals or a soy
plantation that can extend by thousands of hectares?
Myth # 2 : “Mining is a temporary land use”
Many mines have a projected of just some decades or even
some years. For the people not informed, this fact suggests that the
impacts will be temporary. What is the point to alert and to provoke a
great confusion on a mine that will be rehabilitated practically before
anybody knows that she existed?
In spite of, in many cases, mining is a temporary land-use this
fact is not a general rule. The impacts generated by irresponsible
mining activities can persist for long-term in many cases. Although
the dimension stone mining, for example, is only a temporary
occupier of the land surface, it causes dramatic and serious
environmental impacts associated with overburden, haul roads,
unvegetated surfaces, coarse rejects, fine-grained tailings, topsoil and
stockpiles. The quality of the air, water and land is affected. Dust
adversely affects air quality. The physical quality and quantity of

surface water and groundwater can be affected if reclamation is not

practiced. Watercourses may be disturbed and flow rates altered.
Erosion may be excessive, and surface and ground water may become
mineralised. The topography, drainage, vegetation, appearance and
surface texture of the mine site may all be seriously impacted. The
gradients of sidecasts spoil may make the topography unsuitable for
the planned post-mining land uses (Williams, D.J. et al, 1997). The
impacts of mining also include the destruction of the landscape,
degradation of the visual environment, destruction of agricultural and
forest lands as well as degradation of recreational lands.
Probably, the most serious and permanents impacts originated by
the mining would be:
• Destruction of the natural habitat of the species in function of
the construction of the whole infrastructure of the mine
(offices, shops, tailings, roads, etc.);
• Effects of the acid mine drainage in the water quality and
wild life, including the fishes;
• Accidents such as the rupture of tailings dams or waste piles
that can happen during project operation or even after the
abandonment of the project.
Myth # 3: “Small-scale mines provoke little environmental impact
because it is limited to a small area and has a minimum
infrastructure”
In function of the insignificant affected area and, practically,
absence of infrastructure, small-scale mines would reinforce the Myth
1 arguments. However, the presence of certain particularities such as
the mercury use for gold recovery in informal mining in the Amazon
Region can provoke huge and permanent environmental impacts.

Myth # 4: “The big mine companies provoke little environmental

damage because the enterprises are certified and follow the
legislation"
Although certified internationally according to environmental
patterns accepted the big mining companies could be contributing to
increase the environmental impacts, mainly, through its suppliers. It
is difficult to control the suppliers' activities to certify they are
respecting the environmental norms. Besides, the great mining
provokes social alterations regionally, altering the occupation of the
geographical space and populations movement.
Myth # 5: “The underground mine provokes less impact than the
open pit mine”
In terms of the landscape this statement can be truthful
because the mined areas would be underground. However, the
majority of the infrastructure of the mine and the ore treatments units
are located in the surface. Besides, the waters contaminated in the
underground can reach the surface.
Myth # 6: “ The general impact produced by a group of mines or
quarries as a whole is the sum of the impacts of each quarry or mines
in particular”
A quarrying district incorporates a number of quarries sharing
common features (alike type of material, similar exploitation
methods, competition in to the same market), whose concentration is
higher than 1 unit per km2 on some areas, although its limits cannot
be defined with a general rule.
It is obvious that the overall impact on the environment
produced by the district as a whole is not merely the sum of the
impacts of individual quarries considered as isolated units but must
be calculated taking in to account that (Ciccu et al. 1998):
- only some the quarries and related infrastructures are visible from
a point of view moving across the land;

- the exposed area of the faces and dumps decreases with the
distance from the observer;
- nuisances like noise, dust and vibration are gradually attenuated
away from the sites;
- flora and fauna are affected only within a limited area around
each quarry so that no superimposition of effects takes place if
the distance between them is sufficiently large;
- social, economic and cultural aspects can benefit from the
quarrying activity over a broad area far exceeding the limits of
the district itself.
PROPOSITIONS FOR THE ENVIRONMENTAL

PROTECTION OF AREAS THREATENED BY THE MINING
The concerns identified in this article originate a complex
series of problems for all the people involved with mining. Some
principles or measures to avoid future conflicts are commented below
- some are technical measures, some political measures and others are
measured about legislation. In the sequence, propositions and
priorities based on the experience of groups that have been working
with and against the interests of the industry mineral are presented
(EMCBC,1998). These measures are presented as a general guideline
to facilitate the defence of environmental protection areas in front of
the mineral industry interests. The defenders of the mining activities
must contest these measures or principles in function of its interests
and objectives.
Principle # 1: The mineral industry should be prohibited in areas of
environmental protection
The final objective admitted by the defenders of the
environment, mainly conservation groups, is the non-permission of
mining in the protected areas. The other principles listed are used as

appendixes to help them to reach their first principle. According to

these groups the mineral exploration and mineral exploitation should
be prohibited in existent or future protected areas. Particularly, the
mining should be excluded of areas of special ecological interest such
as ecological reserves, ecological stations and other types of protected
areas with outstanding environmental value where the conservation
objectives are not compatible with the mining activity. The mining
activity should also be excluded, mainly, in areas where it is critical
the aggression to the natural habitats, considering the occurrence of
rare or threatened species and the necessary areas for its procreation.
Principle # 2: Interim Protection / Measures for protection of areas
candidates
The governments should consider the possibility of
application of an interim protection for areas that are in candidacy
process to areas of environmental protection. In areas not protected,
formally, the damages due to mining activities can be significant. The
interim protection will ensure that third-party interests don't take
priority over the public interest resulting in the need for posterior
compensation. The applicable techniques should include the mapping
of the area, interim management environmental guidelines and legal
restrictions that impede the exploratory activities, development and
mineral exploitation in the identified critical areas.
Principle # 3: The evaluations of the candidate-protected areas
should consider the natural values
The governments should be stimulated to destine more
resources, including financial resources, for the evaluation and
quantification of the natural values instead of destine most of the
resources to the definition of the value the mineral resource.
The established tendency of emphasizing the value of the
mineral resource in detriment of the environmental value of the
protected area should be questioned.

Principle # 4: The studies of environmental impact in the mining

should be made with more agility and efficiency
In function of the urgency in the definition of the areas of
environmental protection the best scenery, for the environmentalists,
would be the ready definition of the protection areas avoiding years
of work with estimates of the mineral potential. However, the
government policies depend on the evaluation of the mineral deposits
in the areas of environmental protection. If the government insists in
the inventory of all the information regarding the mineral resources,
the environmentalists should oppose the government considering the
following arguments:
- The studies financed by the governments should contemplate
projects that don't remove the natural habitats and don't alter the
wild life through the change of the characteristics of the physical
environment or involving the introduction of noxious substances;
- If the mineral potential was evaluated as satisfactory, the mining
works can be initiate since the item above is respected;
- If the government allows the mining in an area candidate for
preservation and such works were cancelled in function of the
occurrence of outstanding cultural or biological values, the
company should not be compensated by the loss of the mineral
deposit. Before beginning its works of mineral exploration, the
company should already be informed of the risk of making
exploratory works in an area candidate for preservation. The
government could compensate the company for the expenses with
the works of mineral exploration, only;
- If the area is of high mineral content and it is located in the
periphery of candidate protected area, it should be given a limited
time so that the company has access to the area of the mineral
resource, except in cases where the area is critical in terms of the
goals of ecological protection and sustainability. In the case of
the occurrence of an area with high mineral potential the

considerations of the principle 5 should be adopted. In otherwise,

the government should be called to designate the protected area.
Some of those points can be attacked by the industry as being
ingenuousness. However, a mining company rarely publishes the
results of its survey campaigns. Only few companies take a risk
to invest in mineral exploration before they possess the legal
tenure to an area. Would not be such permissions ingenuousness,
also?
In any way, these are special places requiring special rules,
and government and industry should be compelled to follow the
legislation.
Principle # 5: Assures that the areas of high mineral potential are not
immediately excluded as preservation areas
The studies for mineral evaluation can identify areas of high
mineral potential inside of candidates protection areas. This can
induce the government authorities and the industry not to consider
these areas for environmental protection in function of its high
mineral content. The environmentalists should oppose this measures
promoting the following actions:
- Before removing the area with high mineral content to the group
of candidates areas it should be made a revision of the mineral
potential in the region to determine if similar mineral deposits
exist in the proximities. These mineral deposit would be mined
without committing the area to be protected;
- If the area of high mineral potential is located in the periphery of
the candidate area, it can be made a zoning of the larger area
considering that is added to the original project an area with
equivalent ecological value. A revision of the accumulated
impacts considering the new scenery should be made;
- If the area of high mineral potential is located in the centre of the
candidate protected area the government should be pressed to

protect the area and to preserve it front to the interests of the

mining. Very important in such scenery is mining viability
analysis in the candidate protected area proximities.
Principle # 6: The patterns of mineral activity should be reviewed
In an area candidate to environmental protection where there
is (a) high mineral potential, or (b) pry-existent mineral rights, and (c)
outstanding environmental importance, any government’s decision
that allows the mining should be accompanied by public audiences
that monitor the mining methodologies to assure the integrity of the
area to be protected. The governments should be pressed to develop
conservation patterns for the most sensitive areas, wild areas and
other areas and waters with high biodiversity and social value. These
patterns must be considered not interesting if these areas are protected
or not.
Principle # 7: The governments should be stimulated to reform the
tenure systems
The governments should be stimulated to begin the process of
revision of the tenure systems to mineral exploration and mineral
exploitation to ensure that that minerals rights don’t take primacy
over the environmental objectives. The free entrance system is
inconsistent with society’s demands in terms of sustainability. The
industry argues that if governments " deregulate " the industry and
remove the environmental patterns so that the industry can become
more competitive and can adopt more flexible strategies. However,
ironically, this same industry maintains the old tenure paradigm
impeding initiatives of environmental and social improvements.
Principle # 8 - Transparency
The establishment process of candidate protected area should
be opened and transparent
Any decision related with the establishment of protection
areas and proposition of studies of mineral resources as well as

exploration programs and exploitation activities should be executed

in a process with public consultation and access to information.
Principle # 9 - Information
The ecological organizations should become aware of the
Government Policies for the mineral resources and of the
environmental legislation considering the mining activities.
Principle # 10 - Trust
Distrust for the real intentions of the environmental groups
linked to the industry that support projects of environmental
protection in areas with mineral resources.
FINAL CONCLUSIONS
In this article some important aspects for the preservation of
protected areas threatened by mining activities were discussed.
Considering the appeal of the comments can be observed that
most of the same ones is based in experiences of environmental
groups that work directly with the subjects related to the environment
and the mining.
According to the point of view of the mining industry such
arguments will necessarily be answered, at least partially.
The main objective of that work is to discuss such subjects,
mainly among the people directly involved in the mineral industry. It
is necessary that the defenders of the mining know the thought of
others groups, mainly environmentalist. It is necessary that everyone
that defends the mining know, also, what is better for the
environment and the biodiversity.
The use of areas with special environmental status (such as
Amazônia, Pantanal, areas of permanent preservation and ecological
reserves) always gets to question irreversibilities. It is perfectly

comprehensible that in the situations where we have, on a side of the

balance, the development of a mine and, on the other side, the
preservation, the tendency will be to give a larger weight to the
preservation. Environmental restrictions can turn certain mineral
deposits unavailable, as if they had been removed of the face of the
earth. Even so, the decision of not using a resource should only be
made after the due consideration of interests of everybody involved.
That environmental evaluation is always difficult, because it is
necessary the discussion off non measurable attributes in quantitative
or financial terms, such as the genetic patrimony, the landscape and
the ancestors' earth, however this discussions cannot be avoided
(IBRAM, 1992).
In the specific case of Brazil, although the Brazilian
legislation for environmental subjects is one of those more advanced
of the world and our country is ahead of several developed nations,
we are not stopping threatening the environment and not respecting
the laws. The problem, certainly, is not the lack of a legislation that
establishes rigid rules and severe penalties for the environmental
crimes. The great difficulty is the lacking structure to inspect and to
punish those that don't execute the law.
In the whole country the reality is very similar. It is enough to
verify that Ibama (Brazilian Institute of the Environment and
Resources Renewed) possesses 1.500 fiscal to assist 5.500 municipal
districts in the whole Brazil. That means, an average of four
municipal districts for each fiscal, with good chances of the majority
of them not have at least a bicycle to accomplish their work (Confea,
2002).
The great subject is that the environmental problem is not
incorporated in the formulation of the public policies. The advanced
legislation, in the civil, administrative and penal field, doesn't
guarantee the end of the aggression to the environment. However, the
more optimists believe in a solution in the medium term. The faith is
not that, suddenly, the State will build a structure of administration of

its natural resources in agreement with the high level of its

environmental legislation. But there are those that bet in another
forces able to stimulate the entrepreneur to obey the environmental
laws of the country integrally. One of these forces has its origin in the
productive market. The productive sector is being forced to obey the
law because the organizations are being forced commercially, for the
internal and external market, to obtain its environmental certification.
" Who is not certificate, today, doesn’t export and presents
difficulties even to sell its product in the domestic market. This
posture of the market has been demanding the integral execution of
all the norms and the installation of equipments to avoid pollution. "
The Brazilian law is very good, but the market law is unbeatable "
(Confea, 2002). Other force capable to change the manager's posture
and to restraint the aggressors' action is the popular pressure. More
and more, the communities are demanding information and
requesting of its organizations the responsibility with the maintenance
responsible of the environment. Considering the interests off the
companies to maintain a nice relationship with that community that
welcomes them and that consumes its products, many environmental
progresses are being reached in a friendly way. Another recent aspect
of the Brazilian legislation is reverting the tendency of managers'
impunity that work without environmental licensing. The novelty is
that the federal law 9.605/98 don't just incriminate the agent that
provoked the pollution, but also the organizations responsible for the
inspection that not restraint the criminal action. This new principle -
of to punish also who ignores the law - is a revolution in terms of
Environmental Right. It is changing the behaviour of the inspection
organizations that now assume a risk to be considered accomplices
and connive with all and any criminal action against the environment.
“To work in the secrecy stopped to be lucrative to change in an
imminent risk of damage, perhaps irreversible for the financial health
of a specific the company”, (Confea, 2002).

CONSULTED REFERENCES
Ciccu, R, Mocci, G. & Imolesi, E. 1998. A rational approach to the
assessment of environmental issues in stone quarrying districts.
Proceedings of the Environment Issues Waste Management in
Energy and Mineral Production ( ed. A. A. Balkema) Rotterdam,
pp. 87-93.
Conselho Federal de Engenharia, Arquitetura e Agronomia (Confea).
2002. A guerra Verde. Revista do Confea. Ano VI, No. 9, pp. 26-
29.
Environmental Mining Council of British Columbia (EMCBC). 1998.
More Precious than Gold: Mineral Development and the
Protection of Biological Diversity in Canada, British Columbia,
Canada, 31 p.
Instituto Brasileiro de Mineração (IBRAM). 1992. Mineração e Meio
Ambiente. Comissão Técnica de Meio Ambiente. Grupo de
Redação. Brasília, 126 p.
Williams, D.J; Wu,Y; Morris, P.H.1993. Systems analysis of
engineered mine site rehabilitation, Proceedings of The Fourth
Intern. Conf. on Tailings and Mine Waste, Fort Collins,
Colorado, Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema.

A GEO-ENVIRONMENTAL DATA BASE DUE TO

ELABORATE GEOINDICATORS SCENARIOS BASED ON
ENGINEERING-GEOLOGICAL CRITERIA
N.C. Diniz, Ph.D
ANEEL – National Agency for Eletric Energy
IPT - Institute for Technological Research of São Paulo State
e-mail: diniznor@ipt.br; noris@aneel.gov.br
ABSTRACT
This paper presents a Geo-Environmental System using
Database and GIS technology to elaborate geoindicators temporal
dynamic scenarios of São Paulo State, Brazil, using Engineering-
geological criteria. The engineering-geological GIS data base of
urban and regional areas can be considered as a tool to extract
indicators of environmental problems and changes. The engineering -
geological GIS should be updated due to the modifications of human
interventions on physical environment. The Geo-Environmental
Database can be supported by GIS for environmental evaluation of
complex and accelerated land use dynamics. A challenge facing
environmental managers and planners is that while the potential for
matching current understanding to regulatory needs has not been
realized, environmental degradation due to cumulative effects
continues to grow.
Geoindicators can be understood as high-resolution measures
of short-term changes in the geological environment, which are
significant for environmental monitoring and assessment (Berger,
1996).
The development of Geo-Environmental Database at IPT,
through automatization of the engineering-geological GIS is the
objective of a long process, with many projects, that has been going

on since 1992, represented by GAIA – Manager System of the Geo-

Environmental Database of Sao Paulo State. The target of the project
was to construct: a digital spatial cartographic base; physical
environmental hazards GIS; technological hazards GIS; Conservation
Units spatial data; alpha-numeric data bank; image bank; multimedia;
and GIS applications for environmental management and hazards
monitoring.
Key words: Geoindicators, Geographic Information Systems,
Geological Hazards
INTRODUCTION
This paper presents a GIS (Geographic Information System)
application designed to elaborate Geoindicators Scenarios of São
Paulo State, based on engineering-geological criteria by GAIA
Manager System of the Geo-environmental Data Base of São Paulo
State (Fig.1).
The GAIA System constitutes the São Paulo geo-
environmental database, as a software interface, developed at IPT,
through three projects: the doctorate thesis in Diniz (1998), presented
to Escola Polytechnical School – USP (University of São Paulo).
Developed on an internal research project in IPT for environmental
and geological hazards evaluation and geotechnical analysis of terrain
capabilities for civil works. And beyond that applied to a
development for Environmental Department of São Paulo State that
has been applied for environmental zoning, Conservation Units
monitoring, Water Resources management.
The geo-environmental GIS data bases, developed based on
engineering-geological criteria can be considered as a tool in the
multidisciplinary effort to develop solutions to geological hazards
monitoring. The behavior of terrains, submitted to intense and
accelerated anthropologic uses, and changed by theirs technological

process, has been facing considerable economic and, even human life,
losses.
The forecast of terrains performance done by engineering
geological GIS, should be precise, the more so the investigation and
the geological-geotechnical characterization of terrains should be
guided by observation and analysis of physical environment
processes, triggered by the technological process intervention.
The GAIA System has a spatial database, an image bank, an
alpha-numeric bank that could be used in a Geoindicators Scenario
applying geotechnical attributes and criteria to environmental
evaluation.
The importance of effective management of data and
information on environmental issues has been highly considered on
GAIA System research project. Geoindicators research activities
generate and require massive amounts of many diverse data and
information. These data and information are needed to document
change, to improve understanding of physical environmental
processes, and to carry out integrated assessments of impacts on
human affairs.

Figure 1 – GAIA – Geo-environmental data Base of São Paulo

State System Data Structure

Because physical environmental issues in São Paulo State are

so broad, including geoindicators, natural forcing factors, human
interactions, and comprehensive assessments, data and information
management challenge is to archive, preserve, and make GAIA
System data available in a useful form for researchers and other users.
The Geo-environment data base needs to be accessible
beyond the universe of experts. For a correct understanding by these
users, the language and the preventive recommendations included in
the data bank for each one must be clear in terms of predetermining
the performance of urban land use and physical environment
interaction. As well as indicating the potential conflicts among the
forms of use and occupation; and should advise preventive and
corrective measures in order to minimize costs and risks in the
enterprises and in the surrounding environment.
The effective use of engineering geological GIS of terrains is
assured as long as the orientation of preventive and corrective
measures allows helping interventions such as: conservation units
laws, master plans, civil defense plans, urban settlements, erosion and
landslides control measures, giving, through data base set,
geoindicators for hazard monitoring.
Preventive measures in environmental management, based in
the foreseeing of environmental problems, should improve the life
quality for sustainable development.
GEOINDICATORS
Geoindicators have been developed as tools to assist in
integrated assessments of natural environments and ecosystems, as
well as for state-of-the-environment reporting, say Berger and Iams
(1996). As describers of common earth processes that operate in one
terrestrial setting or another, geoindicators represent collectively a
new kind of landscape metric, one that concentrates on the non-living

components of the lithosphere, pedosphere, hydrosphere, and their

interactions with the atmosphere and biosphere (including humans).
The condition of the environment at any time reflects not
only human influences but also natural processes and phenomena,
said by Berger and Iams (1996), which may be causing change
whether or not people are present. The long evolutionary history of
the Earth and the biosphere has been punctuated throughout by
environmental changes that reduced or enhanced the capacity of
terrestrial landscapes to provide a place for healthy life. Moreover,
away from obvious sources of human disturbance (cities, waste
disposal sites, mines, deforested areas), it may be extraordinarily
difficult to separate the effects of human actions from those due to
"background" natural processes.
Using the data set of geo-environmental data base one could
try to predict seasonal to interannual climate fluctuations and
associated extreme events, and could simulate the potential economic
impacts on agricultural, water resource, and other socioeconomic
systems.
However, to define the trends and the geographic and
temporal patterns of change in global land cover, it is necessary to
know what are the processes, both natural and human induced, that
lead to changes in land cover and land use. Including such processes
as deforestation, desertification, and loss of global resources. The
vulnerability of Earth systems, including economies, human health,
and ecological systems to climate fluctuations and changes depends
on these time scales.
The Fig. 2 illustrates Engineering geological criteria chart
based on geoindicators Check List (Berger, 1996) and geo-
environment data base modeling (Diniz, 1998). Geoindicators are
actual process and engineering criteria are measure of respective
conditioning attribute. Units are the landscape spatial representation
for each temporal and dynamic geoindicator´s scenario.

The actual processes and theirs respective parameters considered

relevant to São Paulo State, based on engineering geological criteria
are:
− Erosion (ton/ha/year);
− mass movement (m3/event x rain mm accumulated/72 hours ;
− silting (m3/ton/year);
− karst collapse (m2 /number of occurences)
− soil collapse (m2 / number of occurences)
− soil expansion (m2 / number of occurences)
− settlement (m2 / number of occurences)
− sismicity (intensity MM/ number of occurences)

Figure 2 – Enginnering geological criteria chart based on

geoindicators check list (Berger and Iams, 1996) and geo-
environment data base modeling (Diniz, 1998).
The Geoindicators Scenarios of São Paulo State can be
elaborated using geo-environmental actual process spatial

information and geoindicators parameters data bank registers,

illustrated on Fig. 3.
Figure 3 – GAIA GIS System displaying one Geoindicator

Scenario of São Paulo State.
DATA BASE FOR MONITORING

The Geo-enviromental data base of São Paulo State gives the
appropriate data set to select physical environmental processes
relevant enough to be geoindicators, such as geological hazards and

environmental issues: terrain vulnerability to erosion, mass

movement, sedimentation, soil collapse, soil settlement, soil
expansion, soil combustion, seismicity, and superficial and ground
water quality.
The more consistent contributions to the improvement of this
tool are those that come from its use. The engineering geological data
base should be updated due to the modifications of the
geoenvironmetal process. Only GIS can support databases for
environmental evaluation of this complex and accelerated
environmental dynamics.
The GIS project had the objective to elaborate Scenarios and
data banks for many kinds of applications, such as monitoring and
management.
The target of the project was to construct a geoenviromental
data base – Gaia with:
a) a spatial digital data base;
b) physical environmental processes (hazards) layers;
c) technological processes layers;
d) basic thematic spatial data;
e) physical environmental resources spatial data;
f) conservation units spatial data;
g) social environmental alpha-numeric data bank;
h) photo image bank;
j) GIS application interface.
The interface made use of existing data products
implemented in support of related environmental monitoring projects.

Improves prediction skills related to geoenviromental

prediction, expanding predictive skills beyond the tropics to the
extent possible; enhances understanding of land-atmosphere
interactions.
This geoenviromental data base could improve
documentation, assessment, and understanding of the physical
processes; investigate the relationships among geological processes,
land use and climate; study the role of physical environmental
dynamics in integrative models and scientific assessments.
Beyond that, it could improve documents, investigate and
assess changes in forcing factors that influence geoenvironmental,
making possible feedback in coupled models; document change
through long-term monitoring and assessment of primary climate
system characteristics; and to investigate economic, technological,
and demographic trends that affect the ability of natural and human
systems responding to climate variability and change.
This GIS GAIA could be conducted largely at existing
centers and partnerships, the subsequent processing and creation of
products useful in science and applications should be distributed
widely and thereby take advantage of the concepts and technology
involved in the rapid growth of the Internet and the World Wide
Web.
NATURAL HAZARDS MONITORING

According to Trenberth (1999) in late November of 1998, the
Worldwatch Institute and Munich – the world's largest reinsurer –
issued a report which assessed the total losses, worldwide, from
storms, floods, droughts, and fires for the first eleven months of that
unusual year. The staggering sum, at that time, was a record US$ 89
billion. In addition to material losses, these weather-related events

had taken an estimated 32,000 lives, while displacing 300 million

people from their homes.
In early August, for example, major floods devastated parts
of Korea, and in August and September 1998, extensive monsoon-
related flooding struck heavily-populated eastern India and
Bangladesh. Widespread heavy rains in China, at about the same
time, released the mighty Yang-Tze River from its banks, with
ensuing reports of more than 3,000 deaths, some 230 million people
homeless, and over US$30 billion in flood damage. In the summer of
1998 heat waves and air pollution episodes plagued many regions of
the world, particularly in Egypt and other Mediterranean countries,
and in southern Europe. In New Zealand, record floods in July and
October 1998 were the worst over 100 years. But the costliest disaster
of them all, in terms of human life, struck the Caribbean in late
October. Hurricane Mitch caused the deaths of more than 11,000
people in Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala and El Salvador,
primarily through the extensive flooding that followed prolonged and
heavy rains.
A number of extreme-weather events with large human
impacts fell in the same period in the United States, and most of them
were explained, in news reports, as the expected impacts of the
uncommonly strong El Niño of 1997-1998.
In Brazil, geoindicators monitoring has been done by Instituto
de Pesquisas Tecnológicas do Estado de São Paulo – IPT, especially
landslides, and Instituto de Pesquisas Espaciais – INPE, especially
forest clearing, (Coltrinari, 1996). IPT has many works on natural
hazards forecast. At IPT, Geological studies along Serra do Mar
escarpment comprise geotechnical mapping, development of techniques
for location, registration and hazards assessment improvement of
current knowledge on soil instability, technological transfer, design and
operation of short-term warning plans for landslides. The instabiility of

Serra do Mar escarpment is currently increasing as a result of rainforest

destruction and also for “unofficial” settlements on steep slopes.
The rainfall is the major triggering agent to the occurrence of
landslides in Brazil (Macedo and others, 1998). Applied researches in
correlation analysis between rainfall and landslides, led to the
development of basically two different methods of forecasting
systems: short-term rainfall monitoring and long-term rainfall
monitoring methods.
The debris-flow deposits show sedimentary patterns and
stratigraphic relations, useful to identify areas prone to the occurrence
of the phenomenon. Sediment sequence and composition of some
deposits in mountainous areas can serve as geoindicators, helping to
identify risk areas for debris-flows, (Ogura and Gramani, 2000).
Campagnoli (1998) used rates of silting deposits evolution, as
well as their accumulated volumes to provide a specter of
environment geo-indicators. These parameters, such as geoindicators,
can measure the efficiency of preventive and corrective actions
adopted in the hydrographic basins that aim the mitigation of
processes and soil degradation. The author studied the susceptibility
of terrains to urban erosion and silting processes as well as forms of
land use, together with the conflicts and impacts. Silting was
observed in reservoirs situated on the Metropolitan Area of São Paulo
- MASP. In characterization and quantification studies of the corer
drilling silting deposits on rivers, it was verified that the evolution of
rates of deposition shows a strict relation to the history of land use,
allowing the establishment of specific rates of production of
sediments per basin along time.
The geoindicators Scenario of São Paulo State based on
engineering-geological criteria could be applied to specific studies
like risks, vulnerability, urban planning and engineering issues. For
example counties engineering geological GIS, risk scenarios of mass
movements, vulnerability scenarios of ground water pollution and

evaluation Scenarios of waste disposal. However, these static

scenarios such as engineering – geological maps are overcome by
GIS dynamic evaluations possibilities.
RESULTS
A GIS (Geographic Information System) application was
designed to elaborate a Geoindicators Scenario of São Paulo State,
based on engineering-geological criteria by GAIA Manager System
of the Geo-environmental Data Base of São Paulo State (Fig.1).
The GAIA System constitutes the São Paulo geo-
environmental database, as a software interface, developed at IPT,
through three projects. One is the doctorate thesis in Diniz (1998),
presented to Escola Politécnica – USP (University of São Paulo). And
produced by an internal research project in IPT for environmental and
geological hazards evaluation and geotechnical analysis of terrain
capabilities for civil works. And beyond that, a development for
Environmental Department of São Paulo State, that have been applied
for environmental zoning, Conservation Units monitoring, Water
Resources management.
The GAIA System has a spatial database, an image bank, an
alpha-numeric bank that could be used to construct dynamics
Geoindicators Scenarios applying geotechnical attributes and criteria
to environmental evaluation.
The importance of effective management of data and
information on environmental issues has been highly considered on
GAIA System research project. Geoindicators research activities
generate and require massive amounts of many diverse data and
information. These data and information are needed to document
change, to improve understanding of physical environmental
processes, and to carry out integrated assessments of impacts on
human affairs. Because physical enviromental issues in São Paulo

State are so broad, including geoindicators, natural forcing factors,

human interactions, and comprehensive assessments, a data and
information management challenge is to archive, preserve, and make
GAIA System data available in a useful form for researchers and
other users.
The physical environmental processes (hazards) scenario
have the layers: erosion, sedimentation, mass movements, settlement,
flooding, karst collapses, soil expansion, soil consolidation, collapses
and coastal dynamics (all from IPT).
The Technological process scenarios have the layers: waste
(CETESB); roads (DER), rail roads (FEPASA), land use (IPT, IGC,
EMPLASA), urbanization (IPT), dams, electric transmission lines
(CESP, ELETROPAULO, CPFL), industries (CETESB), harbors
(CESP), airports (EMBRAER), pipe lines and refineries
(PETROBRAS).
CONCLUSIONS
The Geoindicators Scenarios of São Paulo State integrated
the following types of geological hazards: erosion, sedimentation,
mass movements, settlement, flooding, soils expansion, soils
consolidation, karst collapses, soil collapses, coastal dynamics,
earthquakes, superficial water quality and ground water pollution.
Although these Geoindicator Scenarios are still highly generalized,
they are an useful source of hazards information and geo-
environmental problems not available in conventional maps, even in
engineering–geological or geotechnical mapping, and it shows that
much research must to be done to make information consistent,
considering the geological time scale processes, that one kind of
geotechnical Scenario can represent.
The engineering development and the distributed client-
server design of GAIA should continue implementation, only in this

way it could be responsive to community needs. However, we

believe that the GAIA system management and operations concept
should be redefined to involve a larger user community effectively.
Geoindicators Scenario of São Paulo State in GIS will
certainly allow detailing and quantification measures of geo-
environmental process for monitoring uses.
Acknowledgements: The author would like to thank the Instituto de

Pesquisas Tecnológicas of São Paulo State for logistic support, all
the technicians of IPT that have given support, and all the companies
who allowed us access to their records, that are IG, IGC, IBGE, DER,
DAEE, CESP, ELETROPAULO, FEPASA, EMBRAER, CETESB,
SMA, PETROBRAS, FFLCH/ Dep.Geog./ USP, EPUSP and IPT.
REFERENCES
BERGER, A R. and IAMS, W.J. (1996) Geoindicators: assessing
rapid environmental changes in earth systems. A A Balkema/
Rotterdam. Brookfield. 466 p.
CAMPAGNOLI, F (1998) Silting as an environment geo-indicator
on Metropolitan Area of São Paulo – Brazil. International
Engineering Geology - IAEG - Vancouver – Canada.
CONTRINARI, L. (1996) Natural and anthropogenic interactions in
the Brazilian tropics. In: Geoindicators: assessing rapid
environmental changes in earth. Editors: BERGER, A R. &
IAMS W.I. A. A Balkema, Rotterdam, Brookfield. P 295 – 310.
COORDENADORIA ESTADUAL DE DEFESA CIVIL. (Coord.)
(1997) Mapa de Ameaças Múltiplas do Estado de São Paulo. São
Paulo: IPT/ DAEE/ CETESB/ IG/IAG.

DINIZ, N.C. (1998) Automação da cartografia geotécnica: uma

ferramenta de estudos e projetos para avaliação ambiental. São
Paulo. 2v. (Tese de Doutorado, apresentada à Escola Politécnica
da Universidade de São Paulo).
DINIZ, N.C. (2000) A geo-environmental data base due to elaborate
Geoindicators Scenarios of São Paulo State based on
engineering-geological criteria. 31º International Geological
Congress. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. August, 2000.
INSTITUTO DE PESQUISAS TECNOLÓGICAS DO ESTADO DE
SÃO PAULO - IPT. (1994) Carta geotécnica do Estado de São
Paulo; escala 1:500.000. São Paulo. 2v. (IPT. Publicação, 2.089).
________. 1999. Sistema da base de dados geoambientais no Estado
de São Paulo. São Paulo. (IPT. Relatório, 42 331).
MACEDO, E.S. and others (1998) Landslide warning system in Serra
do Mar slopes, São Paulo, Brazil. 8 The International IAEG
Congress. Balkema, Rotterdam. P 1967 – 1971.
OGURA. A T. & GRAMANI, M.F. (2000) The debris flow in
Lavrinhas: stratigraphical and sedimentological features for
debris flow risk assessment. 31st International Geological
Congress. IUGS. International Union for Geological Sciences.
Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
TRENBERTH, K.E. (1999) The Extreme Weather Events of 1997
and 1998. CONSEQUENCES Vol 5 no 1 1999, pp. 3-15.

MINING & SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: THE

ECONOMIC DIMENSION IN THE SELECTION OF
INDICATORS
Eduardo Vale
BAMBURRA – Planejamento & Economia Mineral Ltda.
(http://www.bamburra.com)
1. CONCEPT
Focusing on aggregate level and keeping apart the influence
of different dimensions that permeate the conception of sustainable
development, this article takes as reference a concept closer to the
definition suggested by The World Comission on Environment and
Development – WCED1:
A pattern of development that fulfill the most

u r g e n t a n d g e n e r a l n e e d s o f th e p r e s e n t
generation without compromise the legacy
Unquestionably, the fundamental challenge to achieve a

pattern of sustainable development is to find out a compromise
solution between the interests of the present and future generations.
2. IS IT POSSIBLE A SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

WITHOUT MINING?
This question can be approached by means of three levels:
International – taking into account the fundamental role of the
minerals in industrial production and in higher standards of living
the answer is certainly not. There is a consensus, the mining

industry is an important vector for leveraging the global

development process into a sustainable level;
National – although facing a different scale and options
comparing to international level, the sectoral status is similar in
terms of importance. However, considering a diversity of
interests and policies it is opportun making the following
considerations:
• Developed Countries;
• Developed Countries with mineral vocation;
• Developing Countries; e
• Developing Countries with mineral vocation.
Local – at local level the relative importance of the mining
industry will be constrained by the availability of other
opportunities of investment with special concern to mutually
exclusive situations. On the other hand, probably the interests of
community will be subordinated to national ones.
In fact, while some regions have at your disposal several
conceptual routes for development, for others mining is quite the
unique option. An extreme example is Mali
The interrelationship between spacial dimensions and the matriz
of opportunitites and challenges, at local and national levels, are
going to be crucial in the formatting process of the opportunity
costs associated with alternative development paths. . In this
sense, incremental costs are going to reflect trade offs in the
amount of net benefits susceptible to be generated by each policy.

3. IS MINING SUSTAINABLE?
4. MULTIDIMENSIONAL VIEW OF THE CONCEPT

Figure 1 characterizes the usual dimensions referencing
concepts of sustainable development and a specific factor - depletion
- of the mining industry.
Obs: Cultural aspects are inserted in social dimension.

Since Malthus, depletion is recognized as a critical factor in
the interface of intergeneration conflicts. In the last decades, with the
maturation of the sustainable development concept this interface is
embedding other relevant dimensions – economic, social and
environmental - as well. Despite this evolving process, by means of
irreversible impacts and the preservation of the ecosystem efforts in

order to guarantee conditions to future generations, in essence the

challenge is the same.
Another specific factor deserving mention is the locational
rigidity of mining operations in relation to conflicts with other
natural resources, aboriginal areas, creation of enclaves etc. In this
context, isolated regions in the hinterland, with low demographic
density and rich biodiversity are the principal concern.
5. MATRIZ OF INDICATORS OF SUSTAINABILITY

The process of identification and selection of indicators of
sustainability although subordinated by macro-dimensions should
focus on operational issues in order to quantify and qualify the level
of conformance of the mining industry to sustainable development.
The objective is to estimate quantitative and qualitative indicators and
conduct absolute and relative evaluations and analysis at minesite,
sector or cluster levels. With this reference we adopted the following
scheme:
FUNDAMENTALDIMENSIONS{Politic,Legal,Economic,Social,Environmental,Technology....}
ParametersofInterest[rateofrecovery,consumptionofenergy,consumptionofwater,recyclingofwater,disturbedland..]
• Metrics & Indicators ( emissions per unit of product, etc)
In sequence we present a summary of possible topics and

references that can used to select indicators of sustainability.

ENVIRONMENTAL
Energy
- Total Consumption
- Consumption Profile per Source
- Participation of Renewable Sources
- Self-generation
- Reuse
- Consumption per Unit of Product
Water
- Total Consumption
- Treatment
- Recycling & Reuse
- Quality of Discharged Water
- Consumption per Unit of Product
Land
- Total Area Occupied
- Profile of Occupied Area (%)
- Mining Operations
- Treatment Operations
- Townsite
- Dams & Waste Disposal
- Roads
- Disturbed Natural Areas (%)

- Protected Natural Areas (%)

- Reclaimed Natural Areas (%)
Inputs & Materials
- Consumption per type
- Profile of Consumption per type
- Consumption of Risk & Hazardous Materials
- Recycling & Reuse
- Consumption per Type / Unit of Product
Effluents, Emissions & Waste
Plan of Mine Closure
SOCIAL
Employment
- Total Direct Employment
- Total Indirect Employment
- Generation of Employment per Unit of Product
- Minimum Wage
- Average Wage
- Subcontracting
- Work Conditions in Subcontracting Companies
- Female & Minorities Work Force
- Health & Safety Conditions
- Work Accidents Rate
- Strikes

- Penalties
- Training & Education ($/worker)
- Health & Safety ($/worker)
- Levels of Satisfaction of the Work Force
- Channels of Communication & Participation in Decision
Process
Community Relations
- Total Direct Employment
- Total Indirect Employment
- Total Employment per Unit of Product
- Total Expenses in the Community(%)
- Social Infra-structure of the Project
- Creation of Additional Infra-structure in the Region ($)
- Levels of Integration with the Community
- Training & Education (%)
- Level of Integration with Public Health and Civil Defense
Services
- Levels of Satisfaction of the Community
- Channels of Communication & Participation in Decision
Process
ECONOMIC
Selected Aggregates
- Value of Production

- Income
- Gross Margin
- Acquisition of Inputs
- Direct and Indirect Rent
- Wages & Associated Costs
- Return of Capital
- Rent Distribution
- Direct and Indirect Taxation
- Net Currency Generation
- Prospection & Exploration
- Research & Development (R&D)
- Investments in Infra-structure
- Investments in Education & Health
- New and Expansion Investments
- Investments in Diversification
- Donations
- Sources of Funds
Considering the expressive interrelationship between
dimensions, parameters and indicators there are many metrics that
could be selected.

6. EXPECTED CHALLENGES & IMPACTS

International Issues
National Issues
Local Issues
7. SOME QUESTIONS OF CONCERN

Quantitative & Qualitative Indicators
Social Rate of Discount
The Influence of Spatial Dimensions
Confronting National & International Markets
Opportunity Costs Dilemma
Trade & Nontraded Goods
Transferring Prices Issues
Sustainability Dumping?
Who pays the Bill? Is the Polluter Pays Principle?
NOTES & REFERENCES

“Sustainable development: a guide to our common future”. The
Report of the World Commission on Environment and
Development. Genebra, 1990.
BARRETO, M. Laura (Ed.). “Ensaios Sobre a Sustentabilidade da
Mineração no Brasil”. Rio de Janeiro. CETEM/MCT, 2001.
130p.
“Sustainability Reporting Guidelines”. Global Reporting Initiative –
GRI (http://www.globalreporting.org)

VALE, Eduardo. "Mine Closure: selected highlights" - Mine Closure:

Iberoamerican Experiences - Module V - Economy and Finance
- CYTED/IMAAC/UNIDO - 2001 - 581p. - pp. 219-223. Rio
de Janeiro.
________________“A Mineração e o Meio Ambiente: uma análise
técnico-econômica” - Anais do I Encontro do Hemisfério Sul
sobre Tecnologia Mineral - Vol. II - pp. 1.166-1.175 -
dezembro/1982

GENERAL CRITERIA OF THE SUSTAINABILITY FOR

MINING ACTIVITY
Ing. Diosdanis Guerrero Almeida and Dr. Roberto Blanco Torrens
Assisting professor of the Department of Mining of the Institute
Superior Mining Metallurgist of Moa Dr. Antonio Núñez Jiménez".
The Coloradas Red S/N. Moa. Holguín. Cuba. CP: 83329. Telef.: 6-
8190. Fax. (53) (24) 6-2290. e-mail # 1: dguerrero@ismm.edu.cu
e-mail # 2: diosdanisg@yahoo.es
SUMMARY
The exploitation and extraction of mines is of vital
importance to the subsistence of the modern man, but at the same
time, it leaves undeniable marks on the environment, being able to
cause problems of social, economic, political and cultural order at the
place where the mine are located.
How to develop a sustainable mining, which will tees the
actual necessities of the society, without putting into risk the future
generations and at the same time protect the environment, is a great
challenge which does not only faces mining sector, but also the
governments of each country.
These and other elements are part of the following research,
which has as an objective identifying the general criteria that
guarantee the development of a sustainable exploitation of minerals.
In order to achieve this objective, the authors make the use of
observational and experimental methods, though visits made to both
active and inactive mines in Latin America and other parts of the
world. The results show their great application at places with the
analogous conditions.

INTRODUCTION
The technological, economic and social development,
globalisation, the revolution of the communication, the pressure of
the financial markets, the urgent necessities of the poor of the world,
the need to respect cultural diversities, the need respect human rights,
the need to eliminate environmental damage, of protecting the
biological biodiversity as well as the conservation and rational use of
the natural resources, all this represent a challenge to the humanity
and to the mining sector.
Within this international panorama, the mining industry plays
an important roll in the industrial sectors of the economy.
For that reason it is recommended that the mining industry
adopt the SD philosophy as the main objective for its strategic
planning in the short, medium and long terms. For this to happen, it is
important to develop approaches that serve as guide to reach
sustainable development issues.
On of the ways of facing this challenge, is the topic treated in
this paper, which is based on experiences acquired by the authors
during work visits carried out to different mines not only active but
inactive as well in diverse countries of the world.
DEVELOPMENT
The mining sector presents an interesting challenge as for the
reduction of its environmental impacts. These impacts include the
emissions of pollution during the period of the mining activities; the
transformation of the land and the creation of conditions that can
drive to the environmental problems in the future.
This sector depends on a number of powerful tendencies,
which will define the conditions of business in which the industry
will operate in this new century. Perhaps none of these challenges is

bigger than the call for a global transition toward the Sustainable
Development, based on a vision of reaching a better quality of life for
today's world population.
These problems have been object of study and discusses,
meaning of it’s concept in the last decades in different parts of our
planet, among experts and investigation groups, in forums, meetings
and international summits where Projects and general and specific
strategies have been approved. They include solutions to satisfy the
necessities of the current and future generations and to achieve with it
the so call Sustainable Development.
To reach the sustainable development in any human activity
it is necessary first to have a detailed definition or at least to possess
the necessary clarity on the meaning of this concept, because you
easily can incur in errors get confused.
The International Union for the Conservation of the Nature has
conceptualised the sustainable development recognizing the different
dimensions that necessarily lead to the achievement of its goals. It is
a significant advance regarding the general form in which this
problem had been outlined by the Commission Brundtland in 1987,
and that Julio Carrizosa characterizes in the following terms:
"It is a process of economic and social improvement that
satisfies the necessities and values of the population's
groups, maintaining the future options and conserving the
natural resources and the diversity", [Carrizosa, (1992)].
About scepticism of many people who wonders if the term
sustainability is applicable to an industry like mining, based on non-
renewable resources, Patrick Moore exposes two arguments that give
answer to this query when expressing:
"People don't understand the real meaning of the sustainable
concept. First, it is convenient to remind that not
necessarily to remind because a resource is not renewable

soon it will disappear. The iron, the copper, the manganese,

the titanium and the aluminium are good examples of
minerals whose production can be sustained in a future, we
can foresee. Second, the sustainable is a relative concept, it
is not absolute. Nothing is forever, the sun will still explode
in three or four trillion years and then it is not perfectly
sustainable. The sustainable is a peremptory order for all
the segments of our society, but to make it real should not be
more difficult for the mining industry than to anyone. I
recommend that the industry adopts the philosophy of the
sustainability like its central objective for the strategic
planning", [Moore, (1997)].
As it is appreciated, this is a complex concept that
incorporates the following principles, each one of which is applicable
in any form to the development al activities:
- The ecological sustainability
- The social sustainability
- The cultural sustainability
- The economic sustainability
On the other hand, many authors, [such as Mercado, (1995)
and others], have supported the term of sustainability which implies
the maintenance in the time of a certain phenomenon or process.
Other investigators generally associate only this concept to that of
renewability of the renewable natural resources, without considering
their applicability to the non-renewability, [ICSED, op. cit.].
The non renewable resources, used and exploited for example
by the mining activity, are those that possess a rate of very low
renovation, in terms within relevant time for the human beings, for
this reason they are considered like a practically null rate, [Mercado,

(1995)]. This implies that the bigger the extraction rate is, in some
moment of the time these resources will be drained.
According to this analysis, the exploitation and use of the
natural resources not renewable cannot be by they selves sustainable
because they are drained, due to the fact that generally the extraction
rate of the is bigger than their regeneration rate. However, when
considering that the sectors make uses and exploitation of the
renewable natural resources, are part of a great system, then one can
speak of sustainable development of this system. This system is
integrated to each other by a group of related subsystems such as the
ecological, the economic and the social system.
It is necessary to use the application of the sustainability in
the mining activity it should be kept in mind and executed a group of
actions arisen from the domain and application of basic concepts,
many of which depend on technicians, directors and managers of the
mines, as long as other, for example, the price of the mineral in the
international market is variable and it does not depend on their will,
[Guerrero, (2001b)].
In this sense, and taking as the base the studies carried out in
diverse mines so much active as inactive as well, of diverse parts of
the world; we consider that to reach this complex goal, it is necessary
the application of the following general approaches:
1. Improvement of the mining activity.
2. Improvement of the safety conditions of the mine
3. Mitigation of the environmental impact caused by mining.
4. Use of the appropriate equipment according to the conditions of
each location.
5. Rational and integral use of mining resources and minerals for the
community benefit.

6. Decrease of the environmental and geodynamics threats and

dangers.
Improvement of the mining activity.
The mining exploitation should be based on the study of the
geomechanic characteristics of the rocky mass, of the elements
characterizing the ways mineral body lies and of the other geological
and mining factors that should be characterized at the same time
mining works advance. The results of the investigative works
obtained in the laboratory not always coincide with those of the field,
because the rocky mass is a material environment of great complexity
presenting a series of particularities and phenomena that arise from it
and cause an important impacts during their exploitation.
The improvement of the mining activity in general,
constitutes a point of vital importance. For this reason not only in the
main operations of he deposits’ exploitation but in the auxiliary ones
as well, same measures are taken in order to achieve our objective,
the improvement of the mining activity. To carry out this
improvement, it is necessary the use, of advanced technologies and
Systems of Opening and Exploitation, since the initial stages of the
mining projects, based on impacts on the integral knowledge of the
solids, so that a minimum of affectations is the environment and the
measures allow to reach high indexes of mining Exploitation with a
minimum cost.
One of these methods could be linked the elimination of
exploration roads that generally cause big damages to the flora and
local fauna. This method can be substituted by the realization of
tunnels (in the case of mountain locations), or auxiliary excavations
of exploration. This variant would have as an advantage, besides the
previous one; the possibility of the use in the future of this
excavations for the opening of the deposits or other new bodies.

In the exploration stages like in those of opening,

development and exploitation, the man historically has made use of
the topographical means that have served as support for the
realization of diverse works and the solution of complex problems, as
well as for creating the bases in the construction or building
engineering works. However, the solution of these problems with
topographical traditional methods has caused considerable damages
up on the environment and the nature (deforestation, alteration of the
flora and the fauna, etc.).
It is important to keep in mind, since the beginning of the
Project, everything concerning one to the stage of Closing and their
later control, to guarantee under the most favourable conditions their
status with the smallest social-environmental impact and the best use
of the mineral resources. Another element to value is the possible
importance of the mine from the point of view of the patrimony it
represents, which we should consider as element of historical value.
All aspects above-mentioned has a strong linking with the
community, for these reasons these aspects have not only economical
and environmental importance but they also have a high social value
environmental meaning, a high social value.
In studies carried out in Cuban nickel deposits, it has been
found that during the stage of geological exploration, great quantity
of hectares of forests has been devastated with the purpose of
building roads and breaches. In the same way it has been proved that
with the development of the mining works these impacts reach a
bigger degree.
It is well-known that the traditional topography is based on
the construction of polygonal of detour, linkage (bond), going and
turn, direct and inverse intersections; with the later calculations that
finish with the making of the drawing. This mining branch shows that
during the realization of survey in mountainous areas and in forests as
well as in places of marked slopes, roads and trails should be built In

order to obtain bigger visibility that allows to sight the sign. All of
this brings about the alteration of the ecosystem.
These methods can be modified with the employment of new
technologies, that would diminish considerably the damages and
affectations caused to the environment. For this reason it becomes
necessary, the rational use of such automated equipments as Global
Positioning Systems (GPS), Total Stations (Electronic Tachometers),
with this equipment it is not necessary to build those polygonals.
In these cases the survey is carried out without the previous
construction of polygonal, all the steps are not taken into
consideration to calculate the coordinates of the points since these
they are obtained directly in the display of the equipment or stored
automatically in a magnetic card that later on is processed through the
operating system WINDOWS, what makes possible to obtain the
necessary data for the making of the Topographical drawing making
use of the TOPO6 and SURFER, [Guerrero, (1999)].
Another complex operation that should be kept in mind is the
selection and correct application of the Methods of Exploitation of
the deposit. In this sense, and taking as a base the factors that
influence on the selection of a certain Method of Exploitation,
(physical-mechanical Properties of the ore and of the country rock,
elements considering the way deposits lies, relief, planned production
of the mine, existent geologic reservations, morphology of the
mineral bodies, available equipment, level of knowledge of the mass,
etc).
It is important to make use of Systems of exploitation where
the old mined place remains unoccupied even after the extraction of
the ore, (such as the denominated Methods of Exploitation for Open
Chambers), in such way that it allows the employment of those
mining spaces for other economic, social, strategic, tourist,
patrimonial purposes, etc. For this reason it is recommended the
substitution or non application of those systems that don't offer this

possibility; (such as storage, filler, fortification etc), or those that

cause a remarkable affectation on the environment, and elevate the
costs of exploitation considerably, (among other we can point out the
Systems of Exploitation for Block Caving, sublevel run, etc.).
In general this high cost of exploitation is linked with
problems related with the sinking and rock slips that occur in
underground and open mines, such a the mine The Merceditas
(Cuba), where as a consequence of the disordered recovery of
antechamber pillars we had such situations that have made a
remarkable influence the efficiency of the exploitation of this
chromium deposit.
Improvement of the safety conditions of the mine.
The execution of the measures for safety in the mines, is one
of the elements of vital importance to reach the sustainable
development. For reaching a superior status of development, it is
important to maintain the physical, psychic and intellectual integrity
of the workers and of the principals in change of the mining
company. However, the practice has demonstrated this is not always
this way. Generally, because of technological, economical or of
production reasons, it is incurred in violations of the measures of
safety.
The content of powder in the atmosphere generated mainly
by the use of explosive substances during the separation of the or due
to the use of the means of transport and loads in the mines affects the
health of the workers in the working fronts. This powder is also,
partly expelled to the exterior by the currents of air, contaminating
the atmosphere. Besides, a lot of powder is generated during a series
of works that are carried out in the surface of the mine (the movement
of equipment, plant of Mechanical Preparation; etc.) such a situation
affects the conditions of security and hygiene in the mining activity.
In such a sense, it is important to have present the application of
ventilation Outlines, (flow-trough System, draw-trough System or

Combined one) that facilitate the quick evacuation of the polluting,

gases nearby the work fronts. It is advisable the exploitation, at he
maximum level, of the ventilation outline by natural shot if the
geomining conditions allow it.
Another factor that should be kept in mind to achieve an
improvement of the safety conditions of the mine is the employment
of means and of mining equipment. The mining equipment also
produces affectations to the man and the environment. The noise
generated by the equipment (manual, telescopic perforators,
pneumatic hammers, front loads, trucks, tractors, and electric
motors); in occasions overcomes 60-70 decibels affecting the man
that operates this equipment and those in the working front. In
general, the equipment used in the medium or small mine lacks the
booths with acoustic isolation.
On the other hand, the workers don't always use the means of
individual protection, being exposed to the noxious effects caused by
such noises as: deafness, tires, stress, irritability; dilation of the
pupils; the increase of the production of the hormone thyroid, of
adrenaline and of corticotrophin; the increase of the heart rhythm;
movement of the stomach and of the abdomen; react muscular;
constriction of the sanguine capillary; alteration of the results in
psychic and psychomotor activity and interference in the oral
communication. During studies carried out in diverse mines located
in the oriental region of Cuba, it has been able to determine the sound
level of some of these sources of noise, [Guerrero, (1999)].
Sources of Noise Sound Level (in Decibels)
Explosions 140.
I hammer Tire 140.
Telescopic perforator 120.
Pneumatic perforator 120
Front loader 100.
Truck, tractor, etc 80.

These data show us first the importance that possesses the use
of the individual and collective protection means in the mining
activity; and second the affectation that these activities can cause on
the health of the workers.
Other studies carried out in diverse active mines of the world
have demonstrated that, as o consequence of the ignorance of the
properties and structural behaviour of the rocky mass lamentable
accidents have taken place and have caused the death of workers as
well as the loss equipment and materials of the mine. Example of we
such accidents have happened during the productive process of
Cuban mines such as Merceditas, Amores, (Love), Matahambre,
Júcaro; and Spanish mines as Rio Tinto, (Tint River); where the
workers have been the move affected ones from the psychological or
physical point of view. This situation brought about the decrease of
the results in the work shift, besides the unavoidable economic
damages.
Mitigation of the environmental impact caused by the mining.
The development of mining, has made possible the extraction
of great quantity of minerals from the earth crust, these resources
have served as raw material for the increasing of the industrial
development of the countries. In Cuba, for example important
deposits of copper, nickel, iron, chromium, manganese and gold,
began to be exploded from the colonial times through diverse
Methods. At the present time still they have being exploited, although
the intensity and the equipment are not the same.
During the period of exploitation it has not been taken into
consideration, as it deserves, the negative effect that produces the
mining in the environment. Without being kept this in mind, great
quantity of residuals and brushes are poured in different places,
occupying spaces of very fertile lands. Other damages caused by
mining constitute an object of study for several investigators and for
national institutions that have noticed the importance this aspect has.

It is important to study these phenomena to avoid in a

reasonable period of the time the degradation of the ecosystem due to
so noxious activity like mining. Therefore, it is necessary from the
initial stages, even from the Project of exploitation of the mine, to
consider the elements allowing foreseeing in a quantitative and
qualitative way the resources that should be used to restore or to re-
establish our environment.
As a result of the carried out works, it has been determined
that among the affectations caused on the environment by the mining
Exploitation we have the following:
1. Occupation of great extension on lands of the surface, for the
surface buildings, the access roads, the burrow and other
constructions.
2. Contamination of the hydraulic resources the underground and
the superficial one as well.
3. Atmospheric contamination; in particular, by powder.
4. Affectations on landscape, flora and fauna.
5. Problems related with the Protection and hygiene of the Work
and the Security of the works.
During the processes associated to Mining, big volumes of
materials are generated by removal; part of them is transformed to
obtain useful products and the solid waste, in quantities bigger than
the useful volume of material is place in waste and tail reservoir. The
safe disposition of the tails and other mining residuals (included the
quarry waste) it is recognized today the most conflicting
technological challenge in the mining industry. Every year according
to the estimated data, more than 15 trillion tons of new tails (most of
the times contaminated with chemical reagents) they are placed in the
surroundings of the metallurgical plants. In spite of these respectable
figures it exist practically any database about the places does´nt of

tail reservoir. There is also no information about the general view of

this problem. There is only information about the volume and the
physical-chemical composition of the tails.
Many companies refuse today the acceptance of their
responsibility for the massive accumulation of tails and there is a
growing international protest against the growth of the tail reservoirs
and the “endemic”disaster of the mining residuals. This has made
several companies to look for alternatives, among those the most
important are out the reutilitation of the tails containing useful
metallic elements with the later inertitation of the tails. This solves in
certain way caused by mining constitute an object of study the
problem of the biodisponibility of the heavy metals and the sour
drainage, but it doesn't solve the problem of the volume.
Theoretically the filler of the same extraction places, is a good
alternative, although this implies the impermeabilitation of these
areas and the construction of collectors of the drainage that make the
process notably more expensive.
During the research works developed in the mine
“Merceditas”, it was determined hat the location in the surface near
the mine of such buildings like, shops, the Plant of Mechanical
Preparation, the Minihydroelectric, the warehouses and the workers'
housings, burrow; caused the occupation of considerable quantities of
lands and the alteration of the original natural landscape.
On the other hand the process of pouring materials
constituted by sterile rocks resulting from mining exploitation, causes
big damages mainly on lands considered feeding source for the
residents living nearby the mines. In the case of small deposits it is
advisable to carry out a study of geologic prospecting through
exploration tunnels that allow to eliminate exploration roads, that
cause in an important way the deforestation and slips of hillsides with
their rising damage on the nature.

In general these rocks are stored, in the burrow (there is in

The Merceditas, Cuba, approximately 450000 t of quarry wastes; in
the mine Saint Domingo, in Portugal the burrow has its origin before
Columbus times, there are stored in this mine a great quantity of
sterile material), occupying big land extensions, damaging the flora
and the fauna and consequently the ecological balance. It is known
that in the Mina Grande, (Big Mine) El Cobre located in the county of
Santiago de Cuba, the burrow was located in a wide area near by the
mine, in such way that fertile lands, that can be used for other ends,
have been lost.
In the mine The Merceditas of the Region of Moa, the
incorrect use of the mining technology has produced remarkable
damages, such as the collapses. The faulty and not planned recovery
of the intechamber Pillars has caused massive collapses as the one
happened in March of 1987 that occupied an area of 600 m2.
This collapse affected the surface of the land partially with maximum
establishment of 3,4 m and angle of collapse of 660, [Guerrero,
(2001a)].
In this mine, during the exploitation of the chambers and due
to geological, and production problems in the period between the
years 1982/1987, the location of the pillars was diversely, without
having no previous or rigorous control neither of the flaws nor of the
cracking, bringing serious slip problems in the country rock.
Likewise, in the 9/3/87 it took place an affectation in the surface due
to these causes, with the appearance of a crack that didn't overcome
0,50 m in the road that leads to the tunnel M-1 (bench mark 475). The
separation of the cracks in some places didn't exceed 0,2 m up today
runs, have not been detected in other parts. Starting from the area of
the benchmark 400 until the valley of the river, sinking areas are not
observed the vegetation remains in normal conditions.
Another element that should be kept in mind is the location,
in the surface of the mines, of buildings engineering works, shops

with different functions, of the access roads, plant of preparation and

beneficiation of minerals, the deposits of minerals and of the tails and
burrow; using the smallest area as possible in the mining surface in
order to avoid a bigger occupation of the surface of the location. It is
important to have present the location of these constructions works in
the called Surface Complex. They offer the possibility to locate
several working places in the same building. This solution diminishes
the affectation upon the environment.
Studies carried with the waters of the river Jaragua
demonstrate the level of pollutants present in them due to the pouring
of residuals coming from the underground mining exploitation of the
mine The Merceditas. Among the polluting elements poured in this
river stands out the dune. In the best cases it is used as. This rock
construction material near burrow, although there are studies that
demonstrate its applicability in other spheres of the national
economy, as for example: they serve as fire-resisting raw material, for
the production of antiadherent paintings, for obtaining of casting
mixture and for casting sledge in the foundry shops.
In the manganese deposits located in the county of Santiago
de Cuba, the environment has suffered remarkable damages due to
the mining exploitation. The location of burrows on the surface of the
land caused the contamination of with sterile material, of fertile
floors. The near rivers as Guaninicún and Ponupo also received
materials or minerals of low law. Yet a these mines are inactive. The
excavations were abandoned without having today in day specific
use. During their exploitation it was necessary to use different
outlines of Opening (vertical well, drift, etc.), however, after the
closing of the mine these excavations were abandoned and filled up
by ground material carried by the pluvial currents. Vegetation also
has ground up there; other excavations are flooded with water. In
these moments residents of the place through the sowing different
cultivations have reforested this area.

During the exploration of the lens of chromium in the mine The

Merceditas in Moa, underground springs were perforated above the
tunnel M-1, bringing the appearance of a considerable quantity of
water that affects the mining works. This problem was solved in an
unusual way through the auxiliary tunnel of drainage.
Use of appropriate equipment according to the concrete
conditions.
The employment of mining techniques that guarantee the
minimum of affectations upon the environment, high rates of
productivity and allow the operators to work in working conditions,
with the less possible health affectation will be the way to viability
and sustainability of mining. A technique of easy manipulation that
guarantees a smaller powder volume and a minimum of risks in this
activity would motivate people linked with this work.
The substitution of the traditional equipment (manual,
telescopic perforators, pneumatic hammers, load front, trucks,
tractors, electric motors); for automated equipment of high
productivity (Jumbos, L.H.D., GPS, Working Combined, etc.), would
allow the improvement of safety conditions during the mining
working, [Guerrero, (2001c)].
This new equipment in spite of being designed mainly for the
great mining should be adjusted to the concrete conditions in each
place. Their dimensions should be allow their use according to the
dimensions and characteristic of the excavations and the mass,
attention should be played to their productivity in order to achieve the
execution of the production plan in the mine.
On the other aspect, to take into consideration is the
substitution of traditional methods of separation of the ore, (such as
Perforation and Explosion), for methods of mechanical separation,
(working combine, Arcwall coal cutter, etc.). This substitution it
would diminish considerably the affectations on the environment,

since a smaller number of gases would be expelled to the atmosphere,

a smaller seismic and sound would be made and, as well as the
negative effects caused by the shock wave originated during the
explosion would disappear.
Rational and integral use of mining and minerals resources for
the community benefit.
In order to reach the sustainable development of mining
exploitation, it is necessary to consider the integral use of the mineral
and mining resources. Among the factors that makes on influence the
achievement of this purpose, we find the technological development
reached in the mining - metallurgical and the processes beneficiation
of the extracted minerals.
During the massive exploitation of the mineral bodies in the
mine The Merceditas (Cuba), besides the extraction of the chromium
pricks, several accompanying minerals are extracted these minerals
due to their insignificant presence in the ore, are considered in these
moments exportable resources. The wide use is known of many of
these accompanying minerals, is known in the foundry industry, in
making abrasive paper, in the production obtaining of Dioxide of
Titanium used more and more as pigment in paints, replacing old
colours. Nowadays numerous investigations are focused on use of the
metallic Titanium as material for structures. Due to the high value of
the relationship resistance - weigh, the Titanium has demonstrated to
be a very appropriate material for the construction of frames, plane
and space ships motors. Other possible uses are the production of
inks, substances for preserving wood and disinfectants.
The use of the excavations that with good conditions of
stability, is considered advantageous from the economic and strategic
point of view. They could used for the location for the location of
objects of the mining activity itself and for other useful works of
economical, social purposes and for the defence of the country. All of
this is possible due to the fact that the are generally, are smaller than

the necessary ones to build new excavations dedicated especially for

those objectives, [Blanco, (2000)].
In the active mines as well as the inactive ones there are
mining places that have not a specific use after their exploitation.
Studies carried out in the old Cromita mine (Cuba) endorse the use of
the galleries and tunnels to storage silts of petroleum coming from the
tanks of the Union del Nickel, located in the port of Moa. Other
works recommend the use of these excavations to store scrums of the
factories, construction of refrigerators, to keep equipment and
military technique as well as places for adaptation industrial of the
personnel to the underground conditions.
The employment of the mining excavations for locating in
them different works of the economy, provides us the following
advantages:
1. A bigger protection of the works from the external actions.
2. The rocky mass use in their natural state, as building and of
isolation material.
3. A bigger antisismic stability.
4. Decrease of the volume of funds, dedicated to the repairs and
modernizations.
It is also important to highlight that once the reservations of
minerals in the deposits have been consumed the productive activities
of the mine cease and the massive unemployment of the workers
generally takes place, usually without any solution. This problem can
be solved through the later use of the mine for other purposes, Ex: the
development of tourism. A typical example of this solution is
presented in the mine Rio Tinto, [(Tint River, (Spain)], where once
concluded the mining exploitation of the deposits, the Project of
Closing of the mine took into account the creation of a mining
museum in this area, revitalizing this way the life of the mine and

bringing as a result the visits of more than a million of tourists who

annually come to this mining installation.
Decrease of the environmental and geodynamics threats and
dangers.
The knowledge and control of the geoenvironmental threats
and dangers contribute to eliminate the effects of a mining that has no
technology adapted for the treatment of waste, which affect the
environment.
The mining works lead to the formation of spaces in the earth
crust and lead to the alteration of the balance existing in the rocky
mass. As a result of this activity, the rock that surrounds the formed
holes becomes deformed and starts moving. This phenomenon, in
many occasions reaches the surface.
This process of displacement of the rocks can also happen
due to other causes such as: tectonic processes, breakup processes,
decrease of the level of the underground waters, variation, for
different causes, of the characteristics of the rocks and others. The
study of these phenomenon leads to the identification of the
geological and gemechanic threats and dangers that occur during the
mining exploitation and after it.
Among the geological and geomechanic threats and dangers
that occur in the mines Merceditas, Amores and Cromita; of Cuba,
we find the following ones:
1. Rocky slips in mountainous hillsides.
2. Sinking of the surface.
3. You partial collapse of the chambers.
4. Loss of stability of the galleries and chambers.
5. Presence of tectonic dislocations of great magnitude (Folds,
active flaws, systems of cracks).

6. Floods.
The danger geologists and geomechanics present existent in
the studied mines constitute a problem of first order. They, in many
occasions may attempt against the man's physical integrity and
against nature, causing severe damages. For this reason the execution
of the following measures has vital importance for reaching a
sustainable development.
1. Realization of a previous study and systematic control of the
rocky mass behaviour during and after the execution of the
mining works.
2. The use of maintenance methods adapted to those areas where the
lost of stability is manifested.
3. To carry out periodical controls on the excavations, to cleaning
them of brashest and other materials.
4. Appropriate classification of the protection pillars.
5. Appropriate recovery of the protection pillars.
6. Construction of contention walls in the hillsides where they rocky
slips have appeared.
7. Realization of controls in areas of possible rocky sinking.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The sustainability of the mining activity could be achieved if take
into account the analysed approaches.
2. The election of an appropriate technology in the mining activity
allows reaching better economic results and to minimize the
affectations caused on to the environment.
3. The improvement of the mining activity in its different stages of
its development, starting from the better knowledge of the rocky

solid, gives us the possibility of to reaching a bigger productivity

rationality and security during all the processes developed in
mining activities.
4. The mentioned approaches that allow minimize the socio-
environmental impacts and to lead to an integral use of the
resources, allow the creation of favourable conditions with the
objective of achieving a sustainable development of mining
activity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Blanco, Torréns, Roberto, Roberto Wátson, Quesada y Diosdanis,
Guerrero, Almeida. Abandono y cierre de minas. CD Jornadas de
Cierre de Minas del CYTED. Revista Panoramaminero. # 257.
Argentina, octubre de 2000.
Carrizosa, U., Julio. La viabilidad del desarrollo sustentable en
Colombia. Una contrapropuesta. En: Guhl, Ernesto, Medio
ambiente y desarrollo. Santa Fe de Bogotá, 1992. p. 89-90.
Guerrero, Almeida, Diosdanis, et. all. Impacto ambiental provocado
por la minería subterránea. III Taller Internacional de los
recursos minerales. CD Resumen. Moa, Cuba, 1999.
Guerrero, Almeida, Diosdanis et. all. Perfeccionamiento de la
Variante de Explotación para el Yacimiento Merceditas. IV
Congreso Internacional de Geología y Minería. CD Resumen. La
Habana, Cuba, 2001a.
Guerrero, Almeida, Diosdanis et all. Criterio Generales para alcanzar
el desarrollo sostenible en la actividad minera. III Convención
Internacional sobre Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo. Desarrollo
Sostenible: Realidad o sueño a 10 años de la Cumbre de Río. La
Habana, Cuba. 2001b.

Guerrero, Almeida, Diosdanis et all. Importancia del Cierre de minas

para alcanzar el desarrollo sostenible. III Encuentro Nacional de
Derecho Minero. IV Encuentro Latinoamericano y del Caribe de
Legislación Minera. Buenos Aires. Argentina. 2001c.
ICSED. Métodos de valoración económica y social de los recursos
naturales y ambientales, Santiago de Chile, 1994.
Mercado, E., O. et all. El concepto de desarrollo sustentable y los
recursos naturales no renovables. Resumen del IX Simposium de
ingeniería de minas. Chile, 1995
Mern. Environmental & social performance indicators and
sustainability markers in mineral development. A prospectus.
University of Bath. UK, 1998.
Moore, Patrick. Hard choices for environmentalists and the mining
industry. PDAC, Toronto, 1997.
Pezzey, John. Conceptos sobre desarrollo sostenible: un análisis
económico. W.B. Washington D.C., 1992.
Posada, L., G. y Vargas, E. Desarrollo sostenible, relaciones
internacionales y recursos minero energéticos. Universidad
Nacional de Colombia, Santafé de Bogotá, D.C., 1997.
Toman, M. and Walls, M. Nonrenewable resource supply: theory and
practice. Capítulo 9, p. 182-201 de Bromley, Danile W. (De.).
UK USA, 1995.
Vargas, Pimiento, Elkin. Indicadores de sostenibilidad y su aplicación
a las Empresas Mineras. CD Resumen. I Jornadas
Iberoamericanas de cierre de minas. Huelva, España. 2000. p. 3-
6.
Werther, Guntram. Native peoples’ issues and the future of mining.
International California Mining Journal. Vol. 66 No. 10.
California, 1997.

SUSTAINABILITY INDEXES FOR THE MINING INDUSTRY

Enrique M. González
Panorama Minero
Argentina
Large scale mineral extraction brings significant impacts on

the economy, social structure and infrastructure of the communities
closely associated with the area where it is developed.
Mining has been more or less intensive, during human
history, depending on which was the mineral extracted, the time and
the region where the deposits were located. Nowadays, extraction
activities are strongly regulated, controlled and supervised mainly
based on the environmental impacts they have, in some cases as
direct return on investment and the use of human and technological
resources and, in others, for the new population settlements that occur
as a result. And this happens in most of the countries that have
assumed mining as an economic activity for their communities and,
consequently, the State has taken over its representation role.
In the beginning, mining was performed by single companies,
in general family undertakings, that would make venture investments
and manage them to the best of their abilities and, many a time, their
intuition.
In the XXth century, mining started to be controlled mainly
as an economic activity, creating jobs and promoting new population
settlements; subsequently, when its characteristics got a more defined
sign, it worked as a generator of wealth, and lately, in our modern
times, as a sustainable activity where its adverse impacts, mainly
environmental ones, can be controlled.
And which could be understood as the sustainability
indicators in the current configuration of the mining industry? In the

international debate held over the past few years, the idea persists that
it is necessary to focus on three fundamental issues which, according
to analysts, shall be the object of very complex institutional, political
and economic agreements, depending on the geographical area where
they are to be applied: a) Large investments and legal stability, the
first issue that will take precedence in ranking risks; b) The socio-
economic implications of mining settlements, as a part of the larger
picture of long-term welfare and social security policies; c)
Environment protection policies. In this sense, international standards
have been designed in Basel, the Kyoto Summit, the Rio Declaration
at the United Nations Conference on the Environment and
Development of July 1992, and others, where the concept of
sustainable development has been established and the sustainability
paradigm was imposed on mining.
Two demands need response nowadays. On the one hand, the
global demand for mineral raw materials for industrial applications
that spurred ongoing exploration for new economical resources. And
on the other, social call for new forms of social and economic
development and environment protection.
WHERE’S THE ANSWER?

The new mining development scenarios
A new economic scenario came to be in the ‘90s, which
entailed enormous changes, bringing many difficulties to the various
mining operations in different parts of the world. Such extensive
transformations, as many analysts point out, came about with
globalization, followed by substantive progress of new technologies
aimed at mineral research and extraction, company mergers and
strategic alliances, regional blocs, significant asset increase and
knowledge-based business opportunities.

In the mining world, large deposits began to be tapped and, as

specialists would remark, extended low-content mineral bodies called
for a more scientific knowledge for mineral resource definition and
different engineering disciplines engaged in very low grade ore
treatment.
Consequently, new machines and accessories as well as
transportation ducts and special belt conveyors were developed,
waste dumping sites and tailings ponds were designed, while water
resource protection, power saving, good housing and environment
stewardship became big issues with a view to future mine closing.
Thus it was that in most countries, particularly in areas like
Latin America, prospecting and exploration in search for mineral
resources grew on more selective bases and focused on two issues: a)
geologic potential and b) policy and regulation systems.
State policies
Another sustainability index is defined by State policies
ensuring stable legislation offering juridical assurances. Countries
become the beneficiaries of world investors’ trust based on their
respect for the rules of the game, faithful compliance with the duties
States establish for their institutions and the consistency of their
actions towards the achievement of mining development objectives.
Consequently, Governments have to assume their leading roles and
consolidate the benefits of sustainability, assuring equitable
development and continuity of industrialization and development
over long periods of time.
Mining legislation
This is the basis for development. The existence of legal
instruments to properly support mining development parameters
constitute a clear indicator of sustainability. Legal frameworks have
to be established by consensus and a general agreement of

lawmakers. Tax legislation cannot be changed: this is a key element

and the governing principle for juridical security.
In this sense, the ‘90s witnessed deep transformations in the
legislation of most Latin American and Caribbean countries. These
transformations entailed the enactment of new mining codes and
laws, a study of which was undertaken by the Economic Commission
for Latin America and the Caribbean (CEPAL).
The concept of sustainability –sustainable development-- was
proposed for the first time ever in 1987, in the paper known as the
Brundtland Report. Sustainable development is defined as the
development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. It is based on the belief that people can build a safer, fairer and
more prosperous future. Then, sustainable development means giving
future generations as many opportunities or even more opportunities
than those we enjoy at present.
This means bearing in mind that sustainable development
poses the need to have economic, social and environmental concerns
in our vision of mining.
A concept that has lately acquired great strength is the one
that says that a corporation can ensure dividends to its shareholders in
the long-term only if it can achieve a level of excellence in its
compliance with environmental and social responsibilities. This is the
only means to secure the trust of the community where it exists. And
this is so because mining takes and maintains long term investments.
In order to face this challenge, companies have introduced
Environment Management Systems based on ISO 14001 standards to
govern their conduct.
Many companies, in Argentina and other countries, support
programs associated with work aimed at protecting the environment
and there are many records of significant community-related efforts,

including participating in education programs at all levels, designing

and supporting housing development programs, securing potable
water, power and medical care availability, all in order to ensure
better standards of living. Finally, they have a role in reducing the
high poverty levels that usually prevail in the areas where they
develop their activities.

CONCURRENT RESOURCES: SUSTAINABILITY DEPENDS

ON AGREEMENT
Ing. José Enrique Sánchez Rial
Dirección de Minería de la Provincia de Córdoba
Córdoba, Argentina cbabud@infovia.com.ar, Ingeas@arnet.com.ar
Departamento de Evaluación y Proyectos Mineros
Inventario de Recursos Mineros de Córdoba
Sistemas de Información Geográfica - Coordinación
ABSTRACT
It is not easy to perform a sustainable mining project because
of the nature of the ore bodies. The minerals or rocks that are being
nowadays extracted will not to be at hand for the future generations.
Yet, some ores, as salts or river gravel and sand deposits,
have possibilities to grow up again.
The problem of the alluvial deposit mining, which is ignored
and precarious, and the possibility of easily developing a sustainable
mining project with simple and specific work rules, are stated here.
INTRODUCTION
Although mining has always been described as a farewell
industry, that is to say, there is no contact with other human activity,
it is also true that this situation has changed through time.
Pipe lines, railways, electrical lines, routes, are built towards
and from the ore body with the unavoidable consequence of
demographic explosion in site and all along the way from the
civilisation to the work area.

The “sustainability” of mining works is more and more under

discussion, when different and possible uses of territory are claimed
by other actors, and miners see this hegemony menaced.
A more than interesting example is the one of the river gravel
and sand deposits, because we can exploit them if they are important
in their kind and their quantity but more than that if they are close
enough of clients, that is, the city that needs them.
In this case, the mining industry is developed by demand, that
means, with increase of population. The mine is not reached by
demography but developed by it.
SHARED RESOURCES
The mines are traditionally situated in farewell parts of this
planet where the companies have an hegemonic use of that part of
territory and they solve the few local conflicts facing the local
environmental, social or commercial loses with the benefit of
“economical development”.
In this way, any copper mine in Los Andes has been and, in
many cases is, the hegemonic user of an important sector of territory.
Even nowadays, considering new environmental paradigms,
the conflict between mines and natural environment are “solved” in a
more or less economic way by the mining industry, but with minor
agreement level for the nature-interested people.
In recent times, the indigenous population voice has begun to
be more carefully heard, so with this kind of conflicts the mining
companies had to and have actually changed their processes to get
new sustainability indicators.
So it seems that sustainability in mines is strongly linked to
the number of other territory concurrent users, where each one desires
to be the hegemonic one.

There are lots of shared resources in the same territory

examples, but the most remarkable one is that of the river gravel and
sand deposits or, a not so important case, as the one of the old lateral
gravel and sand deposits outside the river.
In these cases, there are three different resources in the same
place, water, gravel and sand deposits, and the more significant one,
the recreational use by tourists and local population.
The three possible uses have a shared origin, that means, a
urban agglomerate developed from or near a river, large enough for
the three demands to be satisfied
There is not a proved method to measure the problem yet. But
it is possible to deduce, that the conflict will be enlarged with the
demographic increase of population and that the three groups
interested in both resources, will try to protect its level of use taking
off privileges from the others. This defence will surely follow two
possible ways: one will be the sustainability increase of its own
sector. But the second, and most used nowadays, is the question
concerning the sustainability of the other processes.
At least one thing is clearly seen, if one sector of territory has
more than one useful resource, no hegemonic utilisation of one of
them must be allowed. Coexisting implies, necessarily, a
compromise.
WATER AS A RESOURCE
This resource is so important that, for long time none of the
works performed to make use of it was questioned in no way, not
only in South America but also in the rest of the world.
Only in the end of the XX century, some disperse voices rose
up against the negative effects of hydraulic works, especially big
dams.

Nowadays, after large environmental disasters, the

Environment Impact Evaluation (EIE) for hydraulic works, is
required, even in the “developed” countries.
As an example, we can analyse the Province of Cordoba case,
in Argentine, where a number of rivers cross the territory from west,
the mountain zone, to east, the plains or “pampas”. At least one dam
was built in each one of them, with the primary goal of preserving
water, and a secondary aim of electric power generation.
This kind of works, in a minor scale, was carried out in
several mountain streams, and none of them, the large and the small,
have EIE.
During 1900 and 1975, the hydraulic sector had the
hegemonic use of the rivers or, more exactly, water as a resource was
the most important among the others. This hegemony had and has
nowadays, effects over the other two possible uses of territory.
We can say for example that, the plains sector has no more
sand or gravel due to the dams. The load of material that the river
moves every year after the summer rains has a final rest into the lakes
behind the dams. This was not noticed immediately, but the mining
companies that dredges the rivers looking for sand and gravel, after
30 years of dams building, are having serious problems to find the
underwater concentration courses of this material. At the moment
they are dredging the last courses of sand, so important changes in the
bottom of the river and on the shores are taking place so, as a result,
cities constructed near the river are being menaced. The dams
eliminated the renovation of sand deposits. To make it short, the
hegemonic domination of a sector menaces the sustainability of other.
On the other hand, after some years the recreational and
tourist use of lakes behind dams, provoked a logical and important
population increase. Nowadays, this fact, joined with the absence of
liquid effluent treatment facilities, led most of these lakes to an

advanced eutrofication process; in this way, the cleaning of the water

to make it potable and the recreational use are seriously questioned.
To make short the long story, the sustainability of the three uses, is in
question.
Figure 1 – Province of Córdoba - General Hydrology

THE RIVER USED BY TOURISTS AND AS A

RECREATIONAL RESOURCE
Córdoba, as different places in this planet, has sectors that are
considered potentially interesting for recreational use. The mountains,
specially the "Sierras”, with heights no more than 2700 m., have an
important drainage system which is offered to the visitor surrounded
by a mediterranean seasonal weather with short, dry and cold
winters1, and hot, wet summers.
From the 60´s till now, this industry has been pressing more
and more over the environment, so it is possible to assume that there
are important areas were its presence has been and is hegemonic for
more than 25 years.
This "no smoke industry", as it is insistently named, does not
develop its actions without affecting the other two uses of the fluvial
system resources.
This activity involves human installations in many points of
the drainage system, not only in the bed of rivers but nearby them.
Without making the EIE, most of this points became after some
years, an environmental conflict centre. The eutrofication of lakes is
one of the most remarkable.
Each installation involves, taking into account its success
rate, the development of more elements of equal or larger importance,
so the initial lack of evaluation problem gets larger year after year.
Examples of the hegemonic use of territory are very common in our
province.
In the same way the water resource is affected in quality and quantity,
the construction material deposits face menaces over its industry,
because the most interesting sand and pebble concentrations also
1
Seldom snowfalls occur but they also are used in a recreational way. People all over
the province make trips just to see the snow.

have several recreational uses. In this way, the mining activity has a
direct conflict with the tourism industry. This is more evident when
the deposits are a result of special accumulations of material on the
small dams, built as a kind of Spa.
THE RIVER CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

It is necessary to put an eye on the enormous economic
importance of the building and construction industry and its
dependence on the extraction of river materials. The accumulations of
these elements on riverbeds are a combination of several processes
and circumstances that are typical for each sector of the river, and the
weather features for each year.
It is reasonable to speak about deposits in the mining sense of
the term, because they are an anomalous concentration of a specific
resource -sand- in a limited sector, which is extracted, by a number of
processes, to get profit. But on the contrary for most part of mining
deposits, these ones have a very important opportunity to be renewed
by new contributions transported by river floods. So, although this
sounds actually incongruent, it is possible to say that they are
"renewable mining deposits".
Of course, it is necessary to say that this mentioned
possibility of being renewable depends on several factors but mainly,
on the quality level of the exploitation process.

Figure 2. Typical Mountain stream

It has already been stated that if the upstream contribution
area is eliminated, this kind of mining deposit loses its renewable
character. However, if the mining works are between certain
parameters, this industry can be one of the mining activities with
better possibilities of carrying out a sustainable development project.
As in the case of the firms interested in the other two river resources,
the mining companies working in the streams are a constant conflict
focus.
Both, water exploitation and recreational use, have in the
mining works a menace for their hegemony, that is why the mining
activity has been totally forbidden2, in some rivers.
2
Rivers of plains without seasonal contributions are anymore mineable deposits; so
for most of them, exploitation has been prohibited.

THE LAWS
It has been pointed out, that an important level of conflict
exists because of the concurrence of rights and public demands on the
resources. To put it clear, society demands that the three activities
exist at the same time.
Figure 3. Deposit on a Mountain stream

The water is needed, the building industry needs sand and
gravel, and important sectors of the mountains of Córdoba have
potential for the industry of tourism. This can´t be denied, but at the
same time it is absolutely necessary for them all to have a sustainable
development project.
The level of conflict in the Argentine and the Córdoba cases,
is increased by confusing laws sometimes, overabundance in others
but poorness or lack of specificity on terms.

The Constitution of the province of Córdoba3 rules,

specifically, that the natural resources renewable or not, must be
preserved by the provincial government, trying to make an integral,
rational exploitation, avoiding waste of goods, in a way that, these
goods, rights and lives of inhabitants of the province are not affected.
The article number 68 of this Constitution states that the legislators, "
should write protection laws on the patrimony in order to avoid
premature exhaustion of the resources and its irrational use".
Water and sand deposits of rivers must be regulated by
different laws. The first one is ruled by the Code of Water of the
province of Córdoba - law number 5589 -, the second one depends on
the Code of Mines of Argentina and the province rules its application
by means of a special office called Bureau of Mines of Córdoba.
Tourism is an industry that has support on different laws, but
generally it is possible to use Civil Code and Trade Code, two federal
laws.
All the activities must adapt their processes to honour the
environmental law of our province.
The specific resource taken into account in this paper is sand,
pebble and gravel deposits of streams and rivers, lakes, or in
abandoned riverbeds. In this case, the government is the owner of the
land. So, as established in the Code of Mines that classifies these
materials in the Third Class, the government can dispose of them.
The water legislation does not consider very seriously the
deposits of building materials of river. So, despite of an important
number of laws that could be taken into account to regulate the
activity, all is reduced to a precarious permission to extract materials
from the river given to the companies by the administrative authority.
3
Argentina is a federal country where the provinces has the right and the duty to
write its own constitution and provincial laws

This "precarious permit of exploitation", with the fact that the

Water Provincial Authority lacks of mining criterions, have generated
and generate nowadays, important conflicts, and at the worst,
drainage net irrecoverable damage.
Other known point of third party and environmental damage
and conflicts, is the lack of physical limits on terrain, adequated
temporally limits and demandable firms responsibilities.
Since there is not a real punishment system, rivers ends being
despoiled by one of the mentioned industries or by all of them at the
same time.
EXPLOITATION METHOD
There are two possible extracting methods depending on
which of the river sector would be considered:
• The plains are characterised by lack of new deposits, underwater
accumulations and no substitutes for river building materials.
Basic equipment is a dredge near the bank, a chute, a screen set,
and loaders and trucks for moving and distribution. Firms with a
certain kind of system permanence can get a level of automatism,
so they have also transporting belts at ends of griding and
cleaning process.
Basic product is fine-grained sand with a certain quantity of
pebbles and coarse-grained sand.
The precarious permission sets that extracting is allowed in a
sector no more than 200 meters long, but firms usually search
for underwater deposits outside the legal area, much more if
it is considered that there is no physical limits of the permit.
Changes in riverbeds are very common and conflicts between
firms and neighbours and local authorities occur every day.

Lack of new deposits ends on totally irrational process, so the

prohibition of extracting was established on many of the
rivers.
Attempts to prohibit the activities in mountain streams were
made despite of fact that conditions are totally different there.
• Mountain zones or intermountain valleys are characterised by:
The extracting method is seasonal and the possibility that a
flood eliminates the deposit, together with the fact that a
"precarious" permit can end at any moment, transforms the
process in which a deposit may be eliminated in a fast-short-6
months operation.
The complete extraction of a deposit changes the deposition
condition, so we should expect a sand reposition not until 5
years from the elimination.
The firms with certain level of organisation have one or two
loaders and some trucks to transport the raw material to
classification and washing plants, and points of selling which
are usually near a town.
The most successful companies are the ones with stock
capacity, because they have their own places and enough
equipment for this.
Deposits, that are renewed yearly.
Basic product is coarse-grained sand and pebbles, important
quantity of gravel and rocks and a bit of fine-grained and
medium-grained sand.
The precarious permit sets an exploitation area of no more
than 200 meters along river on exposed deposits; no control
system is effectively carry out. In this case, also the
boundaries of sector have no physical expression on terrain.

Figure 3. Underwater deposit in a plain river

The conflicts with the tourism industry are very common and
there are many discussions with environmental NGOs.
Despite of the presence of hydrocarbons and other pollutants
in river, the Water authority seems not much worried about it.
It is possible that the problem gets worse if it is proved that
some of these are gold-bearing deposits.
THE ECONOMY
There is a saying in Argentina that reflects specifically the
economic importance of this sector: In a moment of crisis, the
building industry is the last to succumb and the first one to wake up
when the bad time is over.

Just as an example, it is possible to say that concrete is made

of 75 % of rocky material. This can be provided by river deposits or,
if is the case of more than three stages building, from rocks grinding
of quarries.4
The extraction and dressing equipment used by the mining of
river deposits is not as remarkable as the one used by quarries but is
very important, indeed. A small familiar firm, for example, has at
least 3 trucks, 2 pickups, 2 loaders and one washing and screening
plant, with not less than 20 employees.
One intermountain river sand deposit with certain extracting
possibilities of at least 100 m long, a rate wide of 20 m and not less
than 2 m deep. This is 10000 m3 of raw reserve from which is likely
to obtain and 80 % of products for selling. This means 8000 m3.
One of these deposits has at least 40 % of coarse-grained
sand, 5 % of fine-coarse sand, 15 % of gravel, known in Argentina as
"grancilla", and the rest of pebbles and boulders used for foundations.
With these figures in mind and considering the actual market
prices, it is possible to make the following sheet5:
Material % Volume Price Amount
(m3) (U$S) (U$S)
Fine-grained sand 5 400 10 4000
Coarse-grained sand 40 3200 4.3 13760
Gravel 15 1200 10 12000
Pebbles and boulders 40 3200 3.6 12480
Total 42240
4
Usually gneiss or gabric rock
5
Source: Bureau of Mines of Córdoba

This means that raw value of a small river deposit could be

sold for U$S 42000. They are 800 trucks of raw material that,
considering a diary production of 40 trucks, with a rate capacity of 20
m3 and a five days week labour6, or 200 trucks by week, can be
extracted in a month.
In a river sector of 14 km exists at least three operators with a
diary movement as the one mentioned above, which means U$S
126000 in a month. With a cost of operation near 20 % of sell prize
and without considering resellers or stock holders, we speak of U$S
100000 monthly of raw gaining, from which it is necessary to
discount service taxes, electricity costs, employees and general costs,
but this does not make the figures drop below U$S 70000.
The provincial economic numbers for 1999, taking into
account parity between dollars and pesos, are as follows:
Raw Production 8.444.519 ton. U$S 14.524.533
Plant dressed material 7.682.113 Ton.7 U$S 35.452.152.
THE POSITION OF INDUSTRY

Despite of these significant numbers, mainly taking into
account regional economies, there is a kind of total-out-of-control
activity, caused partially by an overabundance of coincident but not
specific laws.
Even with the economics of the sector, mining itself, that is,
authorities and mining industry representatives alike, do not
considered that extract, wash and screen river material, is a mining
activity. In other words, the exploitation of granate, for example, with
6
Usually the working week in Argentina is 6 days or at least 5 and a half day
7
As we can see, recover rate is very high for considering mining standards.

the same methods and a much lower production value, is considered

mining but not the sand and gravel industry.
Overabundance of rules and laws, its counterpart -the lack of
specificity-, joined to the opinion that different value products by
grain separation from a raw material is not mining work, classifies
this industry as precarious8.
This precarious industry quality is seen in many items.
Among them, we should remark:
• The firms cannot put in its bank dossier or with its financial
advantages, the most important part of business, which are its
products.
• The fact that, the precarious permit for exploitation has not
serious contracts with limited periods of extraction does not allow
them make production, security, environment or financial plans.
• This lack of contracts generally tends to resource despoliation,
mostly because, operators, " healing in wealth", prefer to work
fast, double shift and get off all the material before some
imponderable, third party presentations, or seasonal floods, make
the production suspended or cancelled.
• This despoliation leaves behind a overview of rooted land that
constantly put fire to the possibility of extracting total
prohibition, and this makes the permits more and more uncertain.
With this the operators, the process towards a production disaster
goes faster.
• Lack of physical limits of works or permit sector do not let the
planning of space for the equipment as the stocks areas. Terrain
8
This kind of out of risk is the opinion that disqualifies the industry as actually
mining.

for these activities is always near a town and the conflicts with
neighbours tend to move up.
• This lack of boundaries dilutes the responsibility of operators
both downstream and upstream of specific work sectors.
• The production control with these precarious permits is
practically impossible so it is the collecting of taxes from these
companies.
Indifferent
grinding rocks
industry
Conflicting
Not specific
municipal
environmental law
ordinances
River deposit Indifferent

Not specific
provincial laws
extraction mining authority
Precarious Situation
Mining law that no

considere this Increase of
industry tourism
High demand for

cheap building
materials
Figure 4 Industry position

So this industry has the basic conditions to develop in a kind
pirate environment where, at the most, some of them have a
precarious permit or, in other words, a privateer licence.

THE BASIC AGREEMENT

Sand and pebbles river deposits are just a very good example
of the way that sustainability depends not only on the deposit itself,
or exploitation method, not even on the Environmental Impact
Evaluation, but also on a series of external factors that construct the
scene where industry acts.
Figure 5 - Despoliation
It is necessary to set certain basic statements that in this case
would be:
• Extracting, screening, and dressing building materials from
riverbeds and its nearby areas, is a mining activity. To prove this,
it is possible to mention:
A deposit is an extraordinary accumulation of a mineral
substance, which can be exploited with profit.

In river beds, floods areas, river terraces, and lakes, deposits

of sand, pebbles, and boulders are generated, which in
Argentina are called Aridos.
This kind of accumulations are called banks but not all banks
constitute a deposit.
Most of mining deposits are considered as no renewable
resources because its exploitation implies the taking-off of
the material. Nevertheless, there are exceptions, salt mines
and river or lakes sand and pebbles deposits are examples. In
the last case, the resource is going to be renewable if the
exploitation method is reasonable enough.
Sand and pebbles deposits are classified by the Code of
Mines of Argentina as Third Category Substances, so they
are owned by the terrain proprietary,
The terrain owner of riverbeds and lakes is the provincial
government, but it cannot be a mining operator itself.
So private firms can exploit these deposits renting the area.
• These deposits share the same area with other resource owned by
the state, the water.
• Most dams and other hydraulic works generate sand and pebbles
deposits.
• Most of these deposits share the physical area with recreational or
tourism installations.
• People are breaking apart between necessity to get cheap building
materials and the other two possible uses.
• Mining sector does not take into account this item of its own
industry.
• Hydraulic people does not understand mining business.

• Environmentalists consider this industry as a despoliation agent.

The beginning of agreement comes with the abolition of
precarious permits and piracy, taking the actual despoliation to a
sustainable process, more sustainable than the one of grinding quarry
rocks industry. To do this, it is necessary to state certain basic
parameters:
• It is essential to determine exactly what it is and what it is not a
mining deposit, reminding some basic items:
Reserves
Renewable bed
Environment impact
Investment and developing project
• Just this way the real deposits could be exploited, and this could
be done taking into account adequate specific rules.
• Permits would include at least the following items:
Fluvial mining property taken as a real state, with the
following features:
Content a deposit considered this way by the authorities
after the parameters pointed out above.
Extraction area
Stock area
Extraction and work time9
Exclusively responsibility zone: Despite of the fact that
extraction process is limited to the zone that outcrops, it
is necessary that the operator has responsibility on
9
In the case of our province, this work time would be from April to October, months
without floods and tourists.

watching out and controlling at least 800 m upstream and

downstream the work area.
Adequate periods for an investment and developing
project. (10 years would be fine)
Exploitation project:
Method
Yearly production quotes
Well-defined stock area
Employees
Access
Seasonal liberation of sector to allow other uses.10
Environment impact evaluation
Control by different levels:
Municipal
Provincial
Monthly pays of rent rights and taxes
CONCLUSIONS
It is very hard to try to prepare a mining project following the
sustainable development paradigms, considering this one as:
"Sustainable development is the one that satisfies the present
necessities without compromising the ability of future generations to
satisfy its own necessities."
The mere fact of extracting something that it is not going to
be renewed, is facing specifically with this. Nevertheless, the river
10
In some cases it would be necessary that the operator prepares the area for tourist
and recreational uses, cleaning beaches, dressing and freeing accesses, and getting
out every sign of extraction activity.

sand deposits case, as some salt mines, present exceptional conditions

like the one of having renewable material.
But confusing laws problems, and national, provincial,
municipal, mining, and water authority jurisdictional superposition,
diminishes this exceptional condition.
Also, part of this exception is lost by a general concept of not
including this activity into the mining industry and there is no logic
reason to do this, besides the place where the activities are carried
out.
These makes this activity precarious and clandestine, and this
goes to delinquency, in the way beds that are not deposits, are
despoiled ore taxes that are not paid or the worst of all, the way the
natural environment is affected.
Sustainability of this activity is rooted over specific
conditions of natural process, nevertheless, must be
reassured and increasde by means of adequate legislation,
specific control and users agreement. If nobody has the mood
of quiting some privileges, it is not possible to accord.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(2001) Sánchez Rial, José Enrique - Plan Director del Río
Cosquín - Términos de Referencia. Inédito. Consejo de
Centros Vecinales de la ciudad de Cosquín.
(1998) Cornaglia, Jorge y Galfré, Luis - Programa Áreas Mineras
- Subprograma Aluviones: Área Copacabana. Inédito.
Dirección de Minería de Córdoba.
(1987) Sánchez Rial, José Enrique et al. Mapa Geológico
del Valle de Punilla - Mapa de Económico Minero.
Inédito. Dirección de minería de Córdoba.

IDEOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF SUSTAINABILITY

INDICATORS
Dra. Sonia Osay,
President
“Cordón Del Plata” (Silver String) Foundation
cordondelplata@ciudad.com.ar
INTRODUCTION
Since the Earth Summit, carried out in 1992 in Rio de
Janeiro, the bases of sustainable development concept have been
established.
There, a proposal with governmental recommendations was
established to set up a legal structure, appropriate for the sustainable
development concept that was named Agenda 21.
In Agenda 21, the 40th Chapter named “Information to make
decisions” is about the compilation of information and the adoption
of global indicators.
Even if there is a big amount of data, it is necessary to get
more and several types of data in the local, regional and world sectors
that indicate the situations and tendencies of variables such as the
socioeconomic one, pollution, natural resources and pertinent
ecosystems. The differences between the developed and the
developing world have increased as for the data access and the use of
it. This action damages the countries’ ability to make decisions about
development and the environment.
Along this exposition we will see that to determine the most
adequate sustainability indicators to the policy on sustainable
development of a country, it is necessary to know clearly how the
society wants to reach that sustainable development. To obtain it, it is

necessary to follow a long way, and that process of change can

damage or benefit men, the environment, or the economic system.
Only some indicators can be adopted in a similar way by the
whole wide world and others will not be useful to determine the
activity sustainability of a particular country. The circumstances of
that country may be completely different from those of another.
This is the challenge that scientists and intellectuals have:
putting forward multi disciplinary development theories that permit
solving the complex problem of sustainable development adequately,
for the man and the society of a particular place and specific time.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY

To talk about Sustainability Indicators, it is convenient to
define the Sustainable development term. Sustainable development is
a new archetype of social environmental and economic development
that has began to spread in the whole word in these times.
It appears as a consequence of man’s visualization of his
surroundings, which leads him to build a new relation between the
society and the environment.
The term sustainable development is English and comes from
the Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Brundtland’s report, “Our
Common Future” .
Sustainable development means satisfying the present
generation’s needs without affecting any future generation’s ability to
satisfy their own needs.
In Spanish the translation brings about some difficulties,
giving rise to two terms that do not fully keep the real meaning. One
of them is “desarrollo sustentable” mainly used in Latin America and
sustained by prestigious scientists like “Cano”, and the other is

“desarrollo sostenible”, mainly used in Spain, defended by Serrano

Moreno and Martin Mateo among others.
Both terms are used indistinctly and we could say that in spite
of the differences noticed by the scientists, the phrases are used as
synonyms.
We can emphasize, nevertheless, that the Spanish terms do
not get to reveal, the total dimension of the English term “sustainable
development” which has a dynamic vision, not static. While it makes
reference to a continuous process that we have to keep along the time,
the Spanish terms have a more static connotation of conservation in it
is condition. Once the sustainable development term is defined as a
root term, we see that the sustainability term comes from this
concept, going beyond the environmental issue, producing an
interrelation between the natural sciences, social sciences and
economics.
The sustainability is imposed as a global term that goes
beyond the economics or the environment. It is a term that goes
beyond the biological, economical and social systems, looking for
their harmony or balance that permits improving people’s quality of
life respecting the future generation’s right of having the same or
better quality of life.
The big diffusion of this term and its different uses perhaps
led to an emptiness of content, to a loss of its real meaning. To avoid
the denaturalization of the term and its meaning, it is necessary not to
lose sight of the protagonist of this relation, i.e. the human being.
We talk about sustainability in relation to any kind of
activity; we talk about sustainable transport, sustainable economy,
sustainable cities, etc.
We can talk about sustainability related to human activity as
long as a relation between the biological, economic and social system
appears. Always bearing in mind that man is the central nucleus, out

of whom we cannot talk about sustainability; it would not make

sense.
It is not sustainable what results feasible from a physical or
material point of view of standing the test of time, but from a human
viewpoint. “If we assume, for example, that farming policy is
sustainable, it is because it offers a sustainable harvest without
degrading the soil, besides collecting criterions of an axiology
position that ponders over man in relation with the environment”.
Juan Rodrigo Walsh, Environmental Rights and Sustainability, La
ley, Buenos Aires 2000, page 39th.
INSPIRING PRINCIPLES OF THE SUSTAINABILITY

CONCEPT
To adopt a coherent and homogeneous criterion that is useful
as a superior element of the policies that the countries must follow to
tend towards the sustainable development, it is necessary to
determine the philosophical bases that will inspire the sustainable
development. This superior principle will establish the selection,
determination and information use as sustainability indicator.
When we defined the sustainability concept as that thing that
can be kept in time or that can keep one thing in its condition, we
referred to the concept used in a material, restricted orbit. This strict
conception, limited in a physical aspect of a determined problem, is
not enough because the same essence of sustainability goes beyond
the material dimension. However, this conception is adopted by a
large number of scientists. Therefore, there are in it concepts such as
load capacity, or maximum performance of a sustainable ecosystem,
which in our opinion, are not sufficient. It is necessary to enrich this
concept with a human dimension, interweaving the three principal
elements of sustainability: the biophysical, the social and the
economic dimensions.

If we take one of these aspects, we will fall in a relativism

that can cause ominous consequences; the history of humankind is
full of them.
For example “slavery is a social organization system case
that, without including moral values, can sustain itself physically in
time perfectly. Can we say that the development on a slavery base is
sustainable? From the materialistic point of view, it is”. (Juan
Rodrigo Walsh, Op. Cit, page 40)
An economic system based on slavery fits a material point of
view of sustainability, because it is possible to keep it in time and
produce a sustained increase. But an economic system based on
slavery forgets one of the principal aspects of sustainability, i.e. man,
since his rights are violated.
To our understanding, an adequate balance among the
systems must be kept in order to achieve real sustainability
For example, we can have an economic reduction that leads
to a detachment of reality, being perfect theories of laboratory, but
inapplicable in practice.
The economic theory must be compatible with logic and
math, with biology and psychology. As Max Weber says “not only
ways of math reasoning, like it has happened during a long time, but
also ways of biological reasoning have a legitimate place in our
discipline. In each step, and in several points of interest to our
discipline, we, economists, are and must be involved in fruitful
interchanges of research and points of view with other fields’
workers” Max Weber, The irrationality problem in social sciences,
tecnos 1985.
We will mention two approaches that perceive the
sustainability principle in extreme ways, falling into reductions, as
the above mentioned that bring about the opposite reaction, giving

place to a pendulum in the scientific thought. In each approach there

are variables that make them more or less extreme.
THE ANTHROPOCENTRIC SUSTAINABILITY APPROACH

The inspiring principle of this approach is man. It refers to
man as the only individual with superior intelligence, and moral
entity in nature, and in consequence, the economic and social
development, the protection and conservation of nature, emerge as a
consequence of the protection of his own interests.
This approach has its origin in liberal thinkers like John
Stuart Mill or Locke that considered the environment and the natural
resources in relation to the utility that men can get from them to
satisfy their needs.
However, this position with regard to the consequences
caused by the anthropologic activity to the environment has evolved
with the passing of time.
There is necessity of man’s tutelage, respect for the rest of the
living creatures that inhabit the planet, due to the responsibility that
the human being has for being the only rational individual able to
protect or destroy the environment.
THE ECOCENTRIC SUSTAINABILITY APPROACH

The ecocentric vision puts man with the rest of the living
creatures that make up the planet, on an equal plane having the
mechanisms of the anthropologic activity that rule on them a
fundamental importance.
The extreme ecocentric position can take man’s rights to
controversial situations. For example, the humanitarian assistance to
beaten communities may be the cause of ecological degradation. The

wellbeing of the whole system, may imply the reduction or

elimination of these starving human communities to save the
ecological balance of the system. JUAN RODRIGO WASLH,
Environmental Rights and Sustainability, La Ley, Buenos Aires,
2000.
In this extreme ecocentric position there are those that
consider that all elements in any ecosystem, for being part of nature,
have an intrinsic value and are on an equal plane. For those who
support this position, minerals are susceptible of own valuation, on an
equal plane with other planet’s individuals, including men.
As we see, this is the pendulum of some scientists swinging
back against the extreme anthropocentric position.
We must be prepared for this reaction, because it means a
reduction of an aspect, of a complex problem, that gets out of the
orbit of one science. That is why it is necessary to interact and get a
multi-disciplinary study of sustainability.
CONCLUSION
In accordance with what is expressed in Agenda 21, in the
developing countries there are difficulties to get and evaluate data
that can be used as indicators of sustainability. Besides the indicators
do not turn out to be completely exact, because they are incorrect or
are applied badly.
It is necessary to develop indicators of sustainability that
keep interrelated and integrated to the biophysical, the social and the
economic dimension, to build a solid base to make decisions in all of
the sustainable development levels.
We have to bear in mind that there will be indicators that can
be applied on a world level in the same way. However some

indicators can result inappropriate or insufficient to measure the

sustainability in a particular region.
This is due to several factors; one of them is the dramatic
difference of comfort between the countries of the north hemisphere
and the south hemisphere.
The developed countries have reached a satisfactory level of
comfort, measured by calorie consumption, health, education,
revenue levels, leisure time, etc. that the rest of the world does not
have. Therefore the needs and requests of a developed society are
completely different from the needs and requests of poor countries.
The developed countries do not try to satisfy their basic needs
anymore, but to create new consumption ways, generally
unnecessary, and to satisfy them with goods and services of the
highest quality and sophistication possible.
In the developing countries a lot of the population’s basic
needs cannot be satisfied. The concern of these governments is to
reach an economic growth, that allows to use a natural system to
accelerate the development and the economic growth, without
running out of natural resources, or damaging the environment. The
poor countries are in a double dilemma. The urgent necessity of
overcoming poverty, in very complicated conditions in a World that
imposes unfavorable conditions for weak markets, such as the
developing countries markets. On the other hand, they try to use the
natural resources without degrading the environment.
For example, we have taken one sustainability indicator of
the mining activity applied in the United States and Canada, which is
“The mining closure”.
The application of this plan in the countries of Latin America is
possible, with some modifications. Several countries like Chile are
working in this way, which defines the mining closure in the
following way.

“The principal objective of the mining closure is the

prevention, the decrease, and the control of risks and negative effects
that mining generates and continues showing on health and people
security or the environment before or after the cease of the work
operations or mining”.
The mining closure concept is a wide concept that involves a
series of elements, economic, social and environmental that are taken
into account just to finish the activity, but especially throughout the
mining activity, in a particular region with all the variables that could
affect it.
Mining closure is a sustainability tool applied with success in
The United States and Canada that permits analyzing the
environmental cost within the company operative costs. Since the
beginning of the project and afterwards it demands financial
guarantees adequate to the company to assure the fulfillment of the
precaution.
This mining action tool permits to the company and to the
community relating to each other in a friendly way, during the
operative time. For this, it is important that the company takes into
account that the community must be sustainable through time even
after the mining closure due to mineral exhaustion or mine
exploitation desertion.
The company can decide that after the mining closure a
thematic park be developed to give to the community a sustainable
tool, transforming the mine into a tourist center.
This is just one of the possible alternatives and it is presented
as an example, of the mine’s destiny, when it finishes its operations.
The mining closure must contain an economic precaution of
the activity that incorporates the environmental and social cost.

This will permit to the company facing up the social and

environmental contingencies that the mining activity can bring about.
At the same time, the state and the legal framework that
prevails in the territory must permit to the company developing its
activity in the best market conditions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BANCO MUNDIAL, Informe sobre el desarrollo mundial 1999-
2000: En el umbral del siglo XXI, Banco Mundial - Mundi
Prensa, Washington, 2000.
BRUNDTLAND, GRO HARLEM, Our Common Future, Oxford
University Press, Oxford, Reino Unido, 1987.
JORDANO FRAGA, J., La protección del derecho a un medio
ambiente adecuado, Bosch, Barcelona, 1995
JUAN RODRIGO WALSH, Derecho ambiente y sustentabilidad, La
Ley, Buenos Aires, 2000
JUNCEDA MORENO, J., Minería, Medio Ambiente y ordenación del
territorio, Civitas, Madrid 2001.
LOPEZ RAMON, F., Estudios Jurídicos sobre Ordenación del
Territorio ,Aranzadi, Pamplona,1995.
M. REDCLIFF Y D. GOODMAN, Environment and development in
Latin America, the politics of sustainability, Issues in
Environmental Politics, Manchester University Press, 1991
MARTIN MATEO, R., Tratado de Derecho Ambiental, Trivium,
Madrid, 1995
MATEO MARTIN, R, Nuevos instrumentos para la tutela ambiental,
Trivium, Madrid, 1994

MAX WEBER. El problema de la irracionalidad en las ciencias

sociales, Tecnos, 1985
PAOLO BIFANI, Desarrollo sostenible, población y pobreza:
algunas reflexiones conceptuales. En Educación ambiental y
universidad, Universidad de Guadalajara, México, 1993.
PAOLO BIFANI, Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible. IEPALA,
Madrid, 1999.
QUINTANA LOPEZ, T., La repercusión de las actividades mineras
en el medio ambiente, Montecorvo, Madrid, 1987.
UNITED NATIONS DIVISION FOR SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT 27/04/2000, Agenda 21.

II. Mine
Case studies
URANIUM MINING AND ENERGY – ENVIRONMENTAL,

ECONOMICAL AND SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY
INDICATORS
Lamego, Fernando; Fernandes, Horst; Franklin, Mariza
Instituto de Radioproteção e Dosimetria (IRD/CNEN)
Av. Salvador Allende, s/n – Rio de Janeiro - RJ
ABSTRACT
The growth in the energy demand over the next decades has
an important component related to the growth of the population in the
same period. A significant part of this additional contingent of
people will leave in the cities.Estimates indicate that half of the
population in the Earth will leave in the big cities and, over 1.6
billion of people will have no access to electrical energy. The
dependence on fossil fuels to provide energy will still be very large. It
is estimated that only after the next 30 years there will be a
stabilization in the energy demand caused by the the stabilization in
the population growth.
Nuclear energy accounts for 18% of the total energy
geneneration in the world with 434 power plants in operation. This
production is supported by the production of 60,000 tons of U3O8/a.
The future of nuclear energy will also determine the future of the
uranium mining and milling activities. Presently, three scenarios are
thought about until 2050:
1) Low demand scenario Æ 3,390,000 t(U) associated to a medium
global economical growth and termiantion of nuclear energy
generation by 2100
2) Medium demand scenario Æ 5,394,100 t(U) associate with a
medium global economical growth and sustained but modest
growth in nuclear energy generation;

3) High demand scenario Æ 7,577,300 t(U) and high global

economical growth with a significant development in nuclear
energy.
The uranium resources can be classified according to their
origin and production type. They include: Primary supply – mining
and milling and; Secondary supply including the surplus represented
by the stocked uranium (Highly Enriched Uranium – HEU and Mixed
Oxides – Mox). In 1999 the primary and secondary supplies were
estimated as corresponding to 58% and 42% respectively to the
consumption of the existing nuclear power plants. It is expected that
in 2025 the primary supply will account for 94% of the demand. The
known uranium resources are estimated to cover 96% of the market
based demand. However, due to the heterogeneous distribution of the
uraniuim reserves and also due to the limitations in the production
capacity not all the known reserves will be exhausted by year 2050. A
deficit of 850,000 t(U) is projected. The challenge of the uranium
industry will be to discover high graded uranium deposits that can be
mined at low costs.
The sustainability of the nuclear energy as a whole and the
uranium mining industry in particular is discussed in this paper based
on three indicator types: economical, environmental and social.
Generally speaking, nuclear energy is characterized by high capital
costs and low marginal costs. The cost of the uranium ore –
differently from what happens with the fossil fuels – constitutes a
small percentage of the total costs associated to electricity generation.
Because of that, and even considering discount rates of 5 to 10%
nuclear energy will remain competitive in relation to other energy
generation alternatives, sustainability indicators taken into account.

THE GLOBAL ENERGY CONTEXT

The projections of demand increase and energy production
for next decades, as a function of the population growth (8 billion
people in 2020 and 9 billion in 2050), have been supposed as the
most probable scenarios which are not expected to suffer any
significant change. It is expected a fast urbanization process until
2050, in which more than a half of the global population will be
living in the great cities, while approximately 1,6 billion people
won't have access to the electric power (MAY, 1995). This
simulation shows that appropriate energy supply and effective
control of natural assets are essential to overcome the perverse cycle
of poverty and unsustainable consumption of resources and to
improve the standards of living in the development countries as well.
More and more the people are realizing how dependents we are from
the available sources of energy that increases our perception about the
environmental impacts caused by the strong dependence on fossil
fuels, which should continue to dominate the global energy budget at
least for more some decades.
The global economy has showed not be able to contain the
demand pressure, because the macroeconomic processes are
dominated by market values that are incapable to carry out efficient
regulatory action to stabilize, in a sustainable way, the offer/demand
relationship. On the other hand, the renewable sources of energy are
still faced as solutions domestic or local, not could compete with the
conventional sources of wide scale, except where they can be
accompanied of strong subsidies. On the other hand, the renewable
energy sources are still faced as domestic or local solutions that
could not compete with the conventional sources of wide scale,
except where they can be accompanied by strong subsidies. It was
evaluated that renewable ones will contribute in the range between 5
and 10% of the world offer, respectively in 2020 and 2050. Thus, one
offer gap of energy is expected for the next 30 year, after which we
should attend a relief in the tensions due to stabilization of population

growth, improve in energy use efficiency and development of new

technologies (ROGHNER & KHAN, 1998).
THE FUTURE OF THE NUCLEAR ENERGY

Actually, nuclear power reaches around 18% of the global
production of energy generated by 434 nuclear power plants,
operating in 31 countries, that provide 2400 TWh of electric energy
and consume 60.000 tons of uranium per year (OECD, 2000).
Although its use in large scale has being criticized by some
governments, specially from the European Community, the great
majority of them believes that the role of the nuclear energy has to be
stabilized with the aim to prepare future expansions. The nuclear
industry is relatively young and, for this reason, has still some
problems to be solved: long term operational safety; treatment and
disposal of wastes; the feeling that is an activity involved with secret
issues and because of that is not democratically controlled. So, its
future depends on:
- # become completely transparent;
- # be fairly regulated and controlled;
- # demonstrate safety concern and economical feasibility;
- # solve waste disposal through cost-effective techniques of
management.
Analysis of Uranium Supply Until 2050
The table 1 shows the categories and cost ranges of current
uranium production, while the projections for production of uranium
in agreement with the accumulated demand and the principal scenario
of global and sector-specific economical development can be seen as
the following:

1) scenario of low demand: 3 390 000 (tU) with medium economical

growth and finish of the nuclear energy production up to 2100;
2) scenario of medium demand: 5 394 100 (tU) with medium
economical growth and sustained growth of the nuclear energy;
3) scenario of high demand 7 577 300 (tU) with major economical
growth and significant development of the nuclear energy.
The world uranium reserves can be classified by the source
(primary and secondary) and production basis (monopoly or market):
- Primary supply: mining and milling
A) Production non-based at the market: CIS (Kazakhstan, Russian
Federation, Ukraine and Uzbekistan); China and National
Programs (Brazil, Czech Republic, France, India, Pakistan,
Romania and Spain).
B) Production based at the market: (USA, Australia, Canada).
- Secondary supply: surpluses, reprocessed and tailings
A) HEU (Highly Enriched Uranium) surplus of the defense
inventories (estimated contribution of 249 500 tU), commercial
inventory stopped by the western countries (estimation of 168 500
tU) and Russian inventory whose supply comes from the
consumption of natural uranium and " low-enriched " that changes
according to the supply of HEU (estimation of 47 000 tU).
B) Mox (Mixed OXide fuel ") with consumption projected for a
growth up to 2012, after that the use will be stabilized in 3600 tU
until 2050 and RepU (Reprocessed Uranium) with growth up to
2016, after what is arrived to a stable value of 2500 tU up to 2050.
C) Depleted Uranium (mill tailings): the milling of this material has
your end foreseen for 2011 after having reached a total cumulative
contribution of 43 000 tU.

In 1999, the primary and secondary supply was appraised as

reaching respectively 58% and 42% of the uranium demands for the
power plants, while it is expected that the primary supply can cover
94% of these needs in 2025. Besides, a growth is projected for the
market-based production, which should increase from 45% in 2000 to
86% in 2025. The known Uranium reserves are enough to supply
about 96% of the production based at the market (IAEA, 2000).
However, due to geographic distribution and limitations in the
production capability, those reserves should not be exhausted until
2050, causing a cumulative deficit of about 850 000 tU. Depending
on the observed scenario, this deficit can increase up to 3.5 times.
The challenge for the uranium industry will be discover large and low
cost deposits to fill out the foreseen deficit. On the other hand, one of
the principal threats is the fact that the secondary sources of uranium
supply reduced the market prices, which leads to slow down the
development of new projects. The development time of a new project
can take among 15 to 20 years. During this period the increase of the
market price can turn possible the discovery of low cost reserves.
Besides adjusting to accomplish the requirements of the globalized
market, the uranium industry should also demonstrate that is capable
to produce it according to acceptable practices in the social and
environmental fields.
Table 1: Categories and cost range of Uranium Production
Cost range $/kg U $lb.U3O8
Low < 34 < 13

Medium (low) > 34 – 52 > 13 – 20
Medium (high) > 52 – 78 > 20 – 30
High > 78 – 130 > 30 – 50
Very High > 130 > 50
Source: IAEA/NEA Joint Report (1999).

MINING AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Mining is first and foremost a risky business, where the
companies chase the best and most economically viable mineral
deposits. The impact of mining development on the socioeconomic
and political milieu is far reaching, and the implications are felt far
beyond the performance of the sector. However, it could only be
regarded as a sustainable one, if in order to meet their present
requirements do not compromise the needs of our children and future
generations. Equally, it should be able to internalize the social and
environmental costs from the operation, without receive any kind of
subside. The gap between people’s expectations and mining are often
difficult to bridge. One successful initiative is reinvest one portion of
the profits in another kind of development, like public health and
education.
Thus, the mining industry is taking sustainability on stride. A
group of leading mining companies is launching a global independent
analysis titled “The Global Mining Initiative (GMI)” to explores how
mining can best contribute to the transition to sustainable
development. The GMI also comprises a multi-stakeholders
engagement process (Minerals, Metals and Sustainable Development
– MMDS) to build dialogue at global and regional levels and identify
critical areas for the industry to act on
Uranium is widely distributed in the earth’s crust and oceans
where it has an average abundance of 2 ppm and 5 ppb, respectively.
The average concentration required for economic recovery depends,
among other things, on the market price of uranium. In the recent
years the uranium market price has been severely depressed and only
higher grade deposits capable of lower cost production have
continued to operate (IAEA, 2000).
Mining and milling ores usually involves the disruption of the
land surface, and may impact both surface and underground water
bodies. Therefore, the environmental impacts are potentially broader

and more diverse than other steps of nuclear fuel cycle. Two principal
pathways by which contamination may reach the environment from
uranium mining and milling operations are air and water. The
monitoring of the affected environment is undertaken, to ensure that
environmental impacts are adequately controlled within allowable
limits. Such monitoring normally includes sampling of air, soil,
water, plants and animals consumed in the human diet.
There are three main types of waste arising in mining and
milling operations: mine wastes (rocks), milling wastes (tailings) and
waste water. Each type of waste is subject to an appropriate
management strategy.
Mine waste consists primarily of waste rock and low grade
ore that must be removed to access the ore. For the most part this
material presents essentially no risk of environmental contamination
and in is usually disposed in piles around the mine. In some cases,
waste rock contains minerals, including sulfides, that may be leached
by water passing through waste piles. Oxidation of sulfide minerals is
the process which contributes to the mobilization of metals from mine
waste to the environment.
The primary milling wastes consist of tailings. The overriding
long-term environmental issue associated with uranium mining and
milling is the effective isolation from the accessible environment of
long-lived radionuclides that readily migrates from uranium mill
tailings into life-support systems and food chains and have significant
biological half-lives or residence times. To prevent undesirable
constituents in the tailings from leaching into the environment an
engineered containment should be constructed for long-term disposal
of the material. In the past some operators disposed of tailings at sites
where little or no consideration was given for the containment of the
material and performance assessment of the impoundment. While
this practice is no longer acceptable, some large environmental and
technological projects involve evaluation, long-term stabilization and

close-out of these formerly used sites. Today, the preferred option,

where indicated, is to return the tailings to the void where the ore was
excavated (OECD, 1999). This provide for tailings management
during and after the life of the facility, thereby limiting the long-term
environmental impact.
Waste water from mining and milling operations that is not
recycled to the mill must be either contained at the mill site or treated
before discharge to the environment. Standards have been established
for maximum concentrations of specific contaminants in discharged
water. Generally, radium is one of the critical radiological
contaminants for determining whether treated water meets the limits
for release to environment. Radium is relatively easy removed from
water when appropriate technology is used. There are several other
critical non-radiological trace elements that may present more of a
problem than radium.
Uranium mining and milling is moving towards sustainable
development in the sense that the impact on the environment of
current and future projects is being minimized. Compared with the
environmental impacts of other energy sources, the effects of uranium
production are relatively small. Implementation of best practice
approaches in planning, operating and closing of uranium production
facilities is resulting in an effective reduction of the environmental
impacts. Thus, future generations will be able to use large parts of
decommissioned areas for some of their needs. In addition, mining
and milling of uranium release relatively low amounts of carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases which contribute to the global
warming. Therefore, uranium production joint with nuclear power
have much less liability to environmental problems (e.g. acid rain,
aerosol, organic pollutants, etc.) than the burning of fossil fuels for
generation of electricity.

SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS
Looking at nuclear energy from a sustainable development
perspective implies analyzing its characteristics in terms of their
economic, environmental and social impacts, both positive and
negative, in order to assess to what extend and under which
conditions nuclear energy may contribute to meeting the goals of
global sustainable development. At the present level of scientific
knowledge, it seems relevant to begin with indicators appropriate for
each activity and impact, and then work toward aggregating them in
appropriate units. A key challenge at this level is to identify the most
important elements and focus attention on them.
The task of assessing progress toward sustainable
development and comparing it across different energy sources
(including efficiency as an equivalent source) is a difficult one.
Indicators would be useful in the context of making electricity
generation choices once energy and electricity needs are better
understood in a sustainable development perspective. This suggests
that indicators should be developed for the purpose of eventual
comparisons. Table 2 shows the framework of the most relevant
nuclear power indicators, covering their economical, environmental
and social dimensions.

Table 2: Checklist of sustainable development indicators (nuclear

power)
Economic Indicators Environmental Indicators Social Indicators
Cost valuation: Waste management: Dose to the public
# capital ($/kWe) # solids (Sv/kWh)
# marginal ($/kWh) # liquids Public Health
# external ($/kWh) # gases ($/kWh)
*volume (m3/kWh) e
activity (Bq/kWh) Jobs (no/kWh)
Discount rate ($/$) Natural resources
management: Education (no
# renewable ($/kWh) courses)
# non-renewable
($/kWh)
Fuel use (tU/kWh) Technological
Innovation/Improv
ements
(patent/kWh)
ECONOMICAL DIMENSION
The task of finding a common indicator for valuing natural
and human assets is not na easy one, and economic methods might
not capture the real significance for society, in a sustainable
development perspective, of goods and services for which there is no
market at present. The goal of explicit valuation is to make the factors
going into decision making more transparent. Using a common unit,
or a few summary of indicators, forces examination of different
impacts within a common framework. Decisions may then be made in
a coherent and systematic way, with the hope they would lead to
better overall outcome. Monetary units are well understood and
already functional where markets exist. They have the advantage of
reflecting real preferences, which provide a useful basis for extending
them to non-market entities. Valuing impacts is a mean to eventually

internalize their costs and enhance the efficiency of market

mechanisms for supporting sustainable development.
In the mining sector, it is already obvious that when social
and environmental costs are not internalized, they are imposed on the
local community. Mining should not be undertaken at the expense of
the community’s human life support system and short-term mining
gains should not translate into long-term human pain. So that, an
indicator of sustainable economic development would be the capacity
of a mining venture to internalize its own social and environmental
costs without direct or indirect subsidies. In the event that mining is
the only economic development prospect for a particular region, as is
the case in many developing countries, it should be soundly planned
to support both sustainable development for the community at large,
and profitable operations for the corporation.
The discount rate is an indicator that measures how much
more we value things right now than in the future. A zero discount
rate implies that the present and the future are valued equally, while
high rates mean a strong preference for the present. Cost estimates
that serve as a basis for decision-making depend strongly on the
discount rate adopted. Low rates enhance the competitiveness of
capital-intensive technologies such as coal and nuclear energy.
Sustainable development essentially tell us that all our activities have
long-term implications, and they should all be managed with an eye
to the future.
Nuclear energy is characterized by high capital costs and low
marginal costs of generating electricity. The cost of uranium ore
itself, in a opposite way of fossil-fired electricity, constitutes only a
few percent of overall cost of electricity from nuclear energy and,
therefore, even a significant price increase for uranium would not
have much impact on the cost of generating nuclear electricity. With
a discount rate between 5 and 10 %, nuclear power plant of current

generation would compete favorably with other electricity production

alternatives (ROGNER & KHAN, 1998).
Future financial liabilities associated with facility
decommissioning and radioactive waste disposal could require
subsidies if adequate provisions were not set aside by the nuclear
industry. Since decommissioning and waste disposal occur long after
nuclear electricity is generated, the economic actor responsible for the
facility and its waste may not exist when the funds will be needed.
SOCIAL DIMENSION
Table 3: Technological improvement for each step of uranium
production .
Uranium Production Steps Technological Improvement
Underground Mining Remote control operations;
Low-temperatures concrete act;
Waste pile stabilization;
Frozen Ore;
Borehole mining
Open pit mining Large trucks for ore transportation ;
Electrical vehicles (reduction of fossil fuel)
In Situ Leaching (ISL) Automated systems;
Directional survey;
Horizontal wells
Milling Radiometric sorting;
Filters;
Plant design optimization
Tailings Disposal Pit-Lake disposal;
Paste Disposal
Rehabilitation and Metal immobilization with reducers;
decommissioning of Reverse Osmosis;
contaminated areas Geochemical barriers;
(groundwater) Bioremediation

ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL PERFORMANCE

INDICATORS AND SUSTAINABILITY MARKERS FOR TWO
MINING GROUPS IN COLOMBIA
Elkin Vargas Pimiento
Mining and Metallurgical Engineer, Ms. Economic Sciences
Associate Professor, National University of Colombia
ABSTRACT
Today mining companies suffer strong pressure from
organizations such as environmental groups, multilateral agencies,
national governments, mining associations and the international
media, to comply with “good environmental practices” and to face
the new and important challenges imposed by the exploitation of
deposits, of increasingly lower-grade ore, deepness and difficulty,
and to integrate community issues in their decision making process.
It is therefore, advisable, for the mining industry to adopt the
philosophy of sustainability as its main goal for strategic planning.
Even conceptually, many problems are posed by the concepts
of sustainability and sustainable development, but none is more
limiting than the absence of operational measures by which they can
be implemented and made operational in a specific project.
Nevertheless, the article seeks to show the contribution that
the development of environmental and social performance indicators
and sustainability markers in the mining companies has in achieving
sustainable development. This is especially useful in a developing
country like Colombia, which has adopted a sustainable development
economic model and where the mining sector has lead exportations
and economy, but has also been responsible of big environmental
damages and important social conflicts. The paper also tries to
integrate the concepts of intergenerational equity and improvement of

welfare in the current generation, according to Howe’s focus (1979)

about maintenance of resources as a whole (renewable and non-
renewable) rather than the physical stocks of individual or aggregate
resources. This investigation also reports the existence of
technologies and methodologies, e.g. those recommended by the
Federal Environmental Agency of Germany (1997), to design
integrated sets of proven biophysical, economic and social indicators,
including the conventional indicators of the mining process: input-
outcome, training, well-being and participation, to be used in
performance evaluation and optimization, cost-benefit analysis and
strategic decision making, participative planning and progress
monitoring, according to Alyson Warhurst (1997) in the Mining and
Environmental Research Programme of the Bath University. This
approach and methodology is being applied to two types of mining
activities in Colombia: the extraction of gravel and sand in the
alluvial plains of the Medellin river and the exploitation of coal in the
coal basin of Antioquia.
1. SUSTAINABILITY MARKERS
When the concept of sustainability is applied to mining
projects, several key questions come forth: Can environmental
capacity and environmental consumption be measured to determine
whether they are being sustained in the different phases of the mining
process? Is it possible to identify and measure sustainable levels of
mineral deposit conservation? What can be done if sustainable levels
are improperly estimated? Are private benefits compatible with
social interests in achieving sustainability goals? Are mining
activities consistent with sustainable development? Answers are
difficult but indicators and their implementation in the mining
industry can be a powerful tool to improve the environmental and
social performance of mining companies, to report their advances in a
comprehensive and measurable way, and to determine whether

undertaking an extraction activity is in the social interest, and if so,

whether the project entails the best use of society’s productive
resources. This has a special importance in Colombia where non
renowable natural resources belong to the State, and the State
conceeds the deposits to private companies for the benefit of all the
individuals.
For a specific mining project, the use of indicators is useful to
know for example if its environmental impact is less than that of a
similar project, or if the life of the deposit is being extended, if
energy consumption and use of natural resources per ore unit
exploited are being decreased, if the management model is more
participative than that used by other companies in other projects. It is
possible to design techniques to develop indicators for groups of
users and make them operative in the mineral and metal industry. The
groups of users have varied and complex activities, but the use of the
same indicators facilitates the reports of their technical, social and
environmental corporate performance, helps to anticipate negative
effects and to structure a social responsibility proactive approach in
the operational and corporate levels, to identify weak points and
improve possibilities, all in order to optimize environmental and
social performance and to organize sustainable markers that later will
be confronted and presented to the stakeholders.
Indicators can usually be classified in three groups depending
if they describe an environmental impact of mining activities
(environmental performance), the mining management or the external
environmental CONDITION. In the first group we find material and
energy income-output indicators that are used in mining companies
that want to go towards sustainability. The typical examples are:
global energy consumption, waste per unit of product, number of
relevant environmental facilities and total transportation volume.
The stages to conform the framework needed to establish
indicators are: design of a system of indicators to obtain information,

application, review, measurement and derivation of objectives. The

Federal Environmental Agency (1997), recommends some basic
principles for this process: comparability, objective orientation,
balance, continuity and clearness.
Environmental indicators are usually related with physical
amounts, but it is possible to simultaneously develop indicators
related with costs, due to the increase that budgets for environmental
protection have had in the last few years. For the extractive industry
it is possible to forecast that in the first stages of the stablishment of
indicators, there will be no data related with amounts, and therefore it
will be necessary to consult data related with costs. This situation is
common in the studied cases where the mining companies did not
know the volume of sterile per ton mined, but they knew the cost of
surface material disposal. They did not know the fuel used in mineral
transportation to storage centers but knew the total expenses for this
item.
For small and medium scale mines exploited by underground
methods, the income-output indicators are more important because
they induce the monitoring of efficiency in the consumption of
energy and other natural resources, e.g. water, wood, labor force.
Furthermore the verification of waste and emission reduction per ton
of mineral are possible. Additionally the use of indicators is essential
to show the improvement of health and safety conditions in
underground operations. In surface mining the indicators have more
importance in the examination of relevant environmental facilities,
vegetation and soil losses, ground and rock removal, landscape
disturbances, total transportation and other parameters related with
the life of the mineral deposits.
Independent from the tipes of users, the type of mines and the
form of exploitation, according to an economic concept, mining is a
temporary use of the ground and the indicators related with the
quality of environmental restoration of the areas affected by mining it

will be of great help to guarantee an utility function or a non

declining social welfare. This is consistent with sustainable
development.
According to the framework previously determined, the guide
for this investigation was the economic model “Economic and
Environmental Stocks and Flows” (Pezzey, 1992) that considers both
the accumulation of capital and the flow of natural and environmental
resources in the obtention of products (through a Cobb-Douglas
production function) where the environmental services and
environmental productivity are combined with the optimal depletion
of the resource according to the private company. This model
suggests that if non-renewable resource inputs are essential, then
inadequate technical progress and open access to environmental
resources may be the key factors to unsustainability. The result
should not mean excesive social depletion rates and therefore low
sustainability.
2. SUMMARY OF CHARACTERIZATION
2.1 Technical Characterization: Exploration, Mining and
Processing
2.1.1 Data, Information and Facts
Level of knowledge of the mineral deposit to adjust technical
studies and extractive operations: surface geology, geophysical and
drilling works, metallogenic hypothesis and verification data,
mineralization patterns and morphology of mineral deposit, sampling,
assays and calculation methods, grade average or quality of products
and by products, proven reserves, ore-sterile ratios, stripping ratios,
annual production etc.
After having the information about the mineral deposit it is
necessary to obtain technical data related with mining and processing:
mining methods, geometric, geotechnic, ecological and economical

constraints, engineering properties of rocks, haulage and storage

methods, ratio of size reduction, crushing, grinding and concentration
methods, power and water systems, equipment and results, sterile,
wastes and tailing disposal, transportation of mineral to markets,
incomes, products, employee training (number of workers and
training level).
After crossing the previous information one can proceed to
determine the operation economical data: initial capital investment,
capital and operation costs, interest rate, income, internal return rate,
sensitivity and risk analysis, inflation, exchange rate, taxation, etc.
2.1.2 The Sustainability of the Mining Process
This aspect means increasing the life of the mine by adding
reserves through exploration, improvement of mineral recovery,
decrease of ore losses and decrease in dilution. The general
environmental effects caused by two analyzed groups are: in the
gravel and sand exploitations, the destruction and alteration of
vegetation and the natural drainage patterns, changes in the use of top
soil in the mining areas, erosion of stripped areas, accumulation of
soil and excavated beds that cause sediments, pollution, possibility of
acid drainage, dust, noise and vibrations. In underground coal mining
the effects are: piles of material on surface with erosion potential and
sedimentation hostile to natural vegetation and generally unsuitable
for any immediate land use, and acidification of water currents,
combustion of piles, drainage due to the removal of soluble minerals,
acidification of water, mining subsidence, gas emissions, dust,
consumption of wood and fuels, rock loosening and inadequate sterile
and spoil disposal, and all aspects related with adequate pillar support
necessary to avoid mining subsidence on surface.
2.2 Biological and ecological aspects
For the characterization we must consider as analysis
category the “biological resource basis” with a mayor element ante

three substratum that support this element: biological diversity, soil,

measurable in erosion and physical chemical transformations, and
water, measurable in changes of the particles in suspension and the
physical chemistry of these particles and toxic gases (CO2, NOx,
SOx, etc.)1
2.3 Social and Cultural Aspects
The evaluation and comparison of the social and cultural
situation before during and after the exploitation must be well known.
The history of the zone is needed: incorporation of mining in the
region, development process, assessment of social and cultural
changes, life conditions, population discriminated by sex, age, and
location in relation with human settlements and exploitation sites,
population growth rates, including those induced by the mining
activities, education levels and qualification for mining employment,
health conditions, occupation and engagement of the community in
mining activities and changes introduce by operations, income levels,
life quality and recreation. It is necessary to obtain data mainly
related with educational, cultural, health and entertainment
infrastructure. As for communal and local organizations, the
following information is required: role, working fields, experience in
participative processes, interaction with local administrations and
with mining companies.
It is also necessary to know who the stakeholders are in the
area before and after the exploitation and what their role is, traditional
conflicts and those that arise with the presence of the company, their
development and solution, and how they articulate with other
1
Even though the definition of biological diversity adopted by the Rio World
Conference in 1992 was “the variation of living organisms of any origin”, it will
not be considered due to the difficulty of its quantification and because it arises the
problem of biological evolution. Therefore the traditional idea of biological
diversity is used, this is, the number of living species in an area at a certain
moment.

conflicts. Finally, we need to know the cultural values shared by the

population, how customs have evolved with the mining activities, and
what those changes have been, how people relate themselves with the
area, specially migrants, what has changed and how the landscape
and the cultural, environmental, historical, archeological and
architectural patrimony have evolved.
2.4 Legal Aspects
It is necessary to define the mining company, its degree of
legal formality, type of society, corporate purpose, domicile, and
members. As for the administrative structure, we have to know who
represents the company in the exploitation area, department or person
in charge of relations with the community and with local authorities,
social organs and members, chief of personnel, workers and their
qualification, unions, social security, salary scale, internal labor laws,
industrial security laws, accident statistics, occupational health
programs, reports in the different levels of the company and
information for the employees.
In the mining and environmental aspects we should know the
validity of the mining titles, type and size of the exploitation, reports,
royalty payment, controls imposed by the mining authorities to the
operations, environmental authorizations, company’s engagement to
comply with environmental laws.

2.5 Methodological approach
Figure 1: Scheme
The previous theoretical and procedural framework was used
to obtain the technical data and information of the two groups of
users. Immediately after, a system of the most applicable indicators
was arranged and fed with the initial data in order to start
experimentation. Students working in their graduation thesis as
mining engineers from the University of Colombia did this task.
3. THE EXTRACTION OF GRAVEL

3.1 Local Geology
The Medellin River and its affluents have deposited placers
that have formed long and narrow alluvial plains with various levels
of terraces that reach heights of 2-25 meters with respect to the actual

levels of the river. Igneous rock highly disintegrated on clay and

sand grounds and metamorphic rocks of easy weathering form the
alluvial plain and non consolidated deposits formed of sand and
gravel. In the boulders found in the alluvial plains quartz,
anphibolites, dunites, gneiss and green rocks can be identified.
The flooding plain is on both sides of the river except in areas
with high slopes. The statigraphic column is: 0-2 m: gray to light
green clays with organic material. It has thin soils of 1-5 cm
consistent with an active alluvial plain. 2- 4 or 5 m: the first 0.4 m
are formed by poorly consolidated brownish gray gravel in a sand and
clay matrix of up to 30%. The rounded boulders have maximum
sizes of 0.15 to 0.2 m. Underlying are light to gray gravel with a
lesser percentage of sand in the matrix. From 4-5 m up to x meters
there are various beds of sands, clays and organic material and beds
of brownish yellow, black and green sands. All these are frequently
graded.
3.2 Extraction and Processing
Mining is done by surface mechanized methods for a
production of 130.000 to 300.000 m3/year.

Table 1. Environmental impact identification of extraction of

gravel and sand 2
OPERATIONS Over Stripp Loading Storage Process Closu

MINING burden ing and ing re
ACTIVITIES Remo Transpor
val tation
Mining resource z }
Top soil z }
Water Surface z
Under z
ground
Vegetation z z
Atmosphere | z z } } }
Fauna z } } | } }
Landscape and z z z z
morphology
Infrastructure z
Health of the workers z } | z
Economic and social | } }
resources
z Important alteration
}Moderate alteration
|Slight alteration
2 Diaz and Velásquez. Gradution Thesis in Mining Engineering. Faculty of Mines,

National University, Colombia, 2002.

Table 2. Mining Operations and Residual Discharges3

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT
Energy Overburden Air Emissions: Dust and
Fuel ¤ removal ¤ combustion gasses. Wastes:
Steriles, vegetation and topsoil.
Noise.
Energy Air Emissions: Dust and

Explosives ¤ Mining ¤ combustion gasses, Noise.
(occasional
ly)
Fuel
Energy ¤ Loading and ¤ Air Emissions: Dust and

Fuel transportatio combustion gasses, Noise.
n
Fuel ¤ Storage ¤ Air Emissions: Dust and

combustion gasses Noise.
Energy ¤ Processing ¤ Air Emissions: Dust, Solid

Water Wastes: Mud from the processing
plant. Waste Water; Noise
Fuel, ¤ Air Emissions: Dust and

Spoil ¤ Filling combustion gasses Noise.
piles,
mud,
steriles
3
Idem.

3.3 Impact Qualification

3.3.1 Impact Qualification Criteria
Generic nature of impacts: effects are classified in favorable and
unfavorable.
Incidence: direct or indirect impacts on the environment,
economy and society.
Duration: temporary or definite
Spatial projection: extended or focalized.
Proximity to source: distance between the mine and the place
where impact is revealed.
Reversibility: impact is reversible or not.
Recuperation ability: the same as reversibility with the possibility
of taking corrective measures that enable recovery of initial
conditions (recoverable or not)
Probability: chance of having the impact. It can be high, medium
or low.
Valuation: depending on the characteristics of the impact and if
corrective measures are taken by the mining companies the
following degrees of valuation are used: compatible, moderate
and severe.

3.3.2 Qualification Matrix
Characteristics of the Probab Valuati

impacts ility of on
occur
rence
Far from the source

Close to the source
Irrecoverable
Unfavorable
Recoverable
Compatible
Irreversible
Temporary
Reversible
Permanent
Favorable
Focalized
Moderate
Extended
Medium
Indirect
Severe
Direct
High
Low
IMPACTS
Particulate material Y YY Y Y YY P U
Noise YY Y Y Y YY P U
Water contamination YY Y Y YY P U
Loss of vegetation YY Y YY YY P U
Impact on fauna YY Y Y YY Y P U
Soil loss YY Y YY Y Y P U
Slope instability Y YY Y YY P U
Landscape and
YY Y Y Y YY P U
morphology
Depletion of mineral
YY YY Y YY P U
resource
Infrastructure YY YY Y YY P U
Social and economic Y YY Y YY Y P U

3.3.3 Impact mitigation

Even if impacts are shown in the previous matrix the
companies established corrective measures to mitigate or prevent
most of those impacts. According to the field valuation done by Diaz
and Velasquez (2002) the summarized measures are:
- Filling of exploited areas: done technically and economically to
reclaim areas e.g. for construction of warehouses. Filling material
comes from stripping works, plant tailings, clay lenses and solid
wastes.
- Forestation programs: to establish protective barriers against dust
and to improve landscape. Eucalyptus and pine trees are planted.
- Noise management: Additional to tree barriers, screens and crushers
are covered to reduce noise on its source.
- Dust management: Controlled with water spray on roads. Truck
tires are washed before leaving for the markets. Control of dust is
not considered in the design and construction of processing
equipment but covering of sizing and crushing equipment helps
mitigate impacts. Sizing is done under humid conditions. Main
dust sources are crushers and belt conveyors.
- There are no inhabited areas next to the mining sites. The
settlements are limited to small communities close to mining title
boundaries. The eventual negative impacts for the communities
are dust, road damages, noise and emissions.
4. FORMULATION OF INDICATORS
The formulation of indicators was done after having the
inventory of environmental impacts, the analysis of environmental
costs and the characterization of the environment. Then the key
points to structure indicators were defined. These indicators should

lead to a continuous improvement of processes and efficient use of

natural resources and environment.
In each case a viability study of the implementation of the
initial indicators was made. This study confronted the difficulty of
design and its comprehension, financial and practical applicability in
the context of existing resources in each company, the possibility of
measurement instrument acquisition and experimentation to analyze
and generate global indexes about results and progresses.
The indicators formulated for the two groups of users are:
4.1 Group 1
Three companies extracting gravel in the alluvial plains of the
Medellín River: Conasfaltos S.A. Procopal S.A., and Agregados del
Norte.
Environmental Performance Indicators
Allow the assesment and control of environmental impacts. They can
be used by any company as a starting point.
Input Indicators:
Energy Indicators: Total and specific uses o electric and fuel energy
and their costs.

Table 4. Energy indicators

CONASFALTOS PROCOPAL AGREGADOS
S.A. S.A. DEL NORTE
Mineral 25.100 m3/month 22.800 9.300 m3/month
processing m3/month
Fuel 3.540 Gal (141.290 2.340 Gal 1.246 Gal
consumption kWh) (93.342 kWh) (49.702.9 kWh)
Specific 0.14 Gal/m3 0.13 Gal/m3 0.13 Gal/m3
consumption of
fuel oil
Electric power 142.540 kWh 47.520 kWh 19.200 kWh
consumption
Specific 5.7 kWh/m3 2.1 kWh/m3 2 kWh/m3
consumption of
electric power
Total 283.830 140.862 68.902.9
consumption of
energy
Total specific 11.1 kWh/m3 6.2 kWh/m3 7.4 kWh/m3
use
Share of electric 50.2% 33.7% 27.9%
power
Share of fuel 49.8% 66.3% 72.1%
Water consumption: The analyzed companies have their own water

source from the abatement of river’s water level. The costs during
exploitation are due to the pumping system used and are included in
the energy indicators. Water indicators are total and specific
consumption of water. The volume of water coming out from the
plants determines the total consumption of water in processing plants.

Conasfaltos S.A. 2600 gal/min

Procopal 800 gal/min
Agregados del Norte 1600 gal/min
Output Indicators:
Solid waste: relate the environmental goals with the economic
advantages of the use or treatment given to waste (mud, steriles, etc.).
The indicators are: total waste, relative amount of mud in processing,
relative amount of sterile in exploitation, amount of plastering sands
recovered in sand washing. Conasfaltos had this data: total amount of
waste: 2000 m3/month, relative amount of waste: 8%.
Air emissions: relative amount of particles, relative emission of
gasses, noise. The following data was obtained from Conasfaltos4:
Emissions of particles: dust
0.58 kg/ton (of excavated material)
0.75 g/km (transportation in trucks)
2.0 kg/ton (processing: includes unloading in bin)
Gas emissions
14.23 g/km (exploitation: Sox, Co)
27.26 g/km (transportation on trucks: Sox, Co, Nox, CxHy)
Noise emissions:
Exploitation:
Bulldozer: 75-95 dB at a distance of 15.2 m.
Retroexcavator: 75-95 dB at a distance of 15.2 m.
4
Ministry of Mines and Energy. Form filled out by Conasfaltos to present the
environmental impact declaration.

Dumper: 88-97 dB at a distance of 15.2 m.

Processing:
Plate crusher: 90-100 dB from the operator’s position
Cone crusher: 92-98 dB from the operator’s position
Belt conveyor: 82-113 dB from the operator’s position
Screen: 70-81 dB at a distance of 15.2 m
Chain pump: 70 dB at a distance of 100 m
Loading and Hauling:
Trucks: 70-90 dB at a distance of 15.2 m
Waste Water: amount of water after processing, relative amount of
water, mud concentration, mud sedimentation efficiency.
Infrastructure Indicators: are referred to the environmental impacts
caused by the equipment and facilities. They are number of available
equipment, percentage of area used for processing, number of
available processing equipment, environmentally and health tested
and proven equipment, crusher availability.
The area used in processing is:
Conasfaltos S.A. 3000 m2
Procopal 2000 m2
Agregados del Norte 1000 m2
All companies have an 80% availability in the number of machines.

Environmental Management Indicators

Show the efforts made by the companies to reduce or correct
environmental impacts. Demonstrate the performance of
organizational measures.
System Indicators: Show the level of compliance of an
environmental management system or of its components.
System Implementation: departments with environmental programs,
degree of goals reached, management of environmental permits, costs
of implementing the system.
Legal Matters and Complaints: represent how the company
complies with the environmental legislation. They are: complaints
presented due to environmental pollution, water pollution, air
pollution or noise, complaints considered by the environmental
authorities, environmental sanctions and fines, cost of sanctions and
fines.
Environmental Costs: Help in the search of cost reduction goals
through input saving programs or waste treatment programs. They
are investment in technological environmental improvements, share
of environmental investments, operative costs of environmental
protection, savings in costs with the implementation of environmental
improvement.
Functional Area Indicators: Show the involvement of workers in
environmental programs.
Training Staff: Determine the degree of instruction workers have in
environmental issues. They are: degree of environmental instruction
per employee, environmental instruction per employee responsible of
environmental issues, number of workers instructed in environmental
issues.
Health and Safety: Show the expenses in sanitary and accident
prevention and describe the complimentary aspects of the mining

activities related with health and safety of workers. They are labor
accidents, work days lost with accidents, labor health cases, expenses
in prevention. For Procopal we have this data: 25 accidents causing
leave days and 394 accident leave days/year.
Other environmental management indicators without any data
yet are: purchases and externa communication.
Environmental Condition Indicators
Provide information on the quality of the company’s
environment surrounding. Soils in the exploitation area are typical
tropofluvent type corresponding to medium temperate thermal floors,
Girardota association, deep and moderately deep, poorly drained, fine
texture, and regular structural development in the first horizons. Low
fertility, slightly acid, organic carbon irregularly distributed and low
in phosphorus. Plains of 0-3%, with no erosion, deep ground water
level tables in summer and occasional flooding. The alluvial plain is
formed of igneous rocks deeply weathered over residual soils and
metamorphic rocks of easy weathering and non-consolidated deposits
of sand and gravel form most of the mining area.
Bioecological Indicators: Characterize the biota of the ecosystem
altered by mining activities. They are: affected fauna population,
proportion of vulnerable species, fauna diversity index, endangered
species, vegetation diversity index, endemic species, forestation
index, proportion of green areas with fauna habitats. Native and
planted tree, ornamental plants, pastures and bushes represent
vegetation in the exploitation zone. Rats, serpents, rabbits and birds,
represent fauna.
Water quality average: Of the various indicators for water
quality, the most used is that developed by the United States National
Health Foundation. This indicator is calculated by the following
function:

WQI= OD*.17+cf*.15+PH*0.12+DBO*0.10+N*.10+F*0.10+DT*0.10
T*.08+ST*0.08
Where: OD: solute oxygen. cf: feces. PH: water acidity. DBO:
biochemical demand of oxygen. N: nitrates. F: phosphates. DT:
temperature deviation. ST: Total solids.
The WQI range of values goes from 0 to 100, where values
mean: 0-25 very poor water, 26-50 poor, 51-70 medium, 71-90 good,
91-100 excellent.
Table 5. Water Quality
PROCOPAL5 AGREGADOS
DEL NORTE6
Ph 8.10 7.55
Chlorides (mg/l) 18.0 529.8
Total hardness (mg/l CaCo3) 320.0 154.0
Total iron (mg/l) 0.85 0.26
Turbidity (ntu) 4.50 -
Sulfates (Mg/l SO4) - 583.15
Apparent color (upc) - 40
Landscape Indicators: To determine the landscape degradation in
mining areas, the landscape quality indicator LQI proposed by Cruz
and Sarmiento (1999) has to be considered. This indicator was
adapted to the studied cases. The indicator is calculated with the
following equation with weight factors:
LQI= DP*35+AAE*20+US*20+CVA*25
100
5 The company made the bacteriological, physical and chemical analysis of the surface water
source with the University of Antioquia in February 1997.
6 The company made a water microbiological, physical and chemical analysis to determine its
aptitude for concretes.

Where: DP: population density. AAE: annual mining area. US: soil
use. CVA: exploitation area visibility.
Technical Indicators: Complementary indicators that integrate
aspects related with sustainability: economic, social and
environmental. They are: total and specific exploitation area, annual
production, overburden thickness, specific filling area, available
reserves, life time of project, reclaimed area, flooded area, ground
water table levels, volume of filtration per day, final slopes, minerals
sent to plant, productivity, product recovery.
Table 6. Technical Indicators
Procopal Agregados Conasfaltos
del Norte
Total area of the project (Ha.) 50 14.3 67
Exploitation area 12 3 65*
Overburden thickness (Mts.) 1-2 1-2 1-2
Filling area (Ha.) 2 3.4 3
Available reserves m3 7’030.000 4’069.122 8’876.125
Life time of project (years) 25 35 34
Approximate production 273.600 117.600 264.000
m3/year
*Exploited and potentially exploitable areas
The following characteristics are similar for the three

companies.

Maximum extraction depth (Mts.) 35-50

Height of benches (Mts.) 4-6
o
Slope angle of bench ( ) 85-90
Final height of slopes (Mts.) 40
o
Final angle slope ( ) 80-90
Productivity crushing plant m3/h 40
Percentage of recovery of material m3/h 45
Percentage of recovery of crushed material m3/h 40
Recovery (%) 89
Social and Economic Indicators: Report the influence of the
company in the region. They are: social investment, level of jobs,
fiscal incomes, changes in land value.
4.2 Group 2
Three companies that exploit coal by underground methods in
the coal basin of Antioquia: Carbones Nechi, Mina El Bloque and
Mina Las Margaritas.
The coal basin of Antioquia has a tertiary origin formation,
with multibed deposits of bituminous coal, general stratification N
10º -30º W, deeping an average of 20º SW and NE according to flank
dominant anticline. The analyzed companies operate mines in
different municipalities: Nechi in the town of Amaga, El Bloque in
Fredonia and Las Margaritas in Titiribi. They use the method of
chambers and pillars, semi mechanized and with production ranges of
4000 to 7000 tons/month.
After having done the fieldwork in each mine and
characterized the surrounding environment according to the
established methodology the following indicators were chosen. This

included the analysis of the local land regulation plans, the diagnosis
of the operations and identification and evaluation of the
environmental impacts.
Environmental Performance Indicators
Input Indicators:
Energy (use and efficiency): gallons of fuel/month, gallons of
fuel/ton of coal, kWh/month, and kWh/ton of coal, energy
intensity/unitary operation.
Water consumption: m3/month, m3/ton of coal
Materials: tons of wood/month, kg of wood/ton of coal, tons of
explosives/month, explosives/ton of coal.
Output Indicators
Total and specific production, tons of sterile/month, tons of
sterile/ton of coal, tons of organic waste/month, tons of organic
waste/ton of coal, tons of inorganic waste/month, tons of inorganic
waste/ton of coal, sterile and waste elimination rate, recovery wastes,
recycling rate.
Infrastructure: monthly availability of equipment, percentage
of the title area constructed.
Environmental Management Indicators
System Indicators: number of environmental improvement
proposals/month, number of corrective measures taken/month,
number of complaints due to environmental pollution/month, excess
in authorized limits/month.
Functional Area Indicators: occupational health index:
occupational disease cases, labor welfare, labor training, income
level, impact due to income level, type and level of employment,
community relations, level of citizen participation, environmental
management.

Environmental Condition Indicators

The studied area has 5 types of soils derived from:
sedimentary rocks of low fertility, igneous rocks known as the coffee
growing soil, that turn into gravel with rain, metamorphic igneous
rocks with medium to low fertility, of piroclastic materials rich in
organic material with high level of phosphorus fixation. Sugar cane,
coffee, fruits and pasture can be found. The are also modified forests,
forest plantations, stubble and farms.
Native vegetation is scarce. Bats, fishes, and mammals are
found. There hare 32 families and 112 species of birds. Some of
these species are becoming extinct.
Geological Indicators: water dynamics and erosion rates.
Physical and chemical indicators: temperature, acidity,
alkalinity, and turbidity levels.
Landscape And Biological Indicators: The use of a matrix will give
each indicator a certain amount of points. Landscape environmental
evaluation: (total points/24)*100, environmental evaluation of the use
of soil: (total points/33)*100, deforestation impact: environmental
quality of mined areas/environmental quality of external areas * 100.
The following is a summary of the initial data for a set of
indicators applicable to the analyzed mines:

EL LA NECHÍ LAS
BLOQUE MARGARITAS
Monthly extraction rate 4000 5860 4526
(tons/month)
Heating power (Btu/lb.) 12.02 12.57 236.8 *105 Btu/ton
Consumption of wood 49.4 124.15 844 pesos*/ton
(ton/month)
Specific consumption of 4.02 8.1 100 pesos/ton
electric power (kWh/ton
coal)
Efficiency in the use of 0.4 0.89 578 pesos/ton
explosives (kg /ton coal)
Sterile (m3/ton coal) 0.076 0.137 0.014
% Mining title area used 0.16 0.07 0.04
in mining and for
construction
Number of environmental 2 4 4
improvement proposals
per month
Complaints due to 2 3 1
contamination per month
Sickness leaves 59 65 29
(days/month)
Training (hours 7 11 10
person/month)
Activities with 1 3 1
community per month
Water dynamics, erosion 7 12 26
rates (%)
1 US$=2300 pesos

To avoid mining subsidence the dimensions of the pillars

were calculated after a linear regression analysis, which gave this
formula:7
width of pillar
Pillar resistance = testing resistance results (0.36 + * 0.86)
bed thickness
Frequency index: 0.96

The air degradation factors more frequently found in
underground exploitations in the coal basin of Antioquia are:
Gasses. Oxygen: more than 20% in volume; carbon dioxide: 0.2%;
carbon monoxide: 0.001%; nitrous vapor (No+No2): 0.002%;
methane: (CH4 plus traces of other HC paraffin): less than 1m3/ton
(in situ) and less than 1% in air return. All values are far below the
established limits8 and far below danger limits.
Particulate material:
Concentration of breathable dust in fronts: 3-4 mg/m3
Of free silex in breathable air: 4-5%
In some sector the are weight layers of deposited dust of
more than 1/10th of a millimeter, covering sections of galleries,
capable of forming combustible dust clouds with concentrations of
more than 100gr/m3, amount considered very risky.
Technical And Financial Indicators
Volume of circulating air, energy sources used, energy
sources in each equipment.
7
De la Cruz, Hector et al. 1990. Study for Pillar Dimensionnig in the coal Basin of Amaga.
National University of Colombia. Medellin.
8
Castro, William. 1977. Environmental Conditions of Underground Mining in the Amaga
Angelopolis Basin. National University of Colombia. Medellin.

Cash flow index, debts, yield, and activities.
CONCLUSION
In Colombia it is necessary to develop and assess
methodologies to design sets of indicators for sustainability for the
mining companies, as their activities are today, far from sustainable.
This must be done for groups of miner users, due to the variety of
minerals exploited in the country. A good set of indicators will
contribute to reduce the negative effects of mining activities and
promote its positive effects on the human and natural environment.
When these indicators have been established they will be tested,
adapted and improved with field works and then used in a systematic
way to achieve sustainable development, mandatory in the
Colombian Constitution and in the economic development plans.
Due to the characteristics of mining activities in Colombia
the work areas and the investigations to determine sustainability
indicators are focused in exploration and production of gas and oil,
quarries, big coal surface mining, small and medium size coal
underground mines, clay industry, gold placer and underground
mines and extraction and processing of placer sands and gravel. This
investigation is being done with great enthusiasm by the
Environmental Economics Group of the National University of
Colombia in Medellin.
The main result of this work is the method for developing
technical, social and ecological sustainability indicators applicable to
small and medium mines in Colombia, where even management
information is scarce. The progress made in the environmental
characterization of the mining companies and their activities and the
first values are being used to improve social and environmental
performance of the companies analyzed in the investigation. The
experience of this study and particularly those obtained in the

fieldwork will be used to write a handbook that will then be used in

the investigation.
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SUSTAINABLE INDICATORS OF THE SMALL COAL

MINING IN COLOMBIA
Liliana Betancurth M
Geologist.
Case: Department of Boyacá – Colombia.
Each system works according to the way how internal and

external factors can affect positive or negatively its basic
sustainability. The indicators are real measures trend to evaluate the
state of a system whatever it is, allowing of clear way the
interpretation and diagnostic of the alternatives to follow to obtain an
optimal operation.
In the mining, the indicators must be a kind of guide to the
recognition of the existing resources, the options of their advantage,
its commercialization, its relation with the natural environment and
its interactions with social means. All these parameters are governed
by particular indicators, that finally allow to know the impact
generalized the mining activities on the surroundings.
For the case of the coal, we are talking about a power
resource that by long time has been a motor of development in many
countries of the world; since it has been and it is essential part in the
development of electrical sectors, metallurgical and still nutritional.
Historically the coal is a resource that is operated from half-full of
century XIII what shows more than 800 years of use, in which the
effects on means have left important tracks at economic level and of
development, but few at social and environmental level.
This document is suggested like one of already the many
existing proposals to visualize of global way, the form to include the
problematic one of the sustainable development at level of the small
mining through the use of sustainable indicators, in development
countries, like the Latin Americans.

For the Colombia case, it has a great potential of coal and

there is an interest of the private and publics organizations as much to
recognize and to mitigate the problematic that comes from non
technified operations; being conscientious that is possible to conceive
an organized mining, of clean production and that generates gains for
which they have it and at general level of all the country.
SUSTAINABLE INDICATORS
The sustainable development requires that the means of
production of the capital, goods or conservation in different the
anthropogenic systems manage to stay or manages to improve, in its
passage from a generation to another one. Retaking the concept of
Indicator, they are they who allow finding a level of information in
the time, on the sustainability of a system; in this case, on the
evolution of the activities of operation of strategic mineral resources.
The indicators allow to see how want to obtain positive
results in entrance terms to per capita, the destruction of the natural
resources risks or the people expose themselves directly. It is
necessary to know how that all type of development implies risks, of
the justification to maintain the situation controlled within pre-
established limits of tolerance there.
The indicators must have the Following significant
characteristics:
• To be of easy measurement
• To be applicable on a rank of different ecosystems and
economic and social systems
• To be reasonable as far as the attainment of the information
• In certain cases, it can allow that the involved population,
directly participates in the measurements to take, therefore
they must be practitioners and of easy understanding

• the measurements must have the characteristic to allow to be

repetitive trough the time
• To be significant level of the sustainability concept, the
others could be despised
• To be moldable and sensible to the same changes of the
system
• To be tolerable with a series of standards established for the
aspects of means, such as: environmental, technological,
economic and the social ones.
Under the point of view that concerns in this case, the
categories which they must set out for the analysis of a mining system
of small scale are:
• Indicating of technical type (ITT): such as the methods of
operation and benefit of the Indicating mineral
• of economic type (IET): such as the strategic importance of
the mineral, the production costs and price in the Indicating
market
• of environmental type (IET): such as the impacts on the
resources water, ground, air, flora, fauna and Indicating
landscape
• of Social type (IST): such as the demand of goods and
services, the generation of use and the educative level.
INDICATOR OF TECHNICAL TYPE (ITT)

It is relating about the art of how the existing methods of
operation are applied, according to the geologic, structural
characteristics and of quality of the mineral in the deposit, of which
they are as well the methods of benefit of the mineral, optimizing its
commercialization and consumption finally.

Description of the Indicator.

A first indicator can be proposed that at the moment relates
the methods used to extract the mineral (indicating of extraction IER)
with the method really established for the deposits at issue (indicating
of theoretical extraction ITE); added to the indicator that theoretically
establishes the best method of benefit of the mineral (indicating of
benefit IBT), compared with at the moment used (indicating of real
benefit IRB); considering equipment and processes. The weight of the
total indicator must be of 100 units.
ITT = [(IER/ITE) + (IRB/IBT) ]/2 * 100
In where:
ITT: Indicator of type of automation, valued between 0 and 100
IER: Real adjustment of the used method of extraction
ITE: Pre-established theoretical parameters for the mineral extraction
of deposit at issue
IRB: Indicator of the system of benefit used at moment
IBT: Indicator of the system of optimal benefit, established
theoretically
INDICATOR OF ECONOMIC TYPE (IET)

This classification corresponds to the parameters that allow to
evaluate and to know the viability the operation in yield terms;
subordinated to the characteristics of the effective market, the costs of
the production with respect to the income by sales and the level of
importance of the mineral within the local and regional contexts.
Description of the indicator.
This indicator is a little more complex, because it will be the
average between three aspects necessary to know. The first indicator
will be the one that allows to compare the present demand (indicating

of present demand IPD), with the volumes of production of the

deposit for the same time (Indicating of volumes of production IVP),
added to the indicator that compares the value of the production costs
(indicating of production costs IPC), with the value of the income by
commercialization (indicating of the value of income IVI), added to
the indicator that compares the present importance of the mineral
within main strategic minerals of the moment, at local and regional
level (indicating of strategic importance IIE), with the last and future
indicator that shows the tendency of substitution of the mineral
(indicating of substitution IS).
The weight of the total indicator will be between 0 and 100
units.
IET = (IVP/IPD) + (IPC/IVI) + (ISI/IS) ]/3 * 100
In where:
IET: Indicator of economic type
IVP: Indicator of the volumes of present production
IPD: Indicator of the present demand in market
IPC: Indicator of the present production costs of deposit at issue
IVI: Indicator of the value of income or gains, by commercialization
of mineral
IIE: Indicator of the present strategic importance of the mineral at
local level and regional
IS: Indicator of the tendencies of substitution of the mineral
INDICATOR OF ENVIRONMENTAL TYPE (IET)

This is one of the most complex indicators to evaluate, since
the environmental context locks up, the evaluation of the behavior of
each one of the elements of natural means, like the water, ground, air,
flora, fauna and landscape and the impacts that the extractive mining

can generate in them. That is to say, this indicator tends to evaluate

the efficiency in the mitigation processes and control of the
environmental alterations produced by the mining.
Description of the indicator.
A composed indicator sets out, that is the average weighed of
each one of the indicators established for each element of natural
means.
The first indicator is the state of physical and chemical
quality of the water (indicating of quality of water IQW), compared
with the standards physic-chemistries, biological, content of organic
matter, sedimentation, variation of groundwater levels and increase of
leaching waters (indicating composed of permissible levels for water
IPL); added to the indicator of the state of the soil and subsoil
(Indicating of quality of the soil and subsoil IQSS), compared with
the standards of the changes in properties physic-chemistries and
increase of the erosion, loss of the organic layer, changes in the use of
the soil and geotechnical stability of the rocky bulk (indicating
composed of standards for physical and chemical quality of soil
ISPQ); finally the indicator of the physic-biotic behavior is added
(IPBB), compared with the number of destroyed species, the
reduction of the vegetal cover, the alteration of the habitats, visual
migration of species, resistances and disposition of the sterile material
(indicating composed of physic-biotical adjustment ICPB).
IET = [ (IQW/IPL) + (IQSS/ISPQ) + (IPBBB/ICPB) ]/3 * 100
In where:
IET : Indicator of environmental type
IQW: Indicator of quality of water
IPL : Permissible level for the water
IPL = (Iepq+ Ib + Iom+ Is + Ipl + Ilw)

Iepq : standards physic-chemistries

Ib : Content of bacteriological
Iom : Content of organic matter
Is : Sedimentation
Ipl : variations of the phreatic level
Ilw : Increase of leaching waters
IQSS: Indicator of the physical and chemical quality of the soil and
subsoil
ISPQ: Indicator composed of standards of physical and chemical
quality of the soil
ISPQ = (Ippg + Ie + Iol + Icus + Ieg)
Ippg : Parameters physic-chemistries for soil
Ie : Increase of erosion
Iol : Loss of the organic layer
Icus : Changes in the use of the soil
Ieg : Geotechnical stability of the mass rock
IPBB : Indicator of physical - biotic behavior
ICPB : Indicator composed of physical t – biotic adjustment
ICPB = (Ids + Ivc + Iah + Ims + Iv + Ids)
Ide : Number of destroyed species
Icv : Reduction of the vegetal cover
Iah : Alteration of habitats
Ime : Notoriety of the migration of species
Iv : Visual amount of resistances and changes (landscape)

Ids : Disposition of the sterile ones
INDICATOR OF SOCIAL TYPE (ITS)

This indicator tries to evaluate dynamics at anthropogenic
level, that is developed by the opening of mining activities near
populated centers or pre-established socio-cultural groups; it means,
that the indicator looks for to also know and to evaluate the
evolutionary impact that the mining produces in aspects like the
demand of goods and services, the generation of use and changes in
the educative level, in the processes of migration, increase of the
urbanization phenomenon, and increase of the accidental risk.
Description of the Indicator.
A composed indicator sets out, that is the weighed average of
the comparisons established for each indicator of social type. The
first indicator will be the one that compares the present demand of
goods and services (Indicating present of goods and services IPGS)
with the growth waited for to future and recognized in the statistical
percentage of previous years (indicating of statistics of goods and
services IGS); added to indicator d growth of uses (indicating of
growth of use IGU), compared with the last statistics and the future
projections based on the growth of the mine (Indicating of statistics
of use ISU); added to the indicator that compares the present
educative levels (educative level present IEL) with the last levels and
the hoped ones to future (Indicating of educative projection IEP);
added to the indicator that compares the present levels of migration
(indicating present levels of migration ILM) with the last and future
statistics of migration for the zone (Indicating of statistics of
migration ISM), added with the indicator that shows to the present
state of the urbanizations (indicating of urbanization IU) with the last
infrastructure statistics and the plans of population growth, with its
respective demand of house and routes of communication (Indicating
of city-planning growth ICG), added finally to the Indicator of the

risk by present accidental, due to the mining works (Indicating of

mining accidental IMA), related to the statistics of healthy as soon as
accidents, of last times (Indicating of healthy last IHL).
ITS = [(IPGS/IGS) + (IGU/ISU) + (IEL/IEP) + (ILM/ISM) +
(IU/ICG) + (IMA/IHL) ]/3 * 100
Where.
IST : Indicator of social type
IPGS : Demand of goods and services
IGS : Statistical data of goods and services
IGU : Growth of use
ISU : Statistical data of growth of the last use and futurist tendencies
IEL : Educative level present
IEP : Educative projection
ILM : Present levels of migration
ISM : Statistics of migration
IU : Level of bordering urbanization
ICG : Statistics of city-planning growth
IMA : Mining Accidental
IHL : Data of health in last years
GENERALITIES OF THE COAL IN COLOMBIA

Geologically the coal deposits in Colombia are located in
zones of the Eastern mountain range, associated to sediments of
tertiary age cretaceous, in addition to the great deposits of the
Caribbean region, equally associated to formation of sedimentary

marine origin of the same age. Are some small coal manifestations in
the central mountain range with very similar genesis.
The production of the coal in Colombia is made in 8 departments
(provinces). In head is the department of the Guajira, followed by the
department of Cesar, being a mining for international markets; in the
rest of the country the mining is for internal consumption and in order
they are: the departments of Boyacá, Cundinamarca, North of
Santander, Antioquia, Valley of the Cauca and the Cauca; telling that
the production has diminished gradually, due to the generalized crisis
of the sector.
The technified mining is made to open pit and is net for the
export. On the other hand, the cavern mining is strong in manual
labor, without greater investment in the automation and directed to
supply the internal consumption of the country.
The coal operations of the country, had their beginning at the
beginning of century XX, determined by the construction of railroads
to steam, followed by the cement factories, of textiles, the furnaces of
salt and the brick manufacture. Later in the 40, the production arrived
at the 420,000 tons. But in years 50, the accelerated urbanization and
the demand of coal at industrial level in the production of cement,
and goods like the paper, rims, rubber and chemical agents, they even
increase plus the production and the construction of the Iron and steel
of Peace of the river and the thermoelectrial ones of Paipa and
Yumbo, that allowed the expansion of the production in the bordering
mines.
By year 65 the fall of the price and the replacement by fuels
generate a stagnation; it is as well as the industrialist of the coal
declines and it is translated to element of operation, such as the
existing ones nowadays in the department of Boyacá; surpassing the
1000, but in the 70 world-wide power crises and the increase of the
price of petroleum, the coal returns to be a fundamental power
product and a policy is generated that allows Colombia to enter a

period of great operation of the resource. Later the great mining

consolidates in years 90 with the opening of the carboniferous
complexes of the Guajira and Cesar.
GENERALIZED CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SMALL

MINING OF THE COAL.
It is undeniable which the size of the carboniferous
operations and the technologies hat are used for the extraction of the
mineral, influence in the yields. For the small mining standards have
settled down, as it follows:
- To open pit: Up to 180,000 24,000 or m3 sterile Mt/year of coal
underground Mining: Up to 30,000 Mt/year.
As far as the technologies used for the extraction of the
mineral, the small mining is mainly underground or of cavern. In
Colombia two methods are used basically:
• Method of long wall: It is characterized to allow an extraction of
complete panels of thousands of square meters, obtaining
therefore a maximum advantage of the deposit.
• The starting of the material is made throughout a front of 200 m
of length and advances 1,3 m by cycle, also is collapsing the
ceiling of the area operated behind the front. Each cycle consists
of the starting and evacuation of the coal, the recovery and
relocation of the handles of timbering and replacement of the
system in the front.
• Extraction by room and pillars: It is used to operate horizontal
coal mantles or little inclined. Regular portions of coal in form of
pillars are left that serve as support and whose size will depend
on the resistance of the mantles and the superior layers.
Unfortunately, this method causes that the amount of extracted
coal is relatively low, but even is the most used in Colombia.

Social level, the small mining contributes good part of the

amount of uses in the regions where it is exerted, it been to say in
Boyacá, Cundinamarca, Antioquia, Valley of the Cauca and Norte of
Santander; despite in the last 5 years, there was deprivation of rank
and privileges, product of the low internal consumption of the coal,
coverall in 1996.
This way the closing of some mines took place and a
remarkable reduction of uses. To educative level, the people who
work in the small mining do not reach stops academic levels; people
generally has single studies of basic primary or no. Opposite case of
the medium and great mining, where the people count like minimum
with studies of basic secondary, technical and university.
THE COAL IN DEPARTMENT OF BOYACÁ

This department is located in the Eastern mountain range of
Colombia, in where the carboniferous zone includes an approximated
extension of 3,300 kilometers square, calculating that the considered
reserves are of the order of 170,4 million tons of measured reserves
and 682,7 million tons of indicated reserves, to see table and map
No.1. In all the region the small thermal coal mining predominates of
type, metallurgical and semi anthracitic; that it can be equivalent to
7,2 % of the production of all the country, being then the second
more important region, after the Atlantic coast.
The production is carried out through more than 1,000 legal
and illegal operations between, all of small mining, that occupies a
great manual labor, but with very rudimentary, unproductive
production techniques and dangerous in certain cases.
As it had already been mentioned, the demand is mainly
local, covering partially some demand of coke in other regions of the
country. The consumption is made through sectors like electrical, the
metallurgical one, in the nutritional sector and of drinks and in the
sector brick maker. The reasons by which this coal, or thermal or

metallurgical, did not accede to the international market, due to the

high costs of the transport towards the same cost and ports of
embarkation in the ports; but like aside remarkable, it can say today
that the exports of coal and coke by good luck that in 1999 did not
exist, today approach 300,000 Mt/year.
Table No 1 Carboniferous zones of the department of Boyacá and
reserves in Millions tons. Source: Carboniferous Boyacá, 1998
ZONE / AREA MESURED INDICATED
RESERVES (Mt) RESERVESS (Mt)
Chequa- Lenguazaque 35.7 129.9
Samacá – Ráquira
Tunja-Paipa - Duitama 24 97.2
Sogamoso-Jericó 102.9 412.3
Suesca- Albarracín 7.8 43.3
Tinja – Ventaquemada
TOTAL 170.4 682.7
Excepting to few companies properly constituted, the level of
automation of the operations is very rudimentary in all the
carboniferous region. Note clearly that the design of the operations
and works to make the mining are empirical, despite recognizes the
present management and interest of the beings directives of the
country to improve the situation. The execution of the works is made
with very little equipment and a great use of manual labor.

Source: INGEOMINAS 1999.
Map No. 1. Coal deposits in the Department of Boyacá -

Colombia.

Some times it is used compressed air for the operations of

perforation and coal starting with pneumatic equipment.
Mining mechanization, consists of the transport by means of
delivery trucks thrown by hoisting, through the inclined ones, him
water is evacuated with electrical pumps; auxiliary ventilators are
used for the environmental cleaning.
One has seen that all the mining operations are susceptible to
be mechanized, but the capacities of investment and the possibilities
of the market of the coal do not allow amortizing well mannered the
great required capitals.
As far as the form to arrive at the reserves, an inclined work
is made that follows the dip of the mantles, which is accessible in
surface through an outcrop.
The generalized method of operation more, consists of the
descending extension of drums, becoming an suitable system with
which recoveries of the order of 80% in the cut and are obtained
yields superior to 5 ton/men-shift.
The method of operation of opened edge, the recovery is
superior to 90% in the cut and the yield is similar to the previous
method.
The method of recovery of pillars allows to obtain discharges
rates of recovery, greater to 80%, but the yield falls when the mantles
are little pending, this due to the difficult manual transport of the
coal.
Most of the mines have manual starting in several cuts, with
senses of operation as much in advance as in retirement. The facility
of the starting depends much on the fouling of the coal and the
compression or decompression on the mantle that is from the same
operation. This operation has a very low mechanization in the zone

and resorts at an intensive manual labor; it is had then as consequence

very little cost of capital and little clean coal.
Economically, two modalities as far as the operation costs
appear. First it corresponds to a small unit, with a level of very
irregular hiring of personnel. All the workings are paid by meter of
advance or ton in mouth of mine; being observed a very ample
margin between the direct cost of production and the sale price the
consumer. The second modality is very small as far as the number of
companies (three or four companies), but has a great importance at
socioeconomic level in terms of use, social security, qualification
and it as well represents a high percentage of the regional production.
Also the mining practices more are technified and safe, they make
investments in exploration and development of mines and
administratively they are very well fit. Nevertheless, the economic
yields by unit of production for the mining companies of the second
modality are minors who obtained by the small miners and size of the
additional investments that they execute, are not proportional to their
greater production.
As far as the infrastructure, the region counts on a good road
network, speaking in terms of secondary main highways and; but in
some cases, the routes from access to the mines are very neglected,
directly affecting the good state of the vehicles of transport of the
coal and the complexity of this activity.
The distribution of electrical energy in the region is good, and
can extend until the mines for a better mechanization.
The slums have very acceptable conditions of life, this as far
as health and basic services.
Some of the mines have external campings or assemblies in
good conditions, including offices, casinos and factories, patios and
hoppers of storage.

Hoisting machine outer are well protected within houses, and

the communication with the interior of the mines, although it is a
little rudimentary, shows to be efficient.
Regarding to the mining planning, it could say in general
terms that it does not exist. The deposit has a good geologic
regularity, but the planning is short term with works of immediately
type. By this lack of planning and knowledge, some times the seams
are attacked of a non appropriate sequence with the consequent
difficulty in the programming of the operation and arriving in some
cases to sterilize good reserves.
A noticeable dependency of the levels of production of the
conditions of the local market exists; this takes to too long periods of
inactivity or low rates in the operation, which also brings very
unfavorable consequences on the state and the maintenance of the
underground workings and in surface.
Environmentally, several problems are known that affect the
resources of the average physicist and the surrounding landscape.
Inadequate Handling of stockpiles is observed, which grow from the
mine entrance without planning some. Fronts already exploded fill up
with sterile and although some stockpiles are well located and not
risks has of contamination in times of rain. Exist other that they have
been arranged in zones of pending source, which they give permanent
gorges, in where takes place severe erosion in the days of rain.
In dry time, amounts of dust are generated discharges
coverall in the highways, the general aspect of the landscape is of
relief with evident deforestation in slopes near the mines; the wood
consumption exceeds the rate renovation.
Zones of burned grass also appear, due to the acid waters of
the mining that are spilled indiscriminately and that finish being run-
off waters. At the times of rain, the contamination of broken rivers

and becomes more critical, due to the drag sterile material and to the
washing of the burned grass.
The impact on waters, produced by the mining activity of the
coal in the department of Boyaca; it is stronger in some regions, in
which for example, it is evident that the waters are acid and take
great amount of dissolved solids. This dissolved material is product
of the erosion in stockpiles, oils and fats of washings in the zones of
factories and houses of machines and muds in the access routes.
Some mines, like those of the region of Samacá, have installed some
works for the sedimentation control, having neutralized and clarify
originating waters of the mines.
The superficial waters directly affected by the dewatering of
the mines display a pH acid between 3.6 and 6.0; some are seen of
reddish color reflecting the high Iron concentrations.
At social level, esteem that is around 20,000 families those
who depend on this office and all a mining community near the
600,000 people between mining producers, exporter and investors.
GENERALIZED ANALYSIS OF THE SUSTAINABLE

INDICATORS OF FOR THE SMALL MINING OF THE
BOYACÁ- COAL
In order to apply the methodology of sustainable indicators of
raised previously, it is necessary to clarify that it is not counted on all
necessary the statistical information; therefore an analysis will
become of qualitative and semi quantitative type, that allows to
diagnose in broad strokes and based on the characteristics of the coal
in Boyacá, the sustainability degree that this important carboniferous
region of Colombia, comes handling.

Indicating of technical type (ITT)

In the department of Boyacá, the degree of automation and
benefit of the coal, are a little limited, with the exception of a few
mines. It is not counted on the economic investment necessary that it
allows to create an organized exploitation system, in addition that in
many occasions does not become a classification of the coal
according to its properties, thus to optimize his future uses in the
market.
Of a general way and based on the parameters established for
the determination of this first indicator, it can say that.
ITT = [ (IRM/ITE) + (IBU/IOB) ]/2 * 100
ITT = [ (40/100) + (50/100) ]/2 * 100
ITT = 45
In where:
ITT: Indicator of type of automation, valued between 0 and 100
IRM: Real adjustment of the used method of extraction
ITE: Pre-established theoretical parameters for the mineral extraction
of deposit at issue
IBU: Indicator of the system of benefit used at moment
IOB: Indicator of the system of optimal benefit, established
theoretically
Indicating of economic type (IET)
In order to analyze this indicator of economic type, first it is
possible to be established that the coal has a valuable strategic
importance for the region, in spite of the periods in which the low
consumption; has not even been a mineral or an element that can
completely replace the use of the coal. Nevertheless, the production

costs are high, compared with the prices of the coal in the market; this
having mainly to the bad administration that lives itself in the mines.
IET = [(IPD/IVP) + (IVI/IPP) + (IS/ITS)]/3 * 100
ITE = [(45/70) + (85/80) + (40/90)]/3 * 100
ITE = 69.5
where:
ITE: Indicator of economic type
IVP: Indicator of the volumes of present production
IPD: Indicator of the present demand in market
IPP: Indicator of the present production costs of deposit at issue
IVI: Indicator of the value of income or gains, by commercialization
of mineral
ISI: Indicator of the present strategic importance of the mineral at
local level and regional
ITS: Indicator of the tendencies of mineral substitution
Indicating of environmental type (IET)
The extraction of the coal in Boyacá affects waters and soils
considerably at the raining seasons. But at the moment some control
programs have settled down to mitigate these impacts. As far as the
contamination of the air, this one becomes more severe at dry season,
due to the increase of the dust in the routes, in addition to some gas
concentrations like the methane, in some galleries of the mines and
that may affect the health and physical integrity of the miners. The
landscape is affected in some sectors, due to the bad distribution of
the sterile material, but also it is a controllable phenomenon. As far as
the vegetation, one says that the deforestation is well-known, due to
the great demand of use of the wood and the consequent erosion that
is generated.

IET = [(IQW/IPL) + (ICSS/IES) + (ICFB/IAFB)]/3 * 100

IET = [(70/100) + (70/100) + (40/100)]/3 * 100
IET = 60
In where:
IET : Indicator of environmental type
IQW: Indicator of quality of water
IPL : Permissible level for the water
IPL = (Ispq+ Ib + Iom+ Is + Inf + Il)
Iefq : physic-chemistries Standards
Ib : bacteriological content
Imo : Content of organic matter
Is : Sedimentation
Ipl :variations of the phreatic level
Ilw : Increase of leaching waters
IQSS: Indicator of the physical and chemical quality of the soil and
subsoil
ISPQ: Indicator composed of standards of physical and chemical
quality of the soil
ISPQ = (Ippq + Ie + Iol + Icus + Ieg)
Ipfs : Parameters physic-chemistries for soil
IE : Increase of erosion
Iol : Loss of the organic layer
Icus : Changes in the use of the soil
Igs : Geotécnical stability of mass rock

IPBB : Indicator of physical- biotic behavior

ICPB : Indicator composed of physical- biotical adjustment
ICPB = (IetP + Icv + Iah + Ime + IV + IDE)
Ide : Number of destroyed species
Icv : Reduction of the vegetal cover
Iah : Alteration of habitats
Ime : Notoriety of the migration of species
Iv : Visual amount of resistances and changes (landscape)
Ids : Disposition of the sterile ones
Indicating of Social type (IST)
Socially the department of Boyacá has security problems, but
that are not totally associate to the problematic one of the coal. It is
known that the populations related to the coal operations and the
people who work directly in the mining, count on necessary the basic
services. The use generation is sustainable in some mines and
intermittent in others, depending on the situation of the market. The
educative level is low, but tending every day to well-known
improvements of basic qualification.
IST = [ (IABS/IBS) + (IT HOISTS/IEE) + (INE/IPE) + (IMA/IEM) +
(IU/ICU) + (IAM/ISP)]/3 * 100
IST = [(90/100) + (80/80) + (50/80) + (50/70) + (60/70) + (50/100)
]/6 * 100
IST = 76.4
Where.
IST : Indicator of social type
IDGS : Demand of goods and services

IGS : Statistical data of goods and services

IGU : Growth of use
ISU : Statistical data of growth of the last use and futurist tendencies
IEL : Educative level present
IEP : Educative projection
ILM : Present levels of migration
ISM : Statistics of migration
IU : Level of bordering urbanization
ICG : Statistics of city-planning growth
IMA : Accidental Mining
IHL : Data of health in last years.
CONCLUSIONS
The indicators allow to establish that the present state of the
small Mining of the coal that comes developing in the Boyacá
Department, still is within the permissible limits of sustainability and
development; shown the strong weakness that are had as well in all
the analyzed aspects and, allowing to know the characteristics most
favorable to continue with the suitable operation of the great reserves
that has the region.
An average of the qualification, obtained for the 4 great
evaluated indicators, has value of 62.7 on 100 like ideal value. Added
to these results, one settles down if before a foreseeable demand of
coke on the part of the USA, had to environmental restrictions by it
burns it, the coal deposits of Boyacá could be constituted in a great
opportunity to foment the technified operations and a good

commercialization, improving well-known the sustainability that the

department handles at the present time.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CARBOCOL, COLCIENCIAS, INGEOMINAS, NATIONAL
UNIVERSITY 1993. Study on the
characteristics and technological uses of the Colombian coals. Zone
Cundinamarca-Boyacá (Lenguazaque Checua -).
ECOCARBON 1995. Control of contamination of the water in the
small undersoil coal Mining. Bogota
HUERTAS, G. 1995. Environmental impact of the small coal Mining
of the south-West of the country.
MINERCOL 2001. Environmental guide for undersoil coal Mining
MINISTRY OF MINES and ENERGY, UPME 1998. National plan
of Mining Development7

MODELING OF GOLD HEAP LEACHING FOR CRITERIA

OF SUSTAINABILITY TARGETS
Luiz R. P. De Andrade Lima
Polytechnic School, Federal University of Bahia, Rua Aristides
Novis, 2, Salvador, Ba, Brazil, 40210-630
Roberto C. Villas-Bôas
Center for Mineral Technology, Rua 4, Quadra D, Ilha do Fundão,
Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil, 21941-590
Hélio M. Kohler
Catholic University of Rio de Janiero, CP 38008, Rio de Janeiro, RJ,
Brazil, 22453-900
ABSTRACT
Sustainable development principles are claiming proactive
approaches from mining and mettalurgical process and design
engineering in order to achieve prompt answers to minimize
environmental impacts, energy utilization throughout processing,
materials flows and discards, as well as social satisfaction per
monetary unit of products and processes thus produced. A
computational algorithm devised to simulate the temporal evolution
of the gold ores heap leaching process,in an attempt to better
understanding the phenomenology behind heap leaching and
providing insights into developing a sustainable development
indicator is described. The data used in the model include physical-
chemical, geometrical and operational data, as: leachable metals ore
contents, flow rate and cyanide concentration, parameters of
passivity, ore size distribution, the average residence time of the
solution into the heap, height, irrigated area and weight of ore in the
heap. The shrinking-core model, describing the solid-fluid reaction
under diffusive control process, was used to calculate these variables.
The simulations show that the number of the layers has little effect on

the results which shows that the algorithm is stable and robust. The
average residence time of the solution into the heap and the effective
diffusivity of the cyanide through the ore particles have a significant
influence on the temporal evolution of the gold extraction and its
concentration in the pregnant solution, so these parameters may be
used in the model calibration. In applying the algorithm to an
industrial case, the results showed that the model is adequate to
predict reasonably the process performance, and might be used as a
starter for S.D. decision-making process indicators, since it does
reflects changes over period of time keyed to the analysed
problem,besides being reliable and reproducible.
1. INTRODUCTION
Criteria of sustainability are been sought in order to devise
“green engineering “procedures to reach the targets thus imposed by
society. Environmental constraints are the ones that are receiving the
greatest attention those days, and the effectiveness of cyanide
leaching of gold ores in particular(Villas Bôas,1994).
Those criteria are to based on indicators that are able to
reflect changes over a period of time,are reliable and reproducible,
and, whenever possible, they are calibrated in the same terms as the
policy goals or targets linked to them(Hammond et al.,1995)
Heap leaching is being in use for years as an effective method
for treating gold ores throughout the world . As it is well known, in this
process coarse ore is disposed onto an impervious surface, so prepared
that a small slope regarding to the horizontal axe is allowed thus
draining-off the pregnant solution. On the top of the heap, a leaching
solution is sprayed progressively percolating down the full bed of ore.
This pregnant solution is then sent to the recovery step.
Column testing or experimental small heaps are utilized in
order to estimate the leaching characteristics of the ore body.

However no scaling-up to industrial heaps is advisable from these

testings due to difficult reproducibility of the geometric
characteristics of the heaps (size particles, heap high, length, width
and overall slope) and the hydrodynamics.
These difficulties, associated to the time-length and the costs
required to prepare these testing programmes, have led to the
development of phenomenological models for design and analyze heap
leaching processes since the 60’s and throughout the 70’s and 80’s, in
particular for copper ores and pyrite. These models are based on the
material balance of the reactants using the continuity equation applied
for the heap and the particles, and the specific kinetics models. In order
to solve the complex system of partial differential equations that
obtained, simplifying hypothesis are introduced without losing the
quality of the results.
A brief description of these models and their simplifying
hypothesis was presented by De Andrade Lima et al. (1998), when
reviewing the works of Roman et al. (1974), Box et. al (1984,1986),
Prosser (1989), Dixon and Hendrix (1993) and Sánchez-Chacon and
Lapidus (1997).
2. THE MODEL
An algorithm is developed based on the hypotheses that the
heap may be conveniently represented by a simplified geometry
shape, that the liquid flow throughout the heap bed is plug flow, that
the average residence time of the heap solution in its interior does not
vary with time or with the vertical location, that the heap presents an
homogeneous grade of the leachable metals and the size distribution
and, finally, that the ore/leaching agent reaction are controlled by
diffusion of the leaching solution through the large and weakly
porous particles of the ore.

For the building up of the algorithm the heap is divided in

horizontal layers of constant area. The recovery of gold from ore, the
residual concentration of the cyanide and the enrichment of the
pregnant leach solution can be calculated from interactions among
these layers.
For each layer of the heap, and for each species, of any and
every size classes, this model equation is analytically solved for each
time step. The flow in the heap is considered unidirectional at a
constant volumetric rate, whose the species concentrations vary
within time. The dispersion in the flow is neglected (a proposital
supposition, although a strong one, in order to test the model’s
robustness).
Thus, the idea being to test some oversimplifications and
evaluate how robust they might be on the produced results and, at the
same time, how these oversimplifications would affect any depicted
sustainability criteria. Figure 1 illustrates the schematic slicing
representation of the heaps.
It is worthwhile to mention that all of the simplifying
assumptions, regarding unidirectional flow, at a constant volumetric
rate, the neglecting of the dispersion in the flow, already mentioned,
and the neglected interactions between the main variables will affect
the precision of model prediction, although not necessarily its
robustness, as any model for, as well, environmental decision-making
should attempt.

SHB
j=1
j=2
...
j = nl - 1
HHB
j = nl
Fig 1. Schematic representation of the heap for the model.

If a division of nl layers of equal thickness is set in a heap of
rectangular shape, as show in Figure 1, the pregnant solution and the
leach solution that are flowing through the several layers of the heap
are retained at a time equals ∆τ=τ/nl. Since the average residence
time of such solution, in each layer, is constant, the liquid hold–up of
the heap is given by Equation (1).

(σ HB ε HB ) =  τ Q
( )
S HB 
 (1)
 H HB 
Due to the coarse nature of the ore in the heap, diffusion

control is sought to predominatesin the reaction ore/lixiviant so it
may be described using the shrinking core model, Equation (2),
(Fromer and Bischof, 1979) .
dα' t j i m 3CCN t j D CN
= (2)
ρ lcT Ri2 (1 − α' t j i m )
dt −1
3 −1
Several metal compounds, particularly the transition metals

that are present in the ore or in solution might be complexed by
cyanide. The individual consummation of the leaching solution, for

each metal species present in the ore, may be experimentally

estimated from the total consumption and from the initial metal value
concentrations, using Equation (3).
lcT  Fm nm Fm 
lc m =  ∑  (3)
θm γ m  AWm m =1 AWm 
Equation (2) may be algebrically transformed into Equation
(4) (De Andrade Lima et al., 1998), which is analytically solved to
give the individual metal (m) recoveries, at time t·∆τ originated from
the size particles i, localized at layer j, when the recoveries at time (t-
1·∆τ), the leaching concentration from layer j-1 and the individual
concentrations of the metal species are known.
α' t3j i m +bt j i m α' t2j i m + ct j i m α' t j i m + d t j i m = 0 (4)
Where:
 3Z t j i m 27  ,  3Z t2j i m − 27  ,  Z 3 + 27 
bt j i m =  +  c t j i m =   d t jim =  t jim 
 2 8   4   8 
   
and
(
Z t j i m = 2 K t j i m ∆τ − 3 1 − α t, −1 j i m ) 2
3
− 2α t, −1 j i m
Ore physical constraints, inhibiting the leaching solution to

diffuse completely through the ore particles; gives rise to a
passivation factor (θm),as defined by Equation (5).Such a factor has to
be determined from laboratory experiments.
α t j i m = α' t j i m θ m (5)
On the other hand, knowing the ore size fractions and

assuming that they are homogeneously distributed within each ore, of
the nl, layer, and considering, further, that at the time increments that
Equation (4) is solved, there is no variations in the particle grade, as

well as knowing the metal species contents of each size fraction, thus,
the global recovery, at each time increment of interest, in each layer,
will be given by Equation (6).
nf
αLt j m = ∑ α t j i m f i (6)
i =1
Supposing that the nl layers of the heap do have the same

mass, the global recoveries of each metal species, at each time
increment, are given by Equation (7).
nl
∑ αLt j m γ j m
j =1
αH t m = nl
(7)
∑ γ jm
j =1
The residual content of metal in each layer of the heap may

be calculated at each instant of time, from Equation (8).This is an
extremelly important feature for S.D. Indicators.
γ rt j m = γ o j m (1 − αLt j m ) (8)
The leaching concentration in the solution that leaves layer j

is calculated from Equation (9), whereas the concentrations of the
metal species that leaves layer j are obtained from Equation (10).
 M HB γ m  nm
CCN t j +1 = CCN t j −   m =1[
 ∑ lc m (αLt jm − αLt −1 jm ) ] (9)
 S HB H HB 
 M HB γ m 
CM t j +1 m = CM t j m +   (αLt j m − αLt −1 j m ) (10)

 S HB H HB 
The proposed algorithm considers that the lixiviant solution
enters in the first layer (j=1) on the top of the heap, there remaining

for a time ∆τ=τ/n. Further on the solution is transferred to the next

layer (j=2) and from this to the next until it reaches the last one (j=n).
During the permanence of the liquid solution into each layer (j)
Equation (4) is solved for each metal (m) contained in each size-
fraction (i), taking into account the residuals of the metals (γr) and the
composition of the solution (CCN and CM). After, Equations (5), (6),
(8), (9) and (10) are used to update these concentrations and tenors.
3. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF THE MODEL

In order to evaluate the effect of the variables from the model
a numerical design of experiments was performed taking as measured
responses a set of four responses that characterizes the preceding
account time evolution curve, as shown in Figures 2 to 4. Those
parametres are: t1/2 - helf life time of the heap (day) , ro - rate of
recovery at the start of process (%/day), Cauin - gold concentration in
the first drop of leached liquor (ppm) and tccn- time when start to flow
nonreacted cyanide from the heap (day). A two level fractional
experimental design (Plackett and Burmann, 1946) consisting of
fourteen variables and twenty numerical experiments were developed.
Table 1 shows the values for the height (+) and low (-) levels for the
considered variables; such levels were so chosen taking into account
reported values from literature. Table 2 shows the experimental
matrix and responses for this arrangement. The obtained results were
statistically analysed;also via cluster analysis and principal
components analyses (De Andrade Lima et al., 1995 and Cassa and
De Andrade Lima, 1997).

100
90
80
70
Gold recovery (%)

60
50
40
30
20
10
tan λ = ro
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 t1/2 120 140 160
Time (day)
Fig.2: Parameters utilized to characterize the performance of the

process (t1/2, ro).
1 .2
C A u IN
1 .0
0 .8
Liquid gold content (ppm)
0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
0 .0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
T im e (d a y )

process (CAuin).

0 .5 0
0 .4 5
0 .4 0
0 .3 5
Cyanide Liquid content (g/l)

0 .3 0
0 .2 5
0 .2 0
0 .1 5
0 .1 0
0 .0 5
0 .0 0
0 tC C N 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
T im e (d a y )

process (tccn).
Table 1. Data for the sensitivity analyses
VARIABLE LEVEL (-) LEVEL (+)
2 -1
DCN [m h ] 3.5 x 10-7 7.0 x 10-7
ρ [g cm-3] 2.5 5.0
γAu [ppm] 2.0 4.0
θAu [%] 80 100
γAg [ppm] 250 500
θAg [%] 70 100
ClT [g kg-1] 0.5 1.0
HHB [m] 2.5 5.0
MHB/SHB [t m-2] 5.0 10.0
εHB [%] 45 75
σHB [%] 10 20
CCN [g l-1] 0.5 1.0
Q/SHB [l h-1 m-2] 6.5 13.0
R [mm] 20 40
nl 20 50

Table 2. Design of experiments and numerical results
Table 3 summarizes such sensitivity analysis for the proposed

model. As it can be seen, the number of heap subdivisions does not
appreciably impact the responses, whereas diffusivity and residence
time (here represented by porosity and solution saturation) are the
variables that most affect the responses and thus the ores that govern
the proposed mathematical model. Then, those variables can be used
to calibrate the model, since they are not easily estimated or measured
and alter substantially the results.

Table 3. Results of the sensitivity analysis

t½ ro CAuIN tCCN
SA PCA-CA SA PCA-CA SA PCA-CA SA PCA-CA
DCN x *
ρ x
γAu * x *
θAu * *
γAg
θAg
lcT x * x * x * *
HHB *
MHB/SHB x * *
εHB x * *
σHB x * x *
CCN x * x * x *
Q/SHB x * x *
R x * * *
nl
SA : Statistical analysis of the design of experiments
PCA-CA : Principal component analysis and cluster analysis results
x : Significant in the statistical analysis with the confidence level of
90 %
* : Significant in the principal component analysis and cluster
analysis

4. CASE STUDY
The model was tested with published data from the Fazenda
Brasileiro Mine operated by Companhia Vale do Rio Doce in the
State of Bahia in Brazil (Siqueira et al., 1985). This mine utilizes
oxidazed ore with gold content of 3.5 parts per million. The presence
of sulfur and others leachable metals species are negligible.
Since no detailed data was available to carry out the
simulation, the values of the size particle distributions, the height of
the heap and the irrigated area, were taken as the nominal ones.
Since the effective diffusivity of the cyanide and the average
residence time are the variables that most change the model responses
they were used to the calibration. Table 4 shows the values for the
variables used in the simulation.
Table 4: Input data for simulation runs
VARIABLE Heap P-1A
DCN [m2 h-1] 5.0 x 10-9 **
ρ [g cm-3] 2.7
lcT [g kg-1] 0.50
γAu [g t-1] 3.45
θAu [%] 92.2
HHB [m] 5.0 *
MHB [t] 31500
SHB [m2] 2333 *
τ [day] 5.84 **
-1
CCN [g l ] 1.5
Q/SHB [l h-1 m-2] 10.7
R [mm] 9.525*
nl 25
* nominal values
** calibrated parameters

Companhia Vale do Rio Doce

Heap number P-1A
10
Observed data
Calculated data
Gold concentration (ppm)

6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Time (day)
Companhia Vale do Rio Doce

Heap number P-1A
100
80
Gold recovery (%)
60
40
20
Observed data
Calculated data
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Time (day)
Fig. 5. Comparison between simulated results and experimental

data for the simulation of an industrial heap.

The results of the simulation are shown in Figure 5. As seen,

there are some unconformites although samall between the actual and
simulated results that may be credited to the oversimplification
already mentioned, i.e., no consideration of the size distribution, the
surface average area, the average height and the radial and the axial
dispersion of the flow. However, the simulated curves are relatively
close to the real ones, except at the beginning of the leaching process,
which may be explained by the limitation of the flow model that was
utilized and to the no consideration of the flow of the solution in the
impervious surface of the heap. In addition the actual gold
concentration values in the leaching solution are maintained on the
order of 0.5 to 1 parts per million, due to the cyanide recycle with
residual gold.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Heap leaching processes for gold ores may be reasonable
described by a model in which plug flow and diffusion control
kinetics are considered for the heap and for the reaction
ore/cyanide, respectively.
The analytical solution, for each time interval, of the shrinking
core model gives robustness to the model.
The effective diffusivity of the cyanide and the average residence
time are the calibrating parameters of the model. Also, they have a
quite obvious environmental implication.
The development of correlations, that relates the average residence
time of the solution through the heap to the operational
parameters, as well as, the utilization of the real size distribution,
the average heap surface, the average heap height and a diffusive
model for the flow will definitly improve the precision of the
simulation results; however, little is expected in improving its
accuracy, due to the robustness of the model per se.

The results shown are good indicators for representing the process
performances and might, thus, be utilized as starters for decision-
making procedures targeting the maximization of the
environmental capital represented, in this case, by the heap itself,
its chemical species and its solutions flow .
Interesting to stress the readly assessed individual consumption of
cyanide, for each metal species of interest, in a given time
period,as well as the eventual inhibition of leach solution
diffusion, thus resulting in the possibility of building up
environmental indicators.
Notation
AWm - Atomic weight of the leachable metal m
CCNtj - Concentration of the free cyanide in the solution that enters
in the layer j in time t
CMtjm - Concentration of the metal m in the solution that enters in
the layer j in time t
CMRt(nl+1)m - Concentration, real, of the metal m in the pregnant
solution in time t
Dcn - Effective diffusivity of the cyanide in the ore particles
Fi - Frequency of the particles in the size fraction i
Fm - Stechiometric factor for the cyanidation of the metal m
H HB - Average heap height
lcT - Total lixiviant consumption

lcm - Lixiviant consumption by the metal m
MHB - Heap weight

Nf - Number of size fractions

nl - Number of subdivisions
nm - Number of leachable metals in the ore
Q - Rate of irrigation in the heap
Ri - Average radius of the ore particles of the size fraction i
SHB - Average heap area
t - Time
Tmax - Maximum time for the leaching simulation
wj - Weight of layer j
wji - Weight of the ore particles of the size fraction i located in the
layer j
Greek letters:
αtjim Corrected recovery of the metal m, contained in the
size fraction i, of the layer j in the time t
α'tjim - Recovery of the metal m, contained in the size fraction i, of the
layer j in the time t
αRtm - Real global recovery of the metal m in the time t
αLtjm - Recovery of the metal m, contained in the layer j in the time t
αΗtm - Global recovery of the metal m in the time t
∆τ - Average residence time of the solution in a layer of the heap
εHB - Heap porosity
γjim - Concentration of the metal m, contained into the size fraction i,
of the layer j
γjm - Concentration of the metal m, contained into the layer j

γm - Average initial concentration of the metal m in the ore

γrtjm - Residual concentration of the metal m, contained into the layer
j, in the time t
θm - Maximal recovery by leaching of the metal m contained in the
ore
ρ - Ore density
σHB - Heap saturation
τ - Average residence time of the solution in the bed of the heap
Subscripts:
t - Index of the time
j - Index of the layer
i - Index of the size fraction
m - Index of the lechable metal
Acknowledgments
One of the authors (L.R.P. De Andrade Lima) thanks to the Conselho
Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnologico of the
Brazil (CNPq) for the award of a schollarship throughout this project.
References
BOX,J.C. and YUSUF,R.,1984.Simulation of heap and dump
leaching process.Proceedings of the Symposium on Extractive
Metallurgy,Melbourne,Australia,p.117-124

BOX, J.C., and PROSSER, A.P., 1986. A general model for the
reaction of several minerals and several reagents in heap and
dump leaching. Hydrometallurgy, No.16, p.77-92.
CASSA, J.C., and DE ANDRADE LIMA, L.R.P., 1997. Screening
variables in complex systems: A comparative study, Proceedings
of the XX International Mineral Processing Congress, Aachen,
Germany, Vol. 1, p. 433-444.
DE ANDRADE LIMA, L.R.P, 1992. Simulação da lixiviação em pilhas
de minérios auríferos, M.Sc. Thesis, Federal University of Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil, 235pp.
DE ANDRADE LIMA, L.R.P., VILLAS-BÔAS, R.C. E KOHLER,
H.M., 1995, Análise de sensibilidade de modelos usando as
técnicas de cluster analyses e Plackett-Burman, In: XVI Encontro
Nacional de Tratamento de Minérios e Hidrometalurgia, Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil
DE ANDRADE LIMA,L.R., VILLAS BÔAS, R.C. and KOHLER,
H.M., 1998, Mathematical Modeling of Gold Ore Heap
Leaching, International Symposium on Gold Recovery,
Montreal, Canada, CIM, (in press).
DIXON, D.G. and HENDRIX, J.L., 1993. A mathematical model for
heap leaching of one or more solid reactants from porous ore
pellets, Metallurgical Transactions, No.24B, p.1087-1102.
FROMENT, G.F. and BISCHOFF, K.B., 1979. Chemical Reactor
Analysis and Design, John While and Sons, New York, 765pp.
HAMMOND,A. Et al,1995.Environmental Indicators: A Systematic
Approach to Measuring and Reporting on Environmental Policy
Performance in the Context of Sustainable Development, World
Resources Institute,may,p.11

PROSSER, A.P., 1988. Simulation of gold heap leaching as an aid to

ore-process development, Proceedings of the Precious Metals'89,
p.121-135.
ROMAN, R.J., BENNER, B.R., and BECKER, G.W., 1974.
Diffusion model for heap leaching and its application to scale-
up, Trans. AIME, No.256, p.247-256.
SANCHEZ-CHACON and LAPIDUS ,1997. Model for heap leaching
of gold ores by cyanidation, Hydrometallurgy, No. 44, p.1-20.
SIQUEIRA, L.T., MADEIRA, R., FIUZA, M., NAKAMURA, S.,
REINHARDT, M.C. AND TRANCOSOS, I., 1985, Projeto
Ouro Bahia - "Fazenda Brasileiro" (CVRD), In: I Simposio
Internacional do Ouro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, p. 1-22.
VILLAS-BÔAS,1994. Materials Production and the Environment.
Hydrometallurgy ’94 , Chapman & Hall, Suffolk, p.107-121.
Versão final 17:40 19.06.98

III. Country
Case studies
TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS

FOR THE MINING SECTOR (1ST STAGE)
Verónica Alvarez Campillay
Chilean Copper Comisión
Environmental and International
Affairs Unit (UAIMA)
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The objective of this study is to develop criteria to generate a
debate with the stakeholders (mining companies, Government,
ONG’s, and community) from that there arise indicators that allow to
measure the contribution of the mining sector to Sustainable
Development in the medium and long term.
A preliminary diagnosis of the mining companies associated
with the Mining Council threw for result that these have the capacity
and willingness to implement the concept and initiatives of
Sustainable Development. Therefore, it would remain to determine
like to measure his real contribution in economic, social, and
environmental terms, to generate and to implement the mechanisms
that allow the operation of this concept.
Therefore, the contribution of this document is to propitiate
the production and application of a new instrument, named
Sustainability Report, to which the big mining companies adhere in
voluntary form in Chile, and which across the consensus, between the
stakeholders, a line is constructed bases, of that the most
representative indicators flow to measure the advances of the sector
in Sustainable Development. For these effects, there propose 19
indicators that cover the dimensions economic, social, of environment
and institutionally of the sustainable development and that will
constitute the base of the debate, which will be an object of the
process of the second stage of this study, in which there will measure

up the effective contribution of the mining sector to the Sustainable

Development.
INTRODUCTION
The aim of this study is to develop criteria to generate a
debate with the stakeholders (mining companies, Gobierno, ONG's
and Community) that allows to construct the line bases of indicators,
with which to measure the contribution of the mining sector to the
Sustainable Development (DS) in the medium and long term.
The debate will be more wealth-producing if it delivers the
elements needed for the design of political public orientated to
neutralize potential threats to the commerce of mineral products,
specially copper products, that constitutes the principal resource for
the economic growth of the country and therefore, for its long term
sustainability.
In methodological terms, this work is based on the limits of
the United Nations and the Global Reporting Initiative for the design
of sustainability indicators.
In this context, this report is divided in six sections according
to the following contents:
• Section I: SD conceptualization of the across the presentation of
the different trends and/or views that have arisen worldwide to
interpret its application, and the connotation that has for Chile.
• Section II: Analysis of the SD Country on the base of studies
fulfilled by international organisms, specifically, the World
Bank and the Economic World Forum.
• Section III: Analysis of the economic importance of the mining
sector in Chile.

• Section IV: Analysis of the criteria and critical elements of the

mining industry and its implications in the SD in Chile.
• Section V: it is divided in two central parts. The first one contains
a Diagnosis of mining companies associated with the Mining
Council A.G.1 respect of the form that implement SD's concept.
The second part, the elements are delivered to considering to
generate a debate of the stakeholders, that is to say, there
proposes the production of a Sustainability Report, of way of
constructing the line it bases of indicators that allow to measure
the advances of the mining sector as for sustainability.
Definitively, to motivate to the mining companies and
stakeholders for consensuar relevant indicators to measure the
sustainability.of the sector.
• Section VI: Conclusions and implications of the topics approached
in this document that allow to determine the steps to continue to
reach the sustainability of the mining sector.
1. GENERAL PRECEDENTS ON SD
1.1. SD Definition
The countries have adopted in universal form the definition
of SD's concept contained in the Report of the World Commission for
the Environment and Development of 1987, more known like
formless Brundtland.
From this moment all the initiatives on this matter have
centred, as it saying indicates report, in to reach " the development
1
The Mining Council A.G. is a trade union that gathers large-scale Chilean mining
companies of copper, gold, and silver, as: Compañía Minera Maricunga,
Noranda, Compañía Minera Zaldívar, Compañía Minera Quebrada Blanca S.A.,
Barrick Chile, Compañía Minera Escondida, Compañía Minera Collahuasi,
Corporación Nacional del Cobre de Chile, Compañía Minera Disputada de las
Condes, Compañía Minera El Abra, Compañía Minera Carmen de Andacollo,
Compañía Minera El Indio, Compañía Minera, Mantos de Oro.

that satisfies the needs of the present without putting in danger the
capacity of the future generations to satisfy their own needs ". To this
respect, the SD implies supporting the quality of general life,
allowing a constant access to the natural resources and to minimize
the environmental impacts2 in the time.
1.2. Approaches About SD
The economic theory delivers other ways of conceptualizing
the SD. There are two extreme trends, the called Anthropocentric
optimists and the pessimists named Ecocéntricos. In the center of
both approaches one finds the Weak Sustainability (Anthropocentric
current) that gave origin to the Environmental Economy and the
Strong Sustainability Fuerte ( Ecocéntrica current) on which the
Ecological Economy3 is based.
Weak Sustainability
This vision of the SD postulates that across the economy and
the technology is possible to solve the problems that the action of the
man causes in the environment. The Environmental Economy
emphasizes that the economic activities that generate externalities
environmental can be solved by means of a suitable assignment of the
resources, though it implies the intervention of the State.
The postulates that base this vision are the intertemporary
efficiency and intergenerational equity, that is to say, to support in the
time the same level of revenue, named Suatainable Revenue, of way
2
Characteristics defined in the document " Towards a Sustainable Development.
Community program of Politics and Performance as for Environment and
Sustainable Development ", Commission of the European Communities,
Headquarter XI - Environment, Nuclear Security and Civil Protection. Brussels -
Luxembourg, 1993.
3
Document "Conceptualization and Strategic Analysis of the environmental
international subject matter from the perspective of the insertion of Chile and its
mining interests", elaborated by the adviser Mr. Juan Carlos Guajardo for
Cochilco, year 2001.

of reaching the same level well-being per cápita doing that stock
added of the capitals: natural, human being and produced by the man
they are kept constant in the time.
In practical terms, it implies valuing the natural, non
renewable resources, as the minerals, and looking for ways of
quantifying and to offset the damage of the environment, to support
stock of the constant types of the capital in the time.
Strong Sustainability
This ecological approach of the economy, unlike the previous
one, emphasizes the environmental irreparable deterioration that they
produce the productive activities, especially, regarding of the
energetic availability. His postulate is to respect the balances of the
nature and to reach the sustainability supporting the natural constant
capital. In an end, this approach might imply the prohibition of the
exploitation of the resource.
Both approaches recognize the existence of types of the
capital, as shows in the figure 1. The pyramid shows the relation that
exists between the economy and the nature and its transformation in
other types of the capital: natural, the created one for the man or
produced, human and social.
In the base of the pyramid there are the flows and stock of the
nature, that is to say, the natural resources, the services of the
ecosystems and the natural beauty and the aesthetics. The natural
resources are all those who come from the nature as water, flora,
fauna, fossil fuels and metals and minerals.
The action of the man transforms the natural capital into the
manufactured capital, named also cardinally produced. In this
category there are grouped the factories, the machinery, housings,
infrastructure, food, wardrobe, and in general, all the goods and
services produced in the economy.

Men’s action transform natural capital into manufactured

capital also named produced capital. In this category group factories,
machinery, housing, infrastructure, food, clothing, and in general, any
goods and services produced at the economy.
By means of the political economic ones, there takes place a
transformation of the produced capital, giving origin to the human
and social capital. The human capital represents the skills, mental
health and physics and education of the individuals. In turn, the social
capital corresponds to the form in which the persons are related, as
the communications, the channels of participation and others.
The rising interaction of all the types of the capital leads
towards to improve the standard of living, desirable condition for the
society, well-being called, that contains ethics and qualitative upper
conception for the society, represented by values as the self-respect,
the transcendency, the happiness, the harmony of the communications
and the identity inside the society.
The last consequence of this process of transformation of the
different types of the capital, it is to harmonize the efficient use of the
natural resources with the economic and social development of way
of reaching in the end of the pyramid the well-being of the society.

Figure 1 - CAPITAL PYRAMID4

1.3. Historical International Precedents
The Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) in 1992,
set an important milestone with the creation of the United Nations
Sustainable Development Commission, whose goal was to strengthen
Sustainable Development concept previously conceived.
This world association is based on the premises of the
resolution 44/228 of the General Assembly of December 22, 1989,
approved on the Conference of the United Nations on the
Environment and the Development, accepting the Nations that it is
necessary to focus of balanced and integral form the questions
relative on the environment and on the development.
4
Herman Daly diagram presented in the document MINERALS AND METALS
POLICY OF THE GOVERNMENT OF CANADA, Associations for a
Sustainable Development, Government of Canada, 1996.

In this instance, there were approached the problems of the

economic growth of the countries, the conservation of the
environment and the social equity, all which materialized in a
program concrete called Agenda 21, which it contains political limits
to being implemented by the countries.
The Agenda 21 is a manual of reference for the definition of
political governmental and managerial actions, which it contains,
from the social, economic point of view and environmental way, the
procedure tending to the achievement of the SD, constituting a guide
in order that the countries to consider in its decisions the above
mentioned concept.
To propitiate an ecological effective change, the Agenda 21
puts emphasis that the determinant variables are: population,
consumption and technology, to this respect, the political ones,
strategies and actions that are implemented must guide to the
countries exactly to reaching a permanent balance between the above
mentioned variables.
From this perspective, the Agenda emphasizes in the SD as
the way to fight against the poverty and the destruction of the
environment, to reduce the existing gap in these areas between the
developed countries, in development and the underdeveloped ones.
It involves besides, to improve the systems of information
and environmental management, to value the natural resources and
the environmental, like that costs also to get to the most deprived
sectors of the planet the access to resources and well-being,
compromising to the nations industrialized with the financing of these
purposes.
In synthesis, the Agenda 21 urges to giving priority to its
principles in the agenda of the governments to adopt national
strategies for the SD, with the participation of all the stakeholders

(governments, companies, not governmental organizations and the

public opinion in general).
Under these premises, the Agenda 21 defines the following
schedule of four sections in order that the countries reach their
objetives.
Section 1: Social and Economic Dimensions
In them there are approached the international aspects that
will allow to accelerate the SD, the limits of politics for the struggle
against the poverty, the effect of the patterns of consumption and of
the growth of the population.
Equally, the actions are emphasized to protect and to foment
the human health, the education and in general, the development of
the human resources, considering the necessary elements to integrate
the environment to the decisions of the stakeholders.
According to, the actions for protecting and promoting human
health, education, and in general, human resources development,
considering the necessary elements to integrate environment in the
decisions of the stakeholders.
Section 2: Resources Management and Conservation
This section they treat the topics that affect the resources of
the environment, as land, air, water, biodiversity and ecosystems.
These aspects are approached from the perspective to manage
efficiently the use of these resources.
Section 3: Strengthening of the Role Social Groups
The development of the social groups rests on the
strengthening of his roles, whose common aim is to reach the DS.
Are considered to be social groups the workers, the young
men, the indigenous communities, the governmental and not

governmental organizations, the unions, and any another form of

social group.
Section 4: Means of Execution
It is recounted to the actions, resources and instruments to
achieve the SD, putting emphasis in the systems of information,
processes for capture of decisions and juridical mechanisms. Special
mention is realized to the creation of the scientific knowledge and the
transference of technology as principal axes.
Each of the previous sections gave origin to a methodological
system designed by the United Nations, to measure, by means of
Indicators, the SD.
1.4. Sustainable Development In Chile
In Chile, the Base Law of the Environment (Law 19.300/94)
defines the concept of sustainability as " the supported and as
improvement of the quality of life of the persons, as on own
measurements of conservation and as of the environment, of way of
not compromising the expectations of the future generations".
In the particular case of Chile, which economy depends in 47
% of the exports of copper and by-products distributed to important
markets of Asia (47 %), Europe (30 %) and America (22 %), the
mineral resources defined as natural non renewable resources acquire,
from the perspective of the SD, a connotation more important since
they contribute in significant form to the economic present
development and future of the country.
The minerals as non renewable resources take associated the
notion of corresponding to a limited stock that might in the future
become exhaustion, which would constitute a threat for the
subsistence of the future generations and thus, of the sustainability of
the sector.

On the other hand, the substitution of minerals for renewable

resources or other one capital forms, the process of recycling mineral,
as well as new technological changes in the processes of exploitation
and processing of these, they grant an optimistic view respect of the
well-being of the future generations, extending, for the side of the
production, the concept of "finite supply ", and adjusting this one to
the patterns of consumption, founded also in the concept of
sustainability.
Nevertheless, this optimism cannot be so beneficial for
countries as Chile, which exports depend in significant form of the
production of raw materials - principally copper -, due to the constant
international pressures to which the mining sector is submitted in the
marketing of its products, as example of it there is the Agreement of
Basle, Climatic Change, Content of Copper in the Drinking Water,
Protocol of Heavy Metals, etc.
To offset this negative effect and to take advantage of a
potential threat that might take place for the globalization of the
environmental restrictions to the not ferrous metals, Chile must make
its position properly clear to the international community, taking up
office and internal in its production SD's concept.
It is precisely in a scheme of mining industry contributing the
sustainability, it is where the impacts and economic and social
benefits that it generates the sector must be approached on the base of
a model of intergenerational equity, in which the current condition of
the different dimensions of the sustainability they are conceptualized
adequately.
For it, SD's indicators are instruments that allow to measure
the relationships between economy, environment and society,
identifying and monitoring the problems of the sector in the above
mentioned areas so that in the accomplishment the countries improve
the courses of action towards the development sustainable.

Environment policy for the SD establishes that must exist a

balance between economic growth, social equity and quality of the
environment, in conformity with a dynamical balance, in which SD's
indicators are the reflex of the condition of advance of the mining
sector from the multidimensional perspective of the SD.
Clearly, the environmental commanding regulations
worldwide, they have led to the different sectors of the economy to be
anticipating to the application of the most restrictive legislations, in
consequence, have stuck fast to voluntary agreements and codes of
good practices in his environmental management. In case of the
mining sector an example of it they are: the Environmental Impact
Appraisal System (SEIA), the Clean Production Framework
Agreement and the ISO 14.000 Certification. It these are instruments
that voluntarily have assumed the mining companies as element more
of his management.
In the country, the application of international procedure in
products and processes it is not very developed, being few sectors and
companies that have requested to the National Institute of
Normalization the crediting under procedure ISO 14.0005.
Most worried by the topic they are the forest6 sector and the
7
mining sector, which have jointly that exploit natural, renewable
resources the forest sector and non renewable the mining sector.
5
The National Institute of Normalization (INN) entrusts developing and to manage
the affairs the processes of technical normalization, the crediting of the
certifications and the promotion and use of instruments to improve the
competitiveness of the productive processes of the country. For it, one possesses
the National System of Crediting in which they take in voluntary form the
companies.
6
Companies certified by ISO 14.001 in the forest sector are: Licancel, Forestal
Santa Fé, Forestal Millalemu, Forestal Monte Aguila and Bosques de Chile: In
FSC the company is certified Terranova.
7
ISO 14.000 certified companies in the mining sector are: Compañía Minera
Escondida, Compañía Minera Candelaria and Compañía Minera Collahuasi.
Codelco-Chile is under certification process.

Specifically, in crediting procedure ISO 14.000, the forest sector has

a participation of 38% in the whole of companies certified in the
country, followed by the mining sector with 23%.
It is important to emphasize that the crediting of international
procedure of quality and constant improvement8 has been
implemented in the country as a voluntary process on the part of the
companies, motivated for achieving a better positioning of his
products opposite to international standards increasingly restrictive in
environmental matter. For it, the sectors forest and mining have
incorporated to his management new and modern technologies,
compatible with the protection to the environment and with the SD.
The world trend is Agreements to join commercial through
Agreement of Free Trade, beyond the World Trade Organization
(WTO). In this scheme, it is important the economic bilateral
relationship, the trade of goods, services and the investments for the
consolidation of such agreements. Nevertheless, the labour and
environmental criteria emerge as sophisticated barriers to the trade,
subordinating the approval of the Agreements to the fulfilment of
these criteria, particularly, the established ones for the developed
countries.
In this context, Chile has getting to support labour identical
conditions to the criteria of the International Labour Organisation
(ILO) and environmental international standards that guarantee the
protection of the environment, thinking that the labour and
environmental procedure arise as non-tariff barriers to the trade of its
products, constituting the above mentioned one of the main obstacles
that the country must overcome to advance in the path of the
sustainability.
8
It refers to ISO 9.000 (quality) international norms and ISO 14.000 (continuous
improvement).

At the same time, the mining sector has showed an attitude

inclined to cooperate with the community supporting social
initiatives, and in environmental terms, it has worried about taking
refuge in voluntary agreements and to prioritize the environmental
management.
2. DIAGNOSIS OF THE SUSTAINABILITY COUNTRY

The diagnosis of the sustainability country is inferred from the
results that they throw the studies realized by the World Bank and the
Economic World Forum.
2.1. Indicators of the Sustainable Development 1999–World Bank
In the analysis of the sustainability, the references of Chile
are the industrialized countries, particularly, The United States and
Japan. For it there have been extracted from the study some of its
main indicators.
A) National Accounts Indicators
It measures the impulse of the level of opening of the country
and of the condition of the economy, is related to the development
sustainable in the sense that captures the effects of the international
cooperation and reflects the patterns of production and consumption
of the population. Nevertheless, it is not a direct measurement of the
SD, provided that it does not consider the environmental and social
costs of the production.
In general, Chile has a good position respect of its the
references countries. The domestic brute saving as percentage of the
Gross National Product (GNP) is located to the country in levels near
to that of the industrialized countries. On other hand, in the opening
to the foreign trade, though the country does not reach the levels of
The United States, it is an economy fewer protectionist than Japan.
The fact that the principal exports of the country correspond to raw

materials instead of products with major add value, since it is the case
of The United States, it influences the per cápita GNP, which is far
from the levels achieved by the industrialized countries. In relation to
spend of education as percentage of the GNP, proxy of the formation
of the human capital, Chile has experienced an improvement in the
time, but it is kept distantly of the industrialized countries.
b) Biodiversity
Biodiversity concern dates from 1940, with the subscription
of the Convention of Washington for the Protection of the Flora,
Fauna and Scenic Natural Beauties of America. Since then, they have
signed other important international, such agreements as the
Convention for the Biological Diversity 9. The biodiversity has
acquired major force, joining to the environmental regulation. In
effect, the Base Law of the Environment establishes lines of action
for the preservation of the biodiversity and its use sustainable to
national level.
One of the principal instruments of the biodiversity is the
National System of Wild Areas Protected from the State, SNASPE10.
In the year 1999, the SNAPE was representing 18,9 % of the whole
of the continental surface of the country.
In spite of the advances of the country in to determine the
SNASPE, to the date there is no a cadaster ended on the ecological
populations and biotics existing in the wild protected areas.
Comparatively, taking in consideration the surface of wild areas
protected from The United States and Japan respect of Chile, our
country exhibits a bigger surface.
9
The Government of Chile signed this convention in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on
June 5th, 1992.
10
Created by Law Nº 18.362, juridicial tool subordinated to Law Noº 18.287
commencement.

c) Emissions and Contaminants

Measuring only the emission of CO2, there is inferred that
Chile presents, to industrial level and per cápita, lower levels of this
pollutant to The United States and Japan. It is reasonable that like
that, because Chile has a volume of industries very low than its
references, which influences the emission of CO2.
In the study "Inventory of Gases Emission of Greenhouse
effect, Energy, Industrial Processes and Use of Solvents", realized, in
December, 2000, for the Program of Investigations and Energy
(PRIEN) with Cochilco's collaboration, distinguishes itself that the
principal emission of CO2 in the country comes from the liquid fuels
derived from the oil, followed of the solid ones, joining besides, that
in terms of industrial processes the said emission comes from the
industry of the cement, industry of the steel and iron.
Respect of the emission of SO2, there is specified that the
mining sector contributes, in its process of refining copper, with 98%
of the total emission. In 1988, SO2 emitted in the refining mineral of
copper it was of 1.988,1 thousands of metric tons, this it diminished
significantly in 1998 totalizing 1.368,3 thousands of metric tons11.
d) Sanitary Conditions and Water Resource
In the urban zones, the sanitary conditions of Chile are inside
the standards of industrialized countries, The United States and
Japan. On the other hand, in the rural areas the coverage is
considerably minor, the geographical structure of the country is one
of the factors that affect in the high cost that implies extending the
sanitary networks, affecting the levels of this indicator. In terms per
cápita, problems would not exist with the water availability, which is
11
Background taken from the document “Greenhouse Effect Emissions, Energy,
Industrial Processes, and Solvent Use Inventory, Chile 1986-1998”, carried out
by Energy Research Programme (PRIEN), Universidad de Chile, by order of the
National Environment Commission (CONAMA), December 2000.

reflected in the levels that it exhibits the country, for on the standards
of The United States and Japan. Nevertheless, the availability of the
resource waters down is not uniform along the national territory, the
regions of the north of Chile problems present in the availability of
the resource, situation that does not happen in the rest of the regions
of the country.
For what productive activities as the mining industry, which
operations are located in the north of the country, the availability of
the water resource is one of the principal determining ones for the
sector, in consequence, the efficiency in the use of the water
constitutes one of his prior goals.
e) Communications and Technology
The communications and the technology are keys variables to
mark difference between the industrialized economies, the expanding
economies and the underdeveloped ones. In effect, the such indicators
as density of telephonic lines and number of computers, reach in the
industrialized countries levels significantly superior to Chile.
f) Demographic and Social
In the demographic and social indicators, Chile presents
standards very similar to Japan, but distant of The United States,
specially, in the rate of infant mortality.
The following table summarizes the level reached in each of
the indicators before analyzed for Chile and comparatively for The
United States and Japan.

Table 1 - Comparative Analysis of Sustainability Indicators Chile

v/s Industrialized Countries
Indicators Chile United States Japan
National Accounts 1999
- Per capita GNP (Atlas 4,740 30,590 32,117
method, nominal US$) 23.0% 18.4% 27.7%
- Gross Domestic Savings 29.0% 43.7% 10.4%
(GDP %) 3.3% 4.7% 4.7%
- Exports (GDP %)
Education Expenses
Biodiversity
- Threatened Mammalian 23% 7% 28%
Species/total 7% 8% 14%
- Threatened Birds/total 18.9% 13.4% 6.8%
- Protected areas %/ total area
Emissions and Contaminants
- Total CO2 industrial 60.1 5,467.1 1,204
emissions (,000 kt) 1.05 5.41 .2
CO2 emissions (per capita MT) 2.47
Data 1998
Water and Sanitary Conditions
- Rural drinking water 66% 100% -
access/Population 99% 100% -
- Urban drinking water access/ 67,793 8,906 3,397
Population
- Per capita fresh water
resources (m3/inhab.)
Communications and
Technology 149 655.0 664.0
- Telephone Lines (per 1.000 38.8 360.8 510.5
population)
- Personal Computers (per
1.000 population)

Table 1 - Comparative Analysis of Sustainability Indicators Chile

v/s Industrialized Countries (cont.)
Indicators Chile United States Japan
Demographic and Social
- Population (millions) 15 126.6 278.8
- Population Growth Rate 1.3% 0.1% 1.2%
(%) 75.5 80,6 76,9
- Life Expectancy (years) 10% 3.6% 8%
- Infant mortality (per 1.000 4.4 - -
born alive)
- Illiteracy Rate (%)
Source: World Bank Data year 1999
2.2. Environmental Sustainability Index 2001 – World Economic

Forum
The Economic World Forum realized a study to measure the
environmental progress in a universe of 122 countries, generating
"Sustainability Enviromental's Index", named ESI, by means of the
response of these countries to 22 indicators that shape the following
basic lines of analysis:
• Environmental system
• Reduction of the environmental pressure
• Reduction of the human being vulnerability
• Social and institutional capacity
• Capacity of response to the global demands from other countries
for managing environmental problems.
The ESI has a maximum of 100, when the country has
achieved a high level of sustainability environmental and a value of 0
when present difficulties to face its problems of the environment.
In the Table 2, is observed that Chile obtained an EIS of 56.6,
placing in the place 31, that is to say, in the range interval - high

place of the universe of 122 countries. Nevertheless, between of the

countries of Latin America, it is located in the average, distantly of
Argentina and Uruguay, which EIS belonged to 62.5 and 64,6
respectively.
In relation to other regions, Chile is located far from Europa's
average and North America, that for the most part they reached a top
EIS to 70.7, value that well might constitute the norm to which Chile
should aspire in the next years.
With regard to the Asian countries and of the
Easterncountries, the situation of Latin America and especially of
Chile, it is more advantages, placing in the most top end of the EIS of
the above mentioned countries.
Table 2 - World Environmental Sustainability Index
Regions EIS Maximum Minimum
(Region Average)
Europe 63.9 80.5 44.1
North America 65.1 78.1 45.3
Latin America and the 52.7 64.6 24.7
Caribbean
Chile 56.6 - -
Eastern Block 49.1 63.2 29.6
Asia 44.8 60.6 35.7
Source: Document “Environmental Sustainability Index 2001” of the World
Economic Forum, Annual Meeting 2001, Davos, Switzerland.
On having separated into its elements Environmental

Sustainability index in the basic lines, is observed that Chile has an
average performance in the components of environmental systems,
denoting its worry for supporting an acceptable level, without
damaging the environment, 49 th being located in the place º of the
ranking (Table 3).

Table 3 - Environmental Sustainability Index in Chile

Basic Lines Value Position Max. Mín.
Environment Systems 53.3 49º 91.2 12.2
Reduction of the 58.6 35º 76.8 10.0
Environmental Pressures
Reduction of the Human 65.2 53º 83.0 1.7
Being Vulnerability
Institutional and Social 60.6 26º 92.3 18.1
Capacity
Global Cooperation 43.2 81º 80.6 11.4
Source: Document “Environmental Sustainability Index 2001” of the World
Economic Forum, Annual Meeting 2001, Davos, Switzerland.
Equal situation takes place in the component that measures

the satisfaction of the basic needs of health and nutrition, placing to
Chile in the place 53rd º. On the other hand, a better standard presents
in the actions tending to reduce the pressures to the environment,
specifically, the pollution of the air and water, placing in 35th .
With regard to the institutional and social capacity measured
by the indicators of: Science and Technology, aptitude to debate the
environmental topics, regulations and management of the
environment and commitment of the private sector, Chile presents the
best standards, placing in the range of major sustainability (26th
place).
Nevertheless, in global cooperation, the country shows few
advances of international commitment, for example in the
Convention of Vienna and Protocol of Montreal and in the
constitution of funds for the protection of the environment, it placing
in the place 81st .
In general, as are inferred of the Table 4, the results obtained
by Chile indicate that even they reduce tasks for doing in

environmental sustainability, principally, in matters as: quality of the

air, biodiversity, pollutants reduction to the water, reduction of
wastes, human basic needs, participation, global financing and
commitment with the international regulations.
The most favorable results, on the other hand, obtained
principally in the indicators water quantity, quality of the water,
regulation and environmental management, reflect the worry of the
country for these matters.
Table 4 - Environmental Sustainability Indicators for Chile
Indicators Value Position Max. Mín.
Air Quality -0.69 110º 1.62 -2.58
Water Quantity 0.56 26º 2.37 - 1.27
Water Quality 0.19 39º 1.85 - 2.25
Biodiversity -0.70 103º 1.65 - 3.37
Soil Systems 1.06 10º 1.70 - 1.75
Air Contamination Reduction 0.54 33º 1.36 - 2.02
Water Contaminants Reduction -0.19 79º 1.06 - 2.20
Ecosystem Contaminants 0.33 43º 1.33 - 1.63
Reduction
Wastes Reduction 0.05 75º 1.31 - 2.63
Pressures to Population 0.30 54º 1.08 - 2.26
Reduction
Basic Human Needs 0.02 71º 0.97 - 2.33
Environment Health 0.77 36º 0.97 - 2.42
Science and Technology -0.30 55º 2.61 - 1.46
Debate Ability 0.05 55º 2.41 - 1.44
Regulation and Management 0.66 18º 1.54 - 1.32
Private Sector Responsibility -0.20 46º 2.12 - 0.89
Environment Information 0.66 26º 2.25 - 1.44

Table 4 - Environmental Sustainability Indicators for Chile

(cont.)
Indicators Value Position Max. Mín.
Ecoefficiency 0.47 49º 0.95 - 2.16
Public Choice Failure 0.54 26º 2.25 - 1.54
Reduction
International Commitment 0.12 51º 1.58 - 1.78
Participation and Global -0.18 87º 2.34 - 1.17
Financing
International Regulations -0.46 94º 1.74 - 1.63
Application
Source: Document “Environmental Sustainability Index 201” of the World economic
Forum, Annual Meeting 2001, Davos, Switzerland.
In short, Chile has reached in the last years an average degree

of environmental sustainability (EIS = 56.6), which reflects that even
stay hanging tasks to reach the levels of the industrialized countries.
3. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF MINING SECTOR IN

CHILE
In the period 1991-2000, the mining GNP grew to a rate
annual average of 7.4 %, higher to the growth of the GNP country,
which was of 6.4%, as it shows in the Tablee 5. His average
participation it was of 8.7 % of the GNP country.

Table 5 - Gross National Product

(Millions of pesos 1986)
1991 2000 (*) Growth Rate
annual average
1991-2000
Country GNP 4,841,447 8,493,402 6.4 %
Mining Sector GNP 450,532 855,415 7.4 %
Source: Central Bank of Chile
Note (*): provisory cifres
In the figure 2, is observed that the trend showed by the

mining sector in the period 1991-2000, demonstrates a behavior more
fluctuating than the growth of the GNP country. In effect, between
1992-1994, the mining GNP had a less variation to the registered one
as the GNP country. Between 1996-1998, this trend was reverted due
to the materialization of important mining projects, financed with
external resources. Of 1998 in forward, the mining activity supports
its pace of growth but to lower rates. In 1999, on the other hand, the
Asian crisis, that appeared behind of one year, it affected negatively
the price of the copper and of other metals, as what the mining GNP
had one counter cyclical evolution respect of the GNP country.
Between 2000-2001, the effects of the Asian crisis were sharpened by
the world recession, to cut down the increase of the price of the
metals, in accordance with that this variable is narrowly correlated
with the economic growth of the countries that affects its
consumption of copper.

20
15
10
0
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
-5
PIB Minero PIB País
Source: Chilean Copper Commission
Figure 2 - GNP Annual Variation Rates, Period 1991-2000 (%)

The project materialization mining of great importance
affected in the behavior of the mining GNP until 1999, favored by the
economic stability of the country and the existence of a juridical
frame and transparent tributary, who stimulated the financing of
mining projects via foreign investment.
In the period 1991-2000, foreign investments were authorized
for US$ 59.3 billions, absorbing the mining industry 34% of them. In
turn, resources materialized in this sector for US$ 11.9 billions,
which represents 32% of the total country (to see figure 3).

5.632
6.000
44%
5.000
4.000
millones de US$
2.950
3.000
23%
2.000 1.413 1.432
11% 11%
1.000
-
I II III IV
Source: Foreign Investment Committee

Note: The percentage corresponds to the region participation in the country total.
Figure 3 - Foreign Investment Materialised in Mining, 1991-2000
(Millions of US$)
During the period 1990-2000, the mining sector absorbed, in
average, only one 1.8 % of the workforce occupied with the country,
which demonstrates that it is a capital intensive sector, with a highly
qualified employment, at least in the segment of the great mining
industry of the copper
During the period 1990-2000, mining sector absorbed, as an
average, only 1.8% of the work force used in the country. This fact
shows that it is an intensive capital sector, with a highly classified
employment, at least in the segment of large scale copper mining.
Different it is the situation in the segments of median and
small mining industry. In them the employment is strongly influenced

by its costs of production, which in turn are sensitive to the variations

in the price of the copper.
For such a reason, in the period 1990-1998, the work force
hiring in these segments fell down to rate annual average of 16%,
whereas the employment in the whole sector copper diminished only
in 4.9%, the compensation took place for the representation of the
great mining industry of the copper that allowed to support its levels
of employment in the above mentioned period.
4. MINING AND SD IN CHILE

4.1. SEGMENTATION OF MINING SECTOR
The mining sector in Chile is composed by the segments of
the Large-scale mining industry and SMEs12 mining (small and
medium), which present different characteristics and ways of
approaching the SD.
Small-scale Mining13
It is a very heterogeneous segment that depends on the
delivery of subsidies of the State to operate due to the following
characteristics: highly sensitive to changes in the price of the metals;
high costs of production; void possibility of acceding to bank
financing; under level of demonstrated reserves; the scanty capital of
work and low capacity of management.
Nevertheless, the segment social viability would present, due
to the fact that it is considered to be intensive in employment,
12
World Bank technical document No. 429 called “An Environmental Study of
Artisanal, Small, and Medium Mining in Bolivia, Chile and Peru”, Gary
MacMahon, José Luis Evia, Alberto Pascó Font and José Miguel Sanchez (May
1999).
13
According to production volume classification, Small-scale Mining are the
companies that produce less than 100 thousand annual tons of minerals.

constituting, in many cases, the only source of income in certain

localities.
However, the efficiency and impact of the allotment subsidies
have not been measured, for what it is difficult to be necessary to
priori which are the environmental impacts of its operations; though
the magnitude is known in social terms the impact of this segment is
very significant and a lots of them this activity constitutes his only
source of income.
In consequence, on one hand, it is slightly feasible that this
segment internalice in autonomous form the DS and the costs that it
implies, and for other one, provided that the DS defined in
Brundtland's sense supposes a condition of long term that affects also
the well-being of the future generations, characteristic that the small
mining industry does not fulfill due to the uncertainty on its
geological reserves. Therefore, it is necessary to reach a consensus on
the sustainability concept for this sector, as a previous stage, in order
to measure the required sustainability indicators.
Medium-Scale Mining14
It is an activity more constructed than the small-scale mining
industry, which possesses a bigger certainty in the level of reserves,
better capacity of technical-administrative management, capital of
work, and it has showed incipient indications for the protection of the
environment and the SD of this activity, in the matter the
Commission of Environment of the National Society of Mining
(SONAMI) has treated the environmental subject matters for the
sector.
14
According to production volume classification, Medium-scale mining are the
companies that process between 100 thousand and 3 million tons of ore annually,
and whose production basically corresponds to copper concentrate and gold.

Nevertheless, most of medium-scale miners needs to ENAMI

not only for the marketing of its products but also to financing
especially, in periods of prices of the copper fell down.
One might affirm then, that the medium mining industry
presents conditions to assume the considerations of the SD,
especially, the environmental ones, providing that its levels of
reserves allow to justify the big environmental investments to
reasonable costs. These aspects are in that the State him compete an
important role in the efficient allocation of the resources and in the
mechanisms of regulation that propitiate the internalización of SD's
concept.
Large-scale Mining
This segment is constituted for the biggest mining companies
that concentrate 95% of the production of copper of the country, and
has the necessary elements to face and to assume the challenges of
operating in form sustainable according to Brundtland's definition. In
effect, the segment possesses levels of demonstrated reserves that
allows him to project in the long term; levels of competitive costs of
production worldwide; great capacity of management; and to access
to multiple sources of financing; and others.
It is necessary to mention that the segment is employed at
form coordinated across the Mining Council, A.G. instance that has
announced that has realized diverse studies respect of the economic
and social benefits so much of the workers of these companies and
for the community in general.
In consequence, for effects of analysis, the present study will
centre only on the segment large-scale mining, the treatment of the
matter for other segments should be approached in a later stage.

95%
5%
Consejo Minero Otras
Figure 4 - Fine Copper National Production Distribution
SD’s Elements in Large-Scale Companies of Mining Sector

There are positions that they argue that the mining sector is
intrinsically not sustainable on having exploited a non renewable
resource as the minerals, which are in the nature in a stock limited,
capable of becoming exhausted in the time.
Nevertheless, sustainability is a concept that beside being tied
directly to the depletion of the resource, also is related to the efficient
use of this one. As Brundtland indicates it, to reach the equity
intragenerational and intergenerational, they constitute concepts basic
and perfectly applicable to the mining sector.
In the perspective of the equity intragenerational, understood
as the reduction of the disparity that it is produced in the wealth
worldwide, the mining sector in Chile plays an important role for its
contribution the economic growth of the country, generating

resources that allow to the State to reduce the levels of poverty of the
population. If to it one adds an efficiently environmental use of the
resources, the environment would be preserved for the future
generations fufilment hereby with the intergenerational equity.
In consequence, while the exploitation of the mineral
resources generates a stock of the human, social and manufactured
capital in the time, and it allows the interrelationship systemic and
integral of the dimensions economic, social, environmental and
institutional, the sector will be able to be thought sustainable in the
sense of the view that it raises the theory of the environmental
economy.
Stakeholders’
Education Profitability
Health
Non-renewable
natural resources Minerals Production
(e.g. Copper Cathodes,
Copper concentrate)
Poverty
Non gov. Orgs
and Other
Organisms
Environmental Effects
(water quality, air quality,
wastes) Employment
Government
(Public Policies, regulations)
Figure 5 - Key Variables Interrelationship of the Mining Sector

As it seen in the figure 5, one change in one of the variables
of these 4 dimensions (economic, environmental, social and
institutional) it presses others, a new response being generated in the
system. Like example the environmental restrictions impose costs on
the mining companies, the internalization these would affect
negatively so much the profitability of the shareholders as the health

of the workers and his productivity. It they would produce other

costs, for example in the public and private health system on having
put up the price of the attentions for affections derived from the
pollution of the environment.
The limit to the sustainable development is at the time in the
systems: natural, social and infrastructure on which we depend. It is
necessary that the stakeholders (society, companies, Government,
ONG's) are aware of it and design and apply political, goals and
consistent and coherent actions for an efficient use of these resources,
which result allows to reach a upper level of quality of life, that is to
say, a more prosperous, just and sure society in present and future
terms.
There exists empirical evidence that the mining sector,
specially copper large-scale mining industry, contributes to the
economic growth of the country, for effect so many of its own
operations as for the productive sequences of the sectors tied to it.
Equally, in the social area, the mining sector produces
benefits towards the community, you fell like: major hospitable,
community and educational infrastructure to regional level.
Nevertheless, in the environmental area and in the relations of the
mining companies with the community, particularly in the areas
where the indigenous etnias place, the contribution of the mining
sector has a rather pessimistic perception15, linking to the mining
industry with the following impacts:
15
Pessimist perceptions about the mining sector regarding environmental and
communication matters with the social organisations were complemented by the
following documents:
- “Information Systematisation and Cadastre Creation of the Social Organisations
related to Sustainable Development Subjects in the Antofagasta region” prepared
for Cochilco by CIMM Educación & Gestión Tecnológica S.A. [CIMM
Education & Technological Management S.A.], 2001.

• It interferes the environment because of polluting emissions to the

soil, air, and water.
• It interferes social organisations and their cultural values.
• It does not contribute to an equitable distribution of the revenue.
• It generates problems of access to the land without the social
respective compensations.
• It increases the cost of government in the grant of public services
on having induced their demand.
They are exactly these factors those that justify to design
indicators of sustainability for the mining sector, since the negative
perceptions on the mining operations persist, in spite of that in the
last period, the big mining companies have tried to demonstrate that
they assume his responsibility for the effects that they cause to the
environment and that they consider to the communities in their
decisions making processes, by incorporating their concerns and
needs into internal policies.
Worldwide the situation is not different, since the trend of the
mining industry has been to adopt in its operations the best available
practices, stimulating with them the safe use of the metals.
Nevertheless, for some international organisms dedicated to
the protection of the environment and human health, this sector
continues being an area of its attention to the moment to define new
environmental regulations, which undoubtedly, they produce
significant impacts in the trade of countries as Chile, which
- “Emerging Environmental Issues for Mining in the PECC Region”, prepared by

Fritz Balkau and Andrew Parson, United Nations Environment Programme.
- MMSD, Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development Programme,
BOLETINES INFORMATIVOS No. 11 March 2001, No. 13 May 2001, No. 17
October 2001 and No. 18 November 2001.
- Phillip Crowson, ASPECTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND
MINING, 1997

development is based strongly on the exportation of mineral, such

products as the copper and his derivatives.
4.3. Sustainability Dimensions In The Mining Sector
According to the theory of the capital, the sustainability of
the mining sector would imply generating and to support in time the
finance, human, and technological capital that allows an economic
growth supported in those regions that depend strongly on this
activity, further of the closing of the mining operations.
To this respect, the aims for the mining sector of great scale,
as it appreciates in the Table 6, they should gain with the principles of
the DS. Nevertheless, the improvement of the distribution wealth is
not of competition of the mining companies, its responsibility is in
the area of propitiating the economic growth and generating income
in order that the State assumes his stabilizing role, allocating these
resources in efficient form, with social justice and equity.
Nowadays, it is possible to conclude that the Government and
the mining companies are approaching the challenges that it imposes
the SD, across concrete actions tending to the fulfilment of his aims
and principles. In the same way, the communities are generating
spaces to treat his problems and to see in that measured they are
affected by the mining activity. In consequence, the elements and
conditions exist to articulate the system that would allow to reach in
the future the SD.

Table 6 - Sustainable Development In The Mining Sector

Principles Objectives
Economic and Social Dimension: 1. To contribute to the improvement
• Human needs satisfaction (economy, of wealth distribution at national
health, and education) and regional level
• Environment and development 2. To increase social infrastructure
integration (hospitals, schools, community
• Intra and Intergeneration equity centres)
3. To preserve cultural values of the
community (indigenous ethnic
groups included)
4. To contribute to reduce poverty
rates
5. To improve workers’ health and
safety
6. To create environmental
awareness through education and
human capital creation
7. To generate and apply economic
Environmental Dimension: instruments under “He who
• Contaminants prevention principles contaminates, pays” principle
• “He who contaminates, pays” 8. To efficiently use natural
principle resources through a preventive
• Ecoefficiency approach (clean production) in
• To promote research and order to minimise environmental
technologies impacts (contaminant emissions
• Environmental Impact reports and wastes)
9. To apply international
Certification standards (ISO
14.000 or equivalent standards)
10. To preserve the ecosystems

Environmental Dimension (cont): 11. To generate efficient

• Contaminants prevention principles environmental management
• “He who contaminates, pays” systems
principle 12. To apply voluntary
• Ecoefficiency environmental mechanisms
• To promote research and 13. To generate tools for
technologies environmental liabilities
countable treatment
14. To promote research and
efficient technologies application
15. To spread information through
information systems design and
Institutional Dimension: implementation (public and
♦ Government participation private)
♦ Interested parties participation 16. To generate an integrated
♦ Communication nets and Education environmental accounting
♦ Environmental regulations system
♦ Institutional ability 17. To improve participation
channels among the community,
government, and companies
18. To conciliate companies’ and
government’s interests, and to
environmentally position mining
products at international markets
19. To promote the execution of
corporate environmental reports
and to induce mining industry to
execute corporate environmental
benchmarking
20. To foster the creation of an
unique and integrated
institutional channel about
environmental regulations that
affect the mining sector
Source: Chilean Copper Commission.

5. SD INDICATORS PROPOSAL FOR THE MINING SECTOR

It is necessary to to emphasize again that this document centres
on the segment of the mining industry of great scale for the reasons
exposed in the point 4.1. This section is divided in four parts.
The definition of the characteristics that should be present in
the sustainability indicators and the methodology applied are included
in the two first parts.
In the third part, there is realized a diagnosis of the mining
companies associated with the Mining Council respect of the form
that internalising in his operations SD's concept, using as base of
information the Memories and other specific reports regarding to the
environment.
Finally, they give themselves the elements to generate a debate
opened on the sustainability of the mining sector, which result will be
the construction of a line bases on which to measure the advances in
SD of the mining companies in the medium and long term. The
previous thing complements itself with the presentation of a series of
SD's indicators, which will be submitted to the approval of the
stakeholders, which final result will be to converge towards the
preparation of " Sustainability’s Report " for the sector.
5.1. Theoretical Frame
Worldwide there is an agreement on the characteristics that
they should have the indicators to measure the sectorial sustainability,
which are summarized in:
• Relevant and sensitive to change: Show something it brings over
of the system that it is necessary to know.
• Understandable, comparable, and useful for any person though
they are not expert.

• Reliable: To guarantee that the information provided by the

indicator is true.
• Accessible, available and, opportune: the information must be
opportune and available to an efficient cost.
Unlike the traditional indicators, them of sustainability,
beside satisfying these conditions, they have to be capable of
identifying weaknesses and of identifying the reality of the
interrelationship of the dimensions of the SD.
In the design of indicators they must be selected the most
representative and efficient to measure sustainability, that is to say,
those who allow to integrate and to balance all four dimensions.
To categorize the set of critical indicators two alternative
structures exist. One of them is to construct a matrix of an objective
indicator that interacts with other indicators chosen in a relationship
of cause and effect.
The other option is to assign active and passive values to the
chosen indicators’ set, by assessing current stock and future needs.
Both options are complementary due to they incorporate SD long-
term vision.
Independently from structure type to be chosen, sustainability
indicators should be able to:
• Internalise and direct society’s priorities regarding different
capital types (natural, human, social, and produced)
• To identify existing interrelationships in order to give shape to
reality
• To extrapolate the data in a long-term vision
• To simplify communications and decision making processes of
economic agents, and

• To be as a guide for policies formulation and design and its later

appraisal.
5.2. Methodology
The methodology applied is the one designed by the Policies
Co-ordination and Sustainable Development Department of the
United Nations (UN), based on the premises contained in the Agenda
2116.
The above mentioned would be complemented by the support
of the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), that designed a
methodological guide for preparing Sustainability Reports17. Its
objective is to measure economic, environmental, and social
performances of the companies, in this specific case, of the mining
sector.
GRI ultimate objective is to develop in long-term “globally
accepted sustainability countable principles”, in order to create
reliability and credibility links between the companies –information
suppliers- and the interested parties –information users- that would be
the Government, Communities, Non Government Organisations, and
other organisations related to SD.
For the GRI, Sustainability Reports shall contain a
description of the organisation and indicators sets, general and
specific about the company. As the methodology applied by the
United Nations, the GRI is based on SD dimensions.
16
Agenda 21 promotes the design, application, and appraisal of SD indicators in
order to construct solid bases for the countries’ decision making process that
allow monitoring their progress towards SD.
17
The methodological document is called “Guide for the Preparation of
Sustainability Reports about Economic, Environmental, and Social Performances
of the Company”, published by GRI in June 2000.

Economic Dimension
Economic indicators should measure the way in which the
company has an influence on regional or national economy, in terms
of resources use and wealth creation.
The GRI suggests indicators such as benefits granted for the
workers, taxes payment, sales margin, debt/capital ratio, and labour
productivity, among others.
Social Dimension
Social indicators should measure mining companies impact
regarding social matters relevant for the community.
For this purpose, the GRI suggests indicators such as
management quality, health and safety, human capital creation,
benefits for the community as membership, donations, and
indigenous culture preservation support, among others.
Environmental Dimension
Environmental indicators should measure operations
management regarding air, water, soil, and biodiversity.
The indicators suggested by the GRI for measuring the
effects in the environment are energy consumption, water
consumption, particle material emission, wastes, solid tailings, liquids
and hazardous substances, days in which the air and water quality
environmental regulations are breached, impact in protected areas,
impact in biodiversity, fines or sanctions for environmental regulation
breach, and other mining operations that affect the environment.
It is important to mention that GRI methodology does not
expressly consider the institutional dimension. However, it should be
considered in the sustainability indicators definition because it
represents how is the SD system being defined among the different
agents (Government, mining companies, communities, and other
social organisations).

5.3. Mining Companies Diagnosis About Sustainability

During the last years, SD concept has strongly emerged,
generating action patterns at every productive sector, especially, those
who base their businesses on renewable and non-renewable natural
resources.
In this context, globalisation is not only based on economic
competitiveness of the different industries, but also incorporates and
balances economic, social and environmental sustainability, thus
expanding management towards these new dimensions.
Mining sector, based on non-renewable natural resources, has
been prone to integrate sustainability principles into operations,
although the intensity of how they focus the activities within the
theoretical trend related to weak sustainability is not so clear.
As mentioned in point 1.2, adopting strong sustainability
implies to keep natural capital for future generations, that is to say, to
prohibit mineral extraction. On the other hand, weak sustainability
recognises the need to keep total net capital, assuming that there is a
substitution process between the different capital types; then, it is not
necessary to limit mineral resources extraction rate, provided that
other capital types are generated from this process.
In the national mining scope, SD appears to be more related
to weak sustainability rather than strong. In fact, according to the
provided for in the Environment Bases Law and in the Mining
Environmental Policy, the possibility that the mining sector
encourages the generation of other capital types is expressly accepted.
Only if this allows improving people’s quality of life and keeping
equilibrium among economic, social, and environmental development
in order to guarantee mining resources availability.
In force regulation encourages the mining sector to act in a
responsible way, social and environmentally speaking, by
incorporating SD principles into their management. However, give

solution to poverty and social inequity problems shall not be ascribed

to the mining sector because it is only another actor at national level.
Such role corresponds to the Government, which through its
regulations and social policies is responsible for guaranteeing the
economic development at regional and national level, by efficiently
allocating the resources coming from the productive sectors, in this
case, the mining sector.
Therefore, in terms of intra and intergeneration equity, the
State shall look after for the regions to reach an economic, social, and
environmental development that is compatible with SD principles,
even further from post mining stage.
It is a great challenge to achieve sustainability in a
heterogeneous mining sector, composed by large, medium, small-
scale, and artisanal mining. In fact, medium, small-scale, and
artisanal mining segments, considering that they directly have an
influence on work force absorption, they generate considerable
negative impacts on the environment, which cannot be mitigated at
reasonable costs due to the lack of financing capacity and
management.
Then, it is difficult to think that medium and small-scale
mining segments, and even more artisanal mining characterised by its
labour informality, could apply voluntary agreements or good
practices codes, at least in a short and medium term, unfeasible in
sustainability terms.
Once again, the State is responsible for assuming a proactive
role for regulating social and environmental inefficiencies that these
segments could cause, and as a response, to promote, through any
economic instrument, sector’s sustainability.
Considering the above mentioned, this section focuses only
on large copper producers mining companies, public and private,
located between the I and IV Region, which are associated with the

Mining Council of Chile Trade Union. These represent 95% of fine

copper production in the country.
The objective is to carry out a diagnosis of such mining
companies based on the background contained in annual reports
and/or specific reports related to sustainability and environment.
In the case of large scale mining, it appears as contributing
with qualified employment, high investment levels, and it creates a
positive effect on mining related activities (productive links), giving
benefit to towns nearby operations with more road and social
infrastructure (hospitals, schools, roads, etc), which are main aspects
for SD concept.
From the diagnosis results shall arise SD indicators that could
constitute a base line for measuring mining companies advances on
this matter in a medium and long term. Through this line,
comparisons between the mining companies, and also with other
sectors and/or country average, would be made, in order to finally
compare them with international standards. The main product would
be a mining company ranking in SD terms.
Besides, the diagnosis18 would generate significant
information that would validate or not agents’s perception on the
mining sector actual contribution to SD and the impacts caused to the
environment.
From the analysis, it could be observed that SD concept is
broached on criteria basis such as Environmental Management,
Social and Community Benefits, Health and Safety, and Environment
Operational Subjects.
Based on such background, it could be concluded that in
global terms, the analysed company groups have an average covering
18
Mining companies associated with the Mining Board of Chile A.G. diagnosis is
shown in Appendix 2.

of 72% in the fulfilment of these 4 criteria. It results to be a more than

acceptable standard at national and sector level, if compared with
other productive activities in Chile.
About the subject, it is worth to mention that the other
productive activities related to renewable natural resources, such as
the fishing and forest sectors, have taken longer for incorporating SD
concept and environment protection into their management. This has
been the result of legal and normative demands rather than a
voluntary commitment to good practices codes about such matters.
Instead, mining sector has demonstrated an attitude prone to
sustainability. Because of this, it has voluntarily applied some
instruments such as Clean Production Framework Agreement,
Environmental Impact Appraisal System, and Environmental Impact
Statement, among others. Its purpose has been to comply with
environmental standards and to contribute to social equity through
specific programmes on health and education.
As shown in Table 7, the results according to the 4 criteria
are summarised in the following indicators by company:

Table 7 – Mining Companies Diagnosis About Sustainability
Source: Chilean Copper Commission, based on the companies’ annual reports and
specific reports on environment and sustainability

Criterion: Environmental Management

58% of the companies taken into account have incorporated
Environmental Management into their operations, which specifically
would cover the following indicators or standards:
• 62% has in its organisational structure a unit devoted to
environment
• 100% has an established corporate environmental policy
• 62% carries out environmental management audits
• 92% has as policy goal to comply with in force regulations and
norms
• 54% declares that its management is based on sustainable
development principles
• 69% has designed and applies indicators for measuring
environmental performance
• 8% has designed and applies indicators that measure sustainable
development (Zaldívar)
• 8% carries out sustainability reports (Zaldívar)
• 85% reports about the company’s environmental management at
internal communication
• 85% has environmental management and risk
• 77% invests and spends in environment
• 46% assumes its awareness on biodiversity
• 46% assumes participation at international activities regarding
environmental and sustainability management

• 23% is certified19 by ISO 14.000 (Collahuasi, Escondida, and

Candelaria)
Among the analysed companies with 95% fulfilment average
in environmental management, stand out Zaldívar, Candelaria, and
Escondida. Between 80% and 90% fulfilment are Codelco-Chile,
Disputada de Las Condes, Collahuasi, and El Abra.
Especially, since 1998, Zaldívar mining company has a
sustainability policy. It carries out advance reports on such matter, by
measuring the accomplishments through sustainable development
indicators. For this company, sustainability means that the different
stages of the mining business (from exploration until mine closure)
are carried out with due respect for the environment and that respond
to the social, environmental, and economic needs both for actual and
future generation. In short, to carry out a management that contributes
to society’s quality of life improvement.
At micro level, sustainability policy implies to responsibly
manage resources, promote education and social development,
contribute to sustainable economic development, and generate fluent
communication channels with the community, Government, and non
government organisations.
In spite of such standards, Zaldivar has not been certified by
ISO 14.000. This makes impossible to infer, from the considered
background, it has other kind of certification equivalent to such
norms, for instance, the Certification of its management Systems at
corporate level. On the other hand, Collahuasi, Escondida, and
19
It is important to mention that this percentage could be higher if considered that
the valid standard is to have the certification, either ISO 14.000 norms or other
equivalent certifications such as corporate environmental management systems.

Candelaria comply with ISO 14.000 norm certification, and Codelco-

Chile20 is under certification process.
Criterion: Social and Community Benefits
62% of the analysed companies appears to be carrying out
concrete actions for the community by financing health and education
infrastructure, community organisation membership (committee of
neighbours, sport clubs, etc), education and micro business
programmes support, and at more isolated areas, they promote
indigenous ethnic groups culture. Specifically, the results for such
criterion would be the following indicators:
• 69% has programmes for the community
• 54% promotes effective participation of the interested parties
(stakeholders) regarding the subjects that affect them, and
commit to consider their needs and aspirations in decision
making process
• 77% allocates educational programmes resources for the workers
and the community
• 69% allocates health programmes resources for the workers and
the community
• 23% has as sustainability objective to respect and promote ethnic
groups’ values and culture
• 77% carries out training programmes for the workers and the
community
Fundación Escondida [Escondida Foundation] and Zaldívar
and Candelaria companies stand out because of the support to the
community.
20
Codelco Divisions are analysed as a single company, although they are located
among the II, III, V, and VI regions, The Divisions show different advance
shades and degrees in environmental terms.

Criterion: Health and Safety

In this scope, large-scale mining shows the best standards at
national level, reaching 97% fulfilment.
Health and safety are priority objectives at mining sector
operations, that is to say, to carry out safe operations in and out of the
mine and to minimise the effects that may arise on the workers’s
health (activities at altitude, shift systems, among the most relevant
indicators).
In particular, the diagnosis would show the following results
in the envisaged indicators:
• 100% has health and safety programmes
• 100% has indicators for measuring accidents rate, being the main
objective to reduce such levels in order to reach international
standards.
• 97% has environmental and operational emergency plans
Criterion: Environment Operation Subjects
73% of the companies appear to execute concrete actions for
mitigating environment contaminants and to carry out an efficient use
of environmental resources such as energy and water.
From the mining companies’ analysis, the following results
would be obtained according to indicators that have been considered
for diagnosis purposes:
• 100% has indicators for measuring energy consumption in its
different sources (electricity, fuel, gasoline, natural gas, oil, and
kerosene)
• 100% has indicators for measuring water consumption
(recirculation rate, water supply sources), considering the lack of
water resources in places where some mining operations are
located

• 62% assumes actions for land efficient use

• 77% monitors the emissions to the air based on in force norms
and carries out the corresponding corrective actions
• 62% monitors the effects of its operations on surface and
underground water and carries out the proper corrective actions
• 69% has liquid, solid, and hazardous wastes handling
programmes, which are constantly monitored against the in force
norm
• 38% assumes carrying out environmental reports on the effects
caused by operations in the environment
From preliminary analysis, large-scale Mining appears to be
achieving the average fulfilment of 72% on such matters, which
would constitute a more than acceptable level for any country with
the same characteristics than Chile. It would be even more relevant, if
it was considered that the agents perceive the mining activity as an
operation that intrinsically disturbs the environment. In terms of the
economic criteria, it is recognised as supportive for the country’s
growth.
The prevailing environmental regulations at international
level, have led the mining sector, specially copper large-scale mining,
to anticipate the application of more restrictive regulations related to
strong sustainability. In an extreme case, this approach would be the
application of the precautionary principle. Facing such potential
threaten, mining companies at international level have chosen to
support voluntary agreements and good practices codes in their
management.
Considering that most of the companies have a declared
environmental policy for their operational management, that also
grants more economic and social benefits for the workers than other
productive activities, and finally, that they sponsor social initiatives
for the community; then, it could be inferred that large-scale mining
way towards sustainability would be already outlined.

Then, the challenge is to propose sustainability indicators,

common to any company, which allows measuring the advances on
such matter, by adopting a base line for assessing their short-term
performance.
5.4 Sustainability Indicators Proposal For The Mining Sector
With the results from the preliminary diagnosis, this last
section is to motivate the stakeholders (mining companies,
governments, non government organisations, communities) to debate
about mining sector sustainability, to converge towards common
indicators for measuring it, by producing a Sustainability Report for
the Sector based on such indicators.
For the debate contribution, the elements that should be
considered in the Sustainability Report are analysed. Besides, an
indicator set is proposed for measuring the sector’s advance degree in
time, in order to create a base line for assessing the sector’s
performance and its contribution to SD in time.
5.4.1 Sustainability Report
The report should comply with the following characteristics:
• To be standardised, common for any company to allow its
comparison
• To be based on methodologies recognised by international
organisations (United Nations, Agenda 21, and Global Reporting
Initiative).
• To contain few indicators from official information sources in
order to guarantee data reliability
• To allow its assessment from independent organisations in order
to guarantee the validity and transparency of the contained
information
The report could be applied to mining companies associated
with the Mining Council, which altogether represent 95% of fine

copper national production. It should also contain a brief description

of the mining company profile (location, patrimony, product type,
production rate, and sales), indicators’ results, and a clause with the
committed actions to be performed by the company in order to give a
solution to the detected problems.
5.4.2 Proposed Indicators21
The indicators should be constituted on the base of the
applied methodology recognised by international organisation. For
this specific case, it is suggested to apply the methodology designed
by the United Nations and the Global Reporting Initiative. Both are
based on SD dimensions for measuring the progress.
The proposed indicators are mainly of a general type, that is
to say, they could be applied to any other productive sector. They are
also quantifiable, but the ones measuring perceptions or opinions
from the agents related to the mining sector.
Indicator’s comparison parameter shall depend on the
dimension to be measured. In fact, there shall not exist a standard for
the economic indicators. For the social indicators, the standard shall
be the country average. For environmental indicators, it shall be,
when applicable, the national regulation, or the international norm, to
which the mining sector should tend in a long-term. Finally, reference
parameters for institutional indicators shall be the norms and/or
instructions issued by the Government.
Considering that there is an indicator multiplicity for
measuring economic, social, environmental and institutional advances
21
In Appendix 1 is included a list of indicators, more extensive than the hereby
proposed, as a guide for indicators debate that Large-scale Mining would
consider as key for measuring Sustainable development. However, such
indicators show some weakness with regard to the proposed indicators set
because the evolution of such indicators should come from the mining companies
themselves, subtracting independence and generating an anticipated bias in the
results that could be inferred from them.

with regard to sustainability, proposed indicators set shall comply

with the above-mentioned characteristics, as shown in Table 8. The
choice is justified by the following criteria:
Information Source
SD Measurement Methodology
Reference Pattern
Table 8 - Proposed Indicators Selection Criteria
SELECTION PROPOSED INDICATORS
CRITERIA CHARACTERISTICS
The data come from known and reliable
information sources. In general, they correspond to
government statistics that provide information
INFORMATION about the behaviour of such indicators, standing out
SOURCES the Central Bank of Chile, INE [Statistics National
Institute], Ministry of Health, CONADI
[Indigenous Development National Board],
SERNAGEOMIN [Geology and Mining National
Service], Ministry of Labour, INN [Normalisation
National Institute], among others. This allows
guaranteeing that there shall be no bias in the
information interpretation and would give
independence regarding the measurements that
could be carried out by the mining companies.
They comply with the criteria defined in
METHODOLOGY methodologies widely accepted by the world
FOR MEASURING SD community, designed by international organisation
for measuring Sustainable Development, such as
the United Nations, Agenda 21 and the Global
Reporting Initiative. Thus, each of the indicators
reflect a direct and indirect effect on sustainability
according to the Brundtland definition.

Table 8 - Proposed Indicators Selection Criteria (cont.)

SELECTION PROPOSED INDICATORS
CRITERIA CHARACTERISTICS
It has a defined comparison pattern that allows
REFERENCE sector, national, and international comparison. At
PATTERN national level, with the regulations of the
Environment Health Service (SESMA), the
Environment National Commission (CONAMA).
On the other hand, at international level, reference
patterns would come from institutions such as
World Health Organisation (WHO), the
International Labour Organisation (ILO), just as
reference.
Specifically, the indicators proposed for measuring

sustainability of the mining sector with regard to SD dimensions are
the following:
a) Economic Dimension
These indicators measure the hoe the mining companies have
an influence on economy, regional or national, through the use of
mining resources and wealth creation. The following indicators are
proposed:

Table 9 - Economic Indicators

PROPOSED INDICATORS MEASUREMENT SOURCE
UNIT
1. Mining GDP/ Country Percentage Central Bank
GDP
2. Mining Sector R&D Millions of US$ CONICYT
expenses / Country
R&D expenses
3. Mining capital Goods Percentage Central Bank
Imports / Country
capital Goods Imports
4. Proven reserves / FMT Central Bank, CRU,
Evidenced Reserves COCHILCO
The first three indicators seek to measure the contribution of

the mining sector to the country growth in terms of wealth creation,
where research and new technologies development are crucial for
intra-generation equity and for the efficient use for water and energy
resources.
On the other hand, proven reserves indicator versus
evidenced reserves measures mining resource use degree, which is
very relevant when considering that the natural capital represented by
a non-renewable resource that shall be exhausted at any time, thus
affecting sustainability regarding the Brundtland definition.
b) Social Dimension
These are the social indicators that measure mining
companies’ impact on social issues relating to both company workers
and the community, through the contribution of human and social
capital creation, social safety, and quality of life. For this case, the
following indicators are suggested:

Table 10 - Social Indicators

PROPOSED MEASUREMENT STANDARD SOURCE
INDICATORS UNIT
5. Average US$*worker/year Country AFP, Ministry
remuneration Average* of Labour
mining sector
workers
6. Accidents Number/man hours Country Ministry of
Frequency Average Labour,
Rate22 Sernageomin
7. Seriousness Days/worked hours Country Ministry of
Rate23 Average Labour,
8. (Handicap days Sernageomin
because of
accidents)
9. Unionisation Percentage Country Ministry of
Rate Average Labour
10. Conflict Number Country CONADI
Number with Average
Ethnic
Communities
Source: Chilean Copper Commission.
Note (*): If the objective is to compare with other industries, country average could
be replaced by the average of another productive.
c) Environmental Dimension
These indicators measure operations’ impacts on air, water,
land, and biodiversity. It is suggested, for the purposes of this work,
to reach consensus on SD indicators that in their environmental
dimension shall mainly be adjusted based on environmental
22
Frequency Rate = number of disabling accidents per each million worked man-
hours
23
Seriousness Rate = number of lost days plus charge days as result from temporal
disability accidents plus charged days because of accidents, with permanent
and/or fatal disability, per each million worked man-hours.

management indicators, as a first stage, considering to advance in

further stages to environmental performance indicators.
In this scope, the environmental management of the company
could be measured, almost completely, by ISO 14.00024 norms
certification or by equivalent certifications such as the management
Systems certification at corporate level.
ISO norms may be applied to any company and to any
industry. They constitute voluntary standards that add value to trading
operations, guaranteeing, on one hand, goods trade and efficient, safe,
and clean services in environmental terms; and on the other hand,
continuous improvement of the processes and efficient environmental
performance.
In Chile, there are only three companies certified by ISO
14.000, these are Collahuasi, Escondida, and Candelaria. Codelco-
Chile is under certification process. However, it is not possible to
infer, from the analysed background, if there are other companies that
count on an equivalent certification in the sector (for instance of the
Corporate Environmental management System).
Doubtless, in the future norms, processes or systems
certification demand could become the critical variable required for
confirming if a productive sector, for example mining, is in the road
to SD.
24
ISO 14.000 norms support certified companies to guarantee the goods and
services they produce in terms of environmental impacts that generate,
specifically, some of the benefits in terms of operation continuous improvement
are:
Lower production costs.
It improves corporate image among regulating organisations, clients, and
community.
It applies a continuous improvement structure for the companies’
environmental performance.

Table 11 - Environment Indicators

PROPOSED MEASUREME STANDARD SOURCE
INDICATORS NT UNIT
11. ISO 14.000 -- 100% INN
Certification
12. Efficient Use of KWH/FMT International SEC
Energy
13. Critical episodes Number/year National CONAMA,
because of SO2 SESMA
quality to the air
14. Critical episodes Number/year National CONAMA,
because of As SESMA
quality to the air
We have also added other indicators as critical episodes

because of air quality (in CO2 and As), that would be relevant every
time that the permitted norms are breached and population’s health is
in danger.
c) Institutional Dimension
These indicators measure, on one hand, if the Government,
through its organisms, has created and promoted the legal and
regulatory conditions that guarantee the advance of the mining sector
towards sustainability; and on the other hand, the mining companies
support to such indicators.
In order to reach SD, it is fundamental that the country cunts
on a formal and well organised institutions regarding the other
involved agents, that contains norms, rules, standards, and
instruments for measuring the advances on such matter.
The objective in this dimension is to pinpoint if the country
has a legal framework composed by norms, regulations, and/or
restrictions for the mining companies that allows measuring SD

advances through the comparison of local standards with the external

ones.
Regarding international standards, for example the ones of
the World Bank, WHO could be used as reference parameters.
Table 12 - Institutional Indicators
PROPOSED INTERNATIONAL GOVERNMENT*
INDICATORS STANDARD OR
COMPANY STANDARD
15. Air quality norm 125 (WHO) 265
by SO2 (daily)
16. Air quality norm 1,5 X 10-3 (ug/m3m)-1 WHO NOT ISSUED25
by As Norm
17. Environmental YES NO
Regulation Policy
18. Mine Closure and NO NO
Abandonment
Regulation
19. Unionisation YES YES
Regulation
20. Safe Work YES YES
Regulation
Note (*): Government id understood as organisations such as CONAMA, Ministry of
Health, Ministry of Mining, COCHILCO, SERNAGEOMIN, all related to
environmental and labour safety matters.
Summarising, the total 19 proposed indicators seem not to be

excessive for belonging to a Sustainability Report. However, they are
still few for beginning the debate with he interested parties. It is
expected that from this process many more indicators may arise, until
25
In Chile, only exists Arsenic emission to air norm. However, for international
organisations, the required norm is the Quality of the Air by Arsenic, whose
limit, according to the WHO, is 1,5 X 10-3 (ug/m3m)-1. A higher value could cause
lung cancer to the people under exposure, according to the WHO.

reaching the necessary consensus for constructing the base line that
shall allow measuring mining sector sustainability in medium and
long term.
5. CONCLUSIONS
During the last decade, the mining sector has contributed in a
relevant way to the economic development of the country,
representing 8,7% of the country GDP, and growing to rates higher
than 7% annually, much more than the country GDP growth during
the same period.
In the last years, SD has strongly arisen, generating action
guidelines for every productive sector, specially, for those that base
trading on renewable and non-renewable natural resources. As a
matter of fact, in Chile this has an important influence, considering
that its economy mainly depends on mining resources.
In this context, this document has reached the following
conclusions:
• Studies from international organisations reveal that Chile is
located in an intermediate range in environmental and
sustainability matters. There are pending tasks for reaching SD,
specially, regarding environment protection and the application
of more restrictive environmental regulations on the part of
international organisations.
• For the in force regulation (Environment Bases Law and Mining
Environmental Policy, and other specific environmental
regulations), it is expressly accepted the possibility that the mining
sector encourages the generation of other capital types. This is for
improving people’s quality of life and keeping equilibrium among
the economic, social, and environmental development,
guaranteeing mining resources availability in time. This definition

would indicate that the country has adopted weak sustainability

trend rather than strong.
• Because mineral resources correspond to a limited stock,
susceptible to exhaust in time, the mining sector has become
aware about it and has started to internalise SD principles into
their management, for its performance to be socially and
environmentally responsible from a local and external perspective.
• Regarding social equity and wealth distribution improvement, it is
not a task that directly corresponds to the mining sector. In fact,
the State through its regulations and social policies should be able
to efficiently allocate the income coming from productive sectors,
in this case the mining sector. Besides, to carry out the actions that
allow an economic and social improvement of the locations where
mining projects take place, with equity and social justice, even
further from mine closure.
• There is empirical evidence that the mining sector generates
economic and social benefits to the country and to the regions
where mining operations are located. However, regarding the
relationship with the community and the environmental impact of
the operations, the interested parties still have a negative
perception.
• From the preliminary diagnosis of the companies associated with
the Mining Board is possible to infer that, most of them (72%
fulfilment), have assumed, in a responsible and voluntary way,
environment protection and more fluent communication channels
with the stakeholders (Government, communities and non-
government organisations). They have also been concerned about
showing a better image to the community about the effects that
their activities generate in social and environmental terms.
However, this is not enough whereas is not validated by
independent organisations, according to an indicators’s base line,
assess the sector’s performance regarding SD in time. The

promotion of a debate that gathers such elements constitutes the

actual contribution of this document.
• Along the whole mining business, from exploration until mine
closure, the mining sector has demonstrated concern on the
environment and the economic and social development of the
people. As a conclusive proof is that 72% of the companies
associated with the Mining Board incorporate SD principles into
their management and have set as a goal to contribute to improve
people’s quality of life.
• For the mining sector, sustainability policy shall cover a
responsible management of the resources, promote education and
social development, contribute to the sustainable economic
development and generate fluent communication channels with
the community.
Considering the above-mentioned, the contribution of this
document is to propitiate the production and application of a new
instrument, called Sustainability Report, to which the mining
companies associated with the Mining Council voluntarily join, in
order to create a base line for assessing, in quantitative terms, the
sector’s contribution to sustainable development in medium and long
term.
For this purpose, a total of 19 indicators is proposed, that
cover economic, social, environmental, and institutional dimensions.
Such indicators shall be subject of a debate with the stakeholders
(mining companies, Government, communities, and non government
organisations) during a second stage, that would correspond to the
measurement process of the sector’s advances in SD matters, it is
fundamental that every agent perceive that the next stage effectively
contributes to the sector’s sustainability.

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MINING SUSTAINABILITY IN BOLIVIA

Ana Maria Aranibar Jimenez
Bolívia
The development concepts applied to the quality of life are

varied, a complete and operational approach is the one used by the
United Nations for Development, that defines human development as
a choice extension process that people have to achieve their well-
being. It takes as its main human development components: having
access to a long-lasting life, and enjoying good health and education
as essential requirements.
The sustainable development concept became known in this
new century and it has become one of the main challenges that all
nations must face as a serious commitment with the future
generations.
In the same way as the human development criteria, there are
several concepts about sustainability. For the present research, we
adopted the concept that we consider the most appropriate for our
purposes and the one that fits within the “mining sustainability”
criteria, such as the fulfillment of developmental activities without
generating any economic, social or environmental debts for the
future. In other words, it is being able to take actions at present
without putting into mortgage the fate of future generations. From
this point of view we also assume the idea that sustainability also
means the capacity that the local community has to carry out and
manage a project by themselves.
A sustainable development project is one that does not
depend on the existence of an external support, rather it is a product
of a local consensus to be able to do a series of transformations in the
economy and society that will allow us to solve the specific problems.

In a frame to develop a sustainable mining there must be a

triangle of interaction between the state – mining company –
mining community.
Comunidad
Empresa Estado
THE ROLE OF THE PERFORMERS WITHIN THE

PROPOSED TRIANGLE
The Role of the State
The role of the state should be to motivate the support
programs of local development through various instances, several
organisms participate as part of the activities that the state must
fulfill, and that take care of the traditional concepts of the state such
as:
• The support to health, education, transportation, agriculture,
industrial and human development programs, which are
infrastructure and service programs that the state gives to the
urban and rural communities. In the specific case of Bolivia,
more importance is given to the areas with major poverty
indexes.

The Role of the Mining Company

The mining company presence generates a series of impacts
in the work place, mainly the work development, and the generation
of both road and electricity infrastructure. All this impact generates
a push in the local development and can be complimented by an
explicit politic that is called “Social Responsibility”.
But we can leave a question here that will be the subject of
analysis in the future.
How long is the company responsible for the local
development? What is its real function?
The mining companies can manage its resources to generate a
bigger positive impact in the development of a community, but
cannot replace neither, the state nor the community in this social
responsibility.
Social Responsibility of the Mining Company
The social responsibility is a compromise that the company
assumes for the well-being of the social environment that surrounds
them. Under this compromise, the mining companies avoid or
mitigate any negative impact that its companies could cause over the
people and motivate all the positive impacts that an investment brings
to the areas in which the operations are being developed.
It is true that the main function of a mining company and the
existence condition of any company is to generate profit.
The social responsibility assumes that the private institutions
have a compromise with the environment in which they operate. This
compromise has both an ethic and practical origin. An stable
environment open to investment benefits the development of a
project.

The Role of the Community

In Bolivia we can differentiate three types of communities:
The Rural Community
Who have acquired the rights of their land either through
inheritance or through the acquisition of the land itself.
For the rural community the rights to their land not only
means an economic right but also gives them prestige and power.
The Original Community
Whose land ownership is based in its original property right
of the subsoil and of the surface.
The Mining Community
Is developed around a mining project such as in the case of
Llallagua, Catavi and Huanuni, that are mines that belong to the state
and where several mining projects have been developed for several
years.
The Bolivian Mining Code concerning the mining rights
The first article of the Mining Code establishes that all the
mineral substances in their natural state whichever is their
background and present form, whether they are found in the subsoil
or on the surface of the earth “belong to the original domain”. Its
concession is subject to the Code norms.
The Fourth Article of the Mining Code, points out that the
mining concession is a true right different to the ownership of the
property in which it is located.
This means that the mining rights are given as “concessions”.
So there is a co-existence between two different rights, the
subsoil and surface rights and the mining rights.

Bolivia has created the article 169 of the OIT where the
“native community rights are recognized with relation to the land
ownership”.
Under this umbrella, the previously mentioned triangle takes
place. The participation of the state – company – community, the
three performers with shared responsibilities is what will make up a
sustainable economy with a mining extraction.
The following is a Bolivian sample: Inti Raymi Mining
Company Case.
The Inti Raymi Mining Company, one of the most important
projects in Bolivia with an open pit gold mining production.
The responsibilities in development push framework
The development of a community is the responsibility of the
community itself, the community is the one that thoroughly knows its
own problems, defines its own objectives and moves its own material
and human resources.
The State motivates support programs through its different
instances. Through its Ministries it should develop different
infrastructure and service programs in the communities.
The Company generates a series of impacts, above all, as an
example it generates road and electricity infrastructure and some
other services.
How to secure the project’s sustainability
Every mining project must look for its sustainability in the
time, meaning the capacity to function with the community and state
contest, respecting the environment.
The project should be able to function with the support of the
community, of the City Halls, of the community organizations and of
the church.

The duplicity of effort should be avoided and they must not

compete with the established institutions.
The local organizations must be established, training must be
provided to the members and leaders of the community.
The support projects must be executed starting from a market
analysis with and without the intervention of the company.
The service supporting actions must be coordinated together
with the State.
One very important factor for the project to be sustainable in
time is to establish a maximum limit on the company’s contributions.
Many companies start with good community relationships by making
big investments and then end up in great conflict.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Mining Code- La Paz, Bolivia-2000 The Bolivian Oficial Gazette.
Community Relations Guide-Peru Republic- Energy and Mining
Ministry. January 2001
Essays-Sobre a Sustentabilidade de Mineracao no Brasil. Maria
Laura Barreto.
Data obtained from the Inti Raymi Mining Company.

THE SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS OF THE BAJO LA

ALUMBRERA PROJECT AND AN APPROACH TO THE
ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF SUSTAINABILITY
Luis Manuel Álvarez
Mining consultant
Catamarca - Argentina
INTRODUCTION
This paper deals with the socioeconomic performance of the
most important mining project of Argentina, that is to say, the Bajo la
Alumbrera Project, from the viewpoint of the communities that
surround the mine and of the Province of Catamarca.
Therefore, a brief description of the project is given, together
with an analysis of its principal economic impacts, the relationship of
the company with the communities and the government, the
expectations that the company and the mining project brought to the
communities, the perception of the surrounding communities as
regards mining benefits, the reasons why the communities cannot see
the impacts of the project and finally the selection of a couple of
economic variables that allow us to express said effects in the
Province numerically and to analyse the sustainability of the project.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

The Bajo la Alumbrera gold and copper deposit is located in
the District of Belén, Province of Catamarca in the northeast of the
Argentine Republic.
The rights to explore and mine the deposit belong to
Yacimientos Mineros de Agua de Dionisio (YMAD), a corporation

formed by representatives of the government of Catamarca, the

National University of Tucumán and the Federal government.
YMAD has formed a Joint Venture with Minera Alumbrera
Limited to mine the deposit.
Minera Alumbrera Limited is formed at the present time by
three big international mining companies: M.I.M. of Australia with a
50 % interest, Rio Tinto of England with a 25 % interest and Billiton
Ltd. of England with the remaining 25 %.
Bajo la Alumbrera is one of the principal metal-bearing ore in
the world where open-pit mining is used. 1,200 million dollars were
invested to set this mining project in operation.
The processes of crushing, grinding and flotation are used to
produce an average of 600,000 tons of concentrate per year that
contains approximately 180,000 tons of copper and 20 tons of gold.
The average value of production-exportation is about 450
million dollars a year.
Electricity is provided from El Bracho (Province of
Tucumán) through a 200 Km 220 Kw powerline built by the
company.
The Alumbrera mine produces copper-gold concentrates
which are pumped with added water through a 316 Km pipeline (the
longest in the world) over the Nevados de Aconquija mountains to
the Province of Tucumán, where a filter plant was built in order to
dewater the concentrates to obtain a drier product with 8 % moisture
content.
From Tucumán, concentrates are railed through the Nuevo
Central Argentino railway, with Minera Alumbrera´s privately owned
trains, to the company´s port facilities in General San Martin
(Province of Santa Fe) within 830 Km distance. From there the
concentrates are loaded and shipped to international markets.

The building of the project started in 1995 and operation

began in 1997.
At present, it employs about 800 people and another 500
people through contractors.
According to the latest estimation of reserves, the mine´s
service life would last 15 years.
MAIN BENEFITS OF THE PROJECT FOR THE PROVINCE

OF CATAMARCA
Influence of the project on the provincial GDP
Alumbrera produces the 20 % of the provincial GDP, that is
approximately 1,800 million dollars in the year 2000.
Interconnection of the town called Santa María to the power line
built by Minera Alumbrera
This important town in the west of the province, situated
within approximately 100 Km distance of the mine, technically could
not be supplied with electricity through the electric power lines that
interconnect the west of the province (Tinogasta, Belén , Andalgalá
and Pomán) with the national power network.
From the moment of the interconnection to the power line of
Minera Alumbrera, that is, since October of 2001, Santa María has a
larger and better electric power and the possibility of establishing
different productive companies.
Alteration of the ravine of Belén on route 40
The work consisted in the reconstruction and asphalt paving
of 14 Km of route over a mountainous ravine. Before the execution of
the work, demanded for many years by the community of Belén, said
ravine acted as a “stopper” since the road was narrow and without
asphalting. It is supposed that with the execution of the above-

mentioned work the result would be a greater and better serviceability

for people and products through the road.
Employment by the company
The Alumbrera project employs about 800 people, only 260
(32 %) of whom come from the Province of Catamarca. The total
sum of the wages paid annually is approximately 4,400,000 pesos.
(This information was given by the company). If we take into account
the communities surrounding the project such as Andalgalá, Belén
and Santa María, the employment is of about 200 people and the total
wages paid are 3,200,000 pesos.
Employment by contractors
The companies that supply factors of production and services
to the Alumbrera project and that are situated near the mine, employ
about 490 people, only 160 (32 %) of whom come from the Province
of Catamarca. The total sum of the wages paid annually is
approximately 1,000,000 pesos (estimated data taking an average
wage of 500 pesos a month). If the surrounding communities are
considered, the employment is of about 150 people and the wages
paid are 970,000 pesos.
Purchases to local suppliers by the company and contractors
In the year 2000 the purchases were of 2,800,000 pesos,
counting the purchases of Alumbrera and Integralco that offer lunch
service and cleaning in the mine (information given by Minera
Alumbrera).
Mining royalties
The payments of the company on account of mining royalties
( 3 % of the value of the mineral in pithead) are approximately
7,000,000 pesos per year (depending mainly on production levels and
prices of copper and gold).
Provincial taxes: approximately 1,000,000 pesos per year.

Water charge: approximately 700,000 pesos per year.

Profit from the project allotted to the YMAD company and to the
Province of Catamarca
According to the Joint Venture contract signed between
YMAD and Minera Alumbrera Ltd., a 20 % of the profit from the
project corresponds to the state company, and pursuant to the act
through which said company was formed, the Province of Catamarca
owns a 60 %, therefore a 12 % of the profit belongs to it.
At the time of the distribution of profits (that is, when the
investment of the project is recovered), it is estimated that the
earnings will be greater than those from mining royalties.
THE PERCEPTION OF THE SURROUNDING

COMMUNITIES AND OF THE PROVINCE IN GENERAL, AS
REGARDS THE BENEFITS OF THE MINING PROJECT
The general opinion in the Province of Catamarca, according
to many news items and opinion polls, is that the benefits the
Alumbrera project yields in Catamarca are not relevant and that the
Province most benefited is Tucumán.
This last perception is related to the fact that the mining
company and contractors employ more workers from that Province,
the workers from Tucumán receive better wages than workers from
Catamarca and important purchases of factors of production and
services are done to companies in Tucumán.
About 380 people from Tucumán (47 % of total) work in the
Alumbrera project, with an annual payment of 8,800,000 pesos. A
similar percentage, about 230 employees work for the contractors
with an annual payment of 1,800,000 pesos (estimated data taking an
average wage of 600 pesos a month).

With regard to the contracting of companies that supply

factors of production and services, the companies from the Province
of Tucumán are much more than those from the Province of
Catamarca, with contracts that reach up to 40 million pesos per year.
Let´s see these comparisons graphically to notice clearly the
different extent of the impacts in the above-mentioned provinces
CONCEPT CATAMARCA TUCUMAN
Employment by Minera 260 (32 %) 380 (47 %)
Alumbrera $ 4,400,000 $ 8,800,000
Employment by Contractors 160 (32 %) 230 (47 %)
$ 1,000,000 $ 1,800,000
Purchases by Minera 60 companies 180 companies
Alumbrera and Contractors $ 2,800,000 $40,000,000
Royalties $ 7,000,000 -
Provincial Taxes $ 7,000,000 -
Water Charge $ 700,000 -
TOTAL $ 22,900,000 $ 50,600,000
WHY DID THE DESCRIBED SITUATION HAPPEN AND

WHY DO THE COMMUNITY THINK THAT THE BENEFITS
ARE FEWER THAN EXPECTED ?
In the first place, a problem of expectation occurred mainly
with the community of Andalgalá, caused by a lack of
communication on the part of the mining company.
According to the feasibility study of the project and
according to the information given by the Canadian company Musto
in the year 1994 (1 year before the construction started), the copper
and gold concentrate would be taken from the mine to the town of
Andalgalá through a short pipeline. This meant that a filter plant
would be built in said town and that the Belgrano railway would be

put into operation again in the section Andalgalá-Serrezuela to carry

the concentrate to the port of Santa Fe. This fact caused great
expectation in the province and especially in the community of
Andalgalá, since it meant an important investment in the zone, the
employment of local workers, the recuperation of a communication
route that was essential to the region and consequently, Catamarca
would feel the principal impacts of the project and not Tucumán as
finally happened.
When in the year 1994 Musto sells 50 % of its shares to the
Australian company MIM and the company undertakes the
development and management of the project, changes in the
engineering of the project are introduced and the mineral concentrate
is railed from the Province of Tucumán to Santa Fe and not from
Catamarca, adducing that the Belgrano railway in the section
Andalgalá-Serrezuela was not operative and that significant
investments were necessary to put it into operation again. This meant
that the investments originally intended for Andalgalá were thrown
aside, and a long, expensive and complex pipeline was built from the
mine to Tucumán (316 Km long) and the Nuevo Central Argentino
was used to rail the concentrate from Tucumán to Rosario.
These substantial changes to the original project resulted in
the Province of Tucumán being benefited, to the detriment of the
community of Andalgalá and of the Province of Catamarca. In this
way the first disappointment of the community as regards the
economic impacts of the mining project took place and the
relationship among the company, the community and the government
deteriorated.
The communication between the company and the
community should be fluent and truthful, and one should be careful
not to cause disproportionate and false expectations. If this happened,
it may cause a difficult problem to solve, such as the indifference of

the communities towards the mining development or their opposition

to it, as is the case in the Province of Catamarca at the present time.
EMPLOYMENT OF LOCAL WORKERS AND PURCHASES

TO SUPPLIERS
As stated above, the employment of local workers by the
mining company and by the contractors is low.
Minera Alumbrera employs about 260 workers from
Catamarca out of a total of 800 workers, that is to say 32 %.
Surprisingly enough, in the case of the contractors the same
percentage (32 %) is rendered, with 160 workers employed from the
Province of Catamarca out of a total of 490 workers.
This fact undoubtedly attenuates the multiplying effect of the
project in the communities, since the total wages of 5,400,000 pesos
per year is not significant and therefore it is not clearly reflected in
the local purchases.
Thus, the absorption of local workers is low, even if
compared to mining projects of similar business formation
characteristics (public-private Joint Venture) such as Cerro
Vanguardia S.A., a company that has been mining gold in the
Province of Santa Cruz since the year 1998 and that is formed by
Anglo Gold (46.25 %), Grupo Pérez Companc (46.25 %) and
Fomicruz S.E. (Government-owned corporation of the Province of
Santa Cruz) with the remaining 7.5 %. In this project, the
employment of local workers reaches up to 90 % ( 413 workers from
Santa Cruz out of a total of 460 workers) taking into account both the
mining company and the contractors.
In the case of Alumbrera, the larger percentage of workers
employed in the project is from the Province of Tucumán, with 380
(47 %) workers coming from that Province, and a similar percentage

is rendered in the case of the contractors that employ about 230

people.
The problem gets worse due to the fact that the workers from
Tucumán earn on the average higher wages than the workers from
Catamarca.
A similar situation occurs with the local suppliers.
Apart from the limited development of the industrialist and
services sectors of the Province of Catamarca and the fact that the
provincial authorities did not realise in time that a potential business
was coming to light and therefore they did not prepare the sector,
there is a general feeling that the mining company did not make the
necessary effort to contract local companies.
These situations take place in spite of the fact that Article 12
of the Joint Venture contract signed by YMAD and Minera
Alumbrera Ltd., states clearly that the company shall give priority to
the employment of local workers and to the contracting of suppliers
from the Province of Catamarca.
The analysed aspects limit without doubt the impacts of the
project in the local economy and are the principal reasons why the
communities do not see clearly the benefits of the project.
WHY DID THIS SITUATION HAPPEN?

This is one of the central topics of this paper.
Apart from an aspect that actually happened in the Province,
such as the fact that the authorities at that time and the community in
general did not believe in the evolution and development of the
Alumbrera project and therefore did not prepare themselves to take
advantage of its impacts, the principal event that caused what was
described above is related to the company’s failures to communicate
and to insert itself into the community and it is also due to the

conflicting company-government relationship as a result of the

problem about mining royalties that led to a break in the dialogue and
agreements between the parties.
Let´s delve deeply into this topic. The different actors that
participate in the mining sector fully admit that the relationship
between the international mining companies and the governments and
the communities where they are situated is maintained by a mutual
promise that may be summarised as follows:
“The international mining companies should
compromise themselves with the socioeconomic
development of the communities and regions where they
are situated, and the governments that receive said
investments should offer legal certainty”.
These fundamental principles that nowadays govern said
relationships and that are unquestionable, did not work in the
Province of Catamarca.
On the one hand, in the year 1993 a Mining Royalties Act was
introduced in the provincial Congress that was different from the
national act to which the provincial government had adhered and the
royalty calculation method of the province act did not include a
discount of any cost, so the rate was higher.
This issue, solved 8 years later (in June of the year 2001 the act
of adherence to Section 22bis of Mining Royalties was passed) in
spite of the government’s promises to solve the problem quickly,
caused a considerable weakening in the relationship between the
parties.
On the other hand, the company’s institutional performance
was not as expected and resulted in a deficient insertion into the local
community and in a limited commitment to the socioeconomic
development of the same. Said commitment was directed mostly to
the Province of Tucumán instead, which worsened the conflict.

Minera Alumbrera Ltd. did not give priority to the relationships

with the authorities and communities in the Province of Catamarca
despite the geographic location of the ore, the fact that the company
shares the carrying out and management of the project with the
YMAD company whose owners are mainly from Catamarca, and the
contractual agreements set forth in the Joint Venture contract.
Although a) the company pays the mining royalties in
Catamarca, b) out of the 20 % of net income from the project that
corresponds to YMAD, 60 % belongs to the Province of Catamarca,
c) the company pays water charge and taxes to the Province, d) the
mining law enforcement and the environmental control of the project
is also exercised by the Province and e) the Province checks that the
Municipalities in the surrounding areas do not collect new taxes that
may alter the fiscal stability of the project, the company did not give
priority to the relationships with the Province of Catamarca and
fostered a good relationship with the Province of Tucumán instead.
This is observed clearly in the above-described aspects, such as
the limited employment of local workers and purchases of factors of
production and services to suppliers from Catamarca and in the lack
of commitment by the company as regards the improvement of the
community facilities, lack of support to productive projects
supplementary to mining activity and the lack of initiative to build
houses for the workers employed by the company.
We can conclude that: “When the government and the
communities cannot see the positive impacts of the mining activity,
they can adopt attitudes that alter legal certainty”.
This argument may be applied to our case, since the
communities and the government argue that they cannot see the
positive impacts of the project, and this could have been the reason
why the Government of Catamarca adopted a conflicting attitude as
regards the collection of mining royalties, taking 8 years in solving
the problem.

Finally, we can state that: “The keeping of legal certainty is a

responsibility of the mining companies as well, since they should be
interested in the perception of the positive socioeconomic impacts by
the local communities”.
CONSIDERATIONS
If an analysis of the socioeconomic impacts of Bajo la
Alumbrera project in the Province of Catamarca is carried out, it is
observed that they are not significant and that the communities of
Belén, Andalgalá and Santa María (adjacent to the project) and the
Province in general have the same feeling.
This is clearly seen when analysing the employment of local
workers, purchases to suppliers and the improvement of the
community facilities in the area where the project is situated.
This perception would be different if the surrounding
communities received the mining royalties that the company pays
every three months, but the provincial authorities have not made it
effective as yet.
The principal reason why the effects of the project are not
better and are not felt by the Province is a consequence of the
deficient relationships between the company and the government
what resulted in a break in the dialogue and fruitful agreements for
both parties.
The company committed communication errors during the
stage of advanced exploration of the project and failed to insert itself
into the communities, which led to a limited commitment with the
socioeconomic development of said communities.
Besides the provincial government brought about the conflict
of mining royalties, and in so doing it altered the legal certainty of the
companies.

These objective facts that are difficult to state which one

triggered the failure of the relationships among company, government
and community, got worse and increasingly affected the relationship.
After almost five years since this major mining project was put into
operation, it is imperative to settle the differences among company,
government and community, having in mind the following:
“The international mining companies should
compromise themselves with the socioeconomic
development of the communities and regions where they
are situated, and the governments that receive said
investments should offer legal certainty”.
If this came true, the errors would be corrected and with the
passing of time the local communities and the Province in general
would see clearer the positive impacts of the mining project.
And what is even more important to realise is that there is a
need to take advantage of this great experience in order to face the
development of the next mining projects more firmly and clearly.
ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF SUSTAINABILITY FOR THE

BAJO LA ALUMBRERA PROJECT
Let us consider the methodology to measure the direct and
indirect economic impacts of the mining project and discuss which
are the variables that allow us to analyse the sustainability of the
same from the economic viewpoint.
It is advisable to use the input-output methodology to
estimate the impact that the mining project may have in the main
zone (Andalgalá, Belén and Santa María), making clear that at the
local and district level there are difficulties to have sufficient data to
determine the requirements that constitute the table.

In another direction, the economic relationship between a

mining company of major importance, such as the Bajo la Alumbrera
project and the surrounding communities is very complex, and it is
necessary to define clearly the variables that best express such
relationship.
The size of the mine, the size of the localities concerned (in
the sense of population, urbanization, diversification, distance from
the industrialist centers, etc.), the source of the capital and the precise
distinction of the different stages of the project, constitute the basic
elements to take into account.
Since the aim is to find indicators of periodic updating that
can provide information about the economic impact of the mining
project, it is necessary to identify relevant variables for which there
should be information prior to the beginning of the project, during the
execution of it and until the date of the measurement of the impacts.
It is also advisable to determine the calculation procedures of
other relevant variables for which there is no direct information
during the established period, such as by means of opinion polls,
interviews and works with representative groups of the community.
The idea is to see the impact as clear as possible, in a context
of scanty and sometimes dubious information at hand.
The variables that were considered relevant to the case in
study, with the above-mentioned exception, are the following:
Population-Migrations
The variables that attempt to measure the modifications
caused on the population and the migration rates of the communities
and districts that are affected by the mining project, constitute strong
indicators to measure the socioeconomic effects and they must be
taken into account when making the data table that will be used as a
tool to follow the impact produced by the project.

Economically active population, level of activity, employment,

unemployment and underemployment
These indicators are also considered relevant to the making of
the table that will allow us to measure the impacts, although
sometimes this information is not available at the community and
district levels.
Industrialist, commercial and services sectors
They constitute important indicators and the measurements to
these sectors are carried out analysing the respective rises and drops.
Municipal public sector: Same as above.
Gross domestic product (G.D.P.)
It is advisable to consider the Net Provincial Product (a kind
of homonym of Net National Product) in order to determine the real
benefits in terms of personal income that Catamarca receives, after
the transference of profits and the application of depreciations. With
this exception the G.D.P. is a good indicator to be included in the
database.
Municipal and provincial tax receipts
With certain precautions it is an indicator to take into account
when making the table of measurement of the impacts.
VARIABLES OF DIRECT IMPACT

Employment by the mining company and by the contractors,
wages paid by the mining company and by the contractors, and
purchase of factors of production and services by the mining
company and the contractors to local suppliers: They constitute
important variables that must be taken into account to measure the
impacts of the project.

VARIABLES OF INDIRECT IMPACT

Employment multiplier
Although the major mining projects are capital-intensive with
a high productivity, they are important creators of indirect labour so
far as the potential suppliers of factors of production and companies
that render services improve their adaptation to the originated
demands. The employment multiplier also depends on the degree of
development of the region.
According to estimations of the National Under Secretary of
Mining, the employment multiplier of the Alumbrera project in the
zone of primary impact is 3, that is to say, for each direct
employment 2 are created indirectly.
Externalities
They are related to the big works of infrastructure carried out
by the mega projects and that are generally executed in desolate and
underdeveloped zones.
These works of infrastructure used by the communities that
surround the mining project create externalities that strengthen the
existing activities and develop new ones. The main externalities
generated by the Bajo la Alumbrera project in the primary zone of
impact are formed by the alteration of the ravine of Belén on route 40
and the 220 Kw powerline.
With the available information and according to the
characteristics of the Alumbrera project, the following Cost-Profit
table can be drawn.

Type of community
Type of company Small / Remote / Not varied
Profits Costs
New
Big
Result
For each locality (Andalgalá, Belén and Santa María) the

following table could be built.
Variable Exploration Building Mining Closure
Migrating movements
Economically active population
Employment
Employment by the mining
company
Employment by the contractors
Wages paid by the mining
company
Wages paid by contractors
Municipal tax receipts
Provincial tax receipts
Industrialist and commercial
rises and drops
Purchase of factors of
production and services by the
mining company and by the
contractors
Gross domestic Product
Externalities
BIBLIOGRAPHY

The analysis and conclusions of this paper are based on the

author’s experience as President of the YMAD company during
1992-1996 when the project came into life and on the field works
carried out in the year 2001.

SUSTAINING INDICATORS ON MINING.

THEIR MANIFESTATION IN CUBA
Lic. Mercedes M. Valdés Mesa
Consultantship and Registration Direction
NATIONAL OFFICE OF MINERAL RESOURCES
Address: 666 S. Allende Avenue b/s Oquendo and Soledad, Centro
Habana, Havana City, Cuba - Code: 10300
e-mail: mercedes@onrm.minbas.cu
INTRODUCTION
The importance of mineral ore for the development and
industrialization of any country, the depression of the metals market
prices in the last period and the geologic and even geographical and
economic characteristics in Cuba justify the defense of the geological
and mining patrimony of the country.
The legislative movement happened in Cuba in the previous
decade, fundamentally in environmental, mining and fiscal matter,
seen as a system and under the rule of guaranteeing the protection,
development and rational use of the natural resources, in our
consideration and concerning with other aspects, it allows a
sustainable mining.
The exploitation even of non-renewable mineral resources
could be sustainable if in first instance the country is able to adopt a
politics that guarantees the use and the rational use of the resources
and its strong control, if it reports economic benefits not only for the
operating entity but for the country, for the society in its group, if it
doesn't commit the protection of the environment, being compatible
with the environmental interests and even with other prioritized
activities and equally necessary and indispensable for the national

economy and if it guarantees the social and cultural development of

the community.
Presently work is approached, illustrating with a practical
example of the small mining, the sustaining indicators kept in mind to
authorize its exploitation, pretending the conclusion that the relativity
of these indicators presupposes its use depending on mining type to
carry out, of the economic, environmental and social characteristics
of the territory where it will be developed, if it is a developed country
or developing and even the implanted social political system.
It is a responsibility of all to adopt the measures, to propose
and to approve the normative ones and to implement the procedures
that allow the development and advance of the mining so that it
contributes to the current development of the society and preserve the
well-being of the future generations.
1. NATIONAL MINING POLICIES

The States to guarantee a sustainable mining has the
responsibility of adopting mining policies that guarantee the
exploitation, the use and the rational use of the mineral resources in
function of the interests of the Nation, so that it facilitates:
• Agile procedures are adopted for the grant of the mining rights,
but they allow the compatibilización, ruled by the State, of all
the existent interests in the area and with independence that the
public utility of the mining is declared and its preferential right
can coexist, as long as and until it don’t be affected, by other
activities.
• The grant of the mining concessions is delimited in time and
conditioned to the execution of obligations guided to a planned
mining according to the existent minerals reserves in the country
and to the necessities and present and future projections, to the

use of technologies and methods and introduction of innovations

that guarantee not only the use of the main and accompanying
minerals, but the evaluation of those ones, to the execution of the
principle of uninterrupted work that impedes the existence of
unproductive areas for sector interests and in detriment of the
most convenient thing for the society.
• The adoption of fiscal systems that although they can be
attractive for the investment for the benefits of all type for the
community, preserve the national and territorial interests and
regress benefits for the whole society.
• The approval of administrative actions as regards exports–import,
tariff, etc. protecting the country.
• Inspecting organs are institutionalized to guarantee the
fulfillment of the normative and the execution of a strong control
in representation of the State as proprietor of the mineral
resources.
2. SUSTAINING INDICATORS.
Starting at the sustaining designed by and for man it is
translated in the rational use of the natural resources to achieve a
superior well-being and bigger quality of life without committing the
acting of the future generations, it is need to concrete the sustaining
indicators relativity.
It is not possible to apply the same economic sustaining
indicators in a developing country where the largest quantity of
mineral resources exploited, fundamentally the metallic ones, are not
consumed, they are exported and being in some of these countries one
of the main entrance items that in a developed country high consumer
of raw materials importing their majority, to satisfy their industry its
high technology industry and with a marked tendency to recycle.

The same environmental indicators cannot be applied in

developing countries where they exist the biggest quantity mineral
ores in locations and the extractive industry with more environmental
impact that in the developed countries with smaller extractive activity
and application of cleaner technologies.
It is not possible to apply the same social indicators where
most of the population is sunk in the poverty or below this, where the
percents of illiteracy are highest, where the labor alternatives are
limited, where the indexes of mortality rise and the population's great
sector doesn't have access to the infrastructure of drinkable water,
sewer system, etc. that in countries with a high level of life.
The equitable application of the sustaining indicators
discriminates against to the developing countries and the
condemnation to the reduction of its mining activity.
2.1 Economic indicators
One of the applicable fundamental economic indicators to all
mining type is the quantity and the use of the reserves of the mineral
resource that it will be exploited starting from their condition of not
renewable. As the way the use is integral, minimizing the rejections,
being enlarged the range of uses and guaranteeing in a rational period
according to the development projections and represent an economic
benefit that is reverted in technological advances that it even allows
they diminish the future consumptions it will be a positive indicator
of sustaining.
So that the development is sustainable the benefits should
overcome the costs under the slogan of making minimum the cost,
but achieving certain yield level and to get the maximum of
effectiveness inside a budget limitation, obtaining the maximum well-
being not only for the operating entity, but for the collective with a
relative shortage of the bud gotten funds. The economic terms:
investments, operation costs, etc. have to be transformed in

employment, supply security, infrastructure of public use, etc.,

translated into social well-being effects.
The production costs are among the economic indicators that
are used in the mining, the profitability, the taxes in favor of the State
regress in benefit for the whole society, the distribution of works and
wages, the percentage of wages, the proportion of the payment
payroll devoted to the teaching and the training, the energy
consumptions, water and other resources, etc.
In Cuba there are some of these economic indicators that in a
given moment and under specific circumstances are subordinated to
social indicators, like profitability that although it is minimum to be
almost in the balance point or in their minimum influence in the
macro-economic parameters represents a social benefit for the
community.
2.2 Environmental indicators.
Although the mining extractive activity impacts strongly to
the environment, when being limited in time it allows the partial
rehabilitation of the affected area, however the change of the use of
the floor is at least an environmental indicator of transcendence at
least for Cuba, for its size, forms and geographical conditions,
because the rehabilitation in many of the cases doesn't allow the total
recovery of the physiognomy of the environment neither the
conservation of other natural resources; so that the importance that
the extension of the areas for the extractive activity is limited strictly
and from a rational position to the necessary levels of production and
useful life of the project, what allows the amplification of other
important economic activities as Agriculture.
Another environmental indicator of supreme importance for
our country is the erosion level, in our case to be an island, so that the
special attention necessary to lend to the rehabilitation in time, at
least storm, of the exploited areas.

The disposition of the drainage of the waters during the

extraction influences significantly in the contamination and the
conservation of the quality of the water, so it is a parameter to keep in
mind in the extractive activity and also for the characteristics of
fundamental importance in Cuba.
Other indicators as emission of pollutants depend on the
mining type that is carried out since it is not similar the impact that
represents the emission of sulfurous dioxide in the process, say from
the nickel to the emission of powder in the arid exploitation.
The indicators of health related with illnesses because of
mining activities, the levels of noise, vibrations, and the high
temperatures and the fulfillment of the protection actions and hygiene
of work and mining security are parameters that should be
exhaustively reviewed for their application.
Others of the environmental indicators that are used in Cuba
and that they are appraisable they are the volumes of extracted sterile
and the expenses in their disposition and possible use, affectation to
the species and the expenses for their protection and rehabilitation
type according to the planning of the country and their cost
The emissions of pollutants, percentage of supply reduction
and quality of the water, the use of the floor and erosion risk are
among the environmental indicators that are used in Cuba, affectation
to the biodiversity, etc.
2.3 Social indicators.
The mining extractive activity should not only be seen as
producer of material goods, but as employment source, as formed and
continuity of traditions, like part of the culture and the identity of a
town and from that point of view and leaving of the territorial
classification should guarantee the economic peak of a territory,
qualified personnel's formation able to develop the industry with the
smallest possible strange personnel and to contribute to the formation

of values and maintenance of cultural traditions that are inherited

from generations to generations and even to foresee the professional
acknowledgment to other activities when it is not possible to continue
the mining activity.
The social indicators should not be discriminated against in
any case and they should be appraisable as soon as they represent
starting from the activity mining benefits in the levels of the
population's entrance, increase of the recreation and the sheerness and
the access to the same ones, elevation of the education, training
decrease of the mortality, etc., with the investment in the community
in infrastructure and services for their residents' enjoyment
In countries like Cuba the participation of the members of the
community, the absence of conflict socials for the levels of security
and the of the indicative socials is of supreme importance, in such to
way that still in investments with minimum earnings if it represents
benefits for the community they plows considerable viable.
3. MANIFESTATION OF THE SUSTAINING PRINCIPLES OF

MINING IN CUBA
We have taken an example of small mining in order to
illustrate the sustaining indicators that were kept in mind to authorize
the exploitation.
One of the territories with bigger mining development for the
resources it had was located in the most western county, Pinar del
Río, what bore to the development of an entire infrastructure
dedicated to those objectives, including a mining ability and geology,
with endemic of professionals' of the area formation. This county also
has an extension of 10 925 square km and a population of 737 342
inhabitants, territory with having meant national importance for the
environmental interests for its unique values in its landscapes and its
vegetation, so that 30 protected areas of different handlings have been

declared with a total extension of approximately 2094 square

kilometers, and that it has paid a special attention to the reforestation
that experienced a growth of a 11,6% in the last two years and where
was invested an approximate of 2,8 million pesos in the last year.
The mining tradition already existent in this province for the
opening of the Matahambre Copper Mines, at the beginnings of the
XX century, was reinforced with the opening of to it mines of gold,
continued by another of copper and gold, exploitations of sand of
good quality and the expectation of exploiting other polymetallics,
being depressed the activity in the last decade of last century for the
exhaustion of the mineral resources of Matahambre, the rise of the
prices of metals in the international market, the reduction of the
demand of raw material for the industry, among others, what meant to
reduction of the workers dedicated to the mining sector between the
96 and the 2000, nevertheless to the adoption of social procedures
that guaranteed the continuation of the mining tradition and the
creation of new employment sources in agricultural activities and of
services, so that it was necessary to look for alternatives in mining.
Previously, in the eighties decade and because of the
existence of quartz-containing sand reserves of high quality, the State
decided to declare as reserved mining areas several perspectives ones
located in Pinar del Río: among them Bailén, Santa Teresa and San
Ubaldo. By the middle of the year 1980 it only began the exploitation
in a very limited area and with very restricted uses, only for the glass
industry.
Those referred areas are already located in the municipality
of Guanes in Pinar del Río, that has a population of 37 281
inhabitants, and only the 35,4% in labor age, the fundamental
economic activities devoted are the Agriculture, fundamentally
dedicated to the forest resources, the Mining and the Fishing, and
although in the territory the growth of several economic and social
indicators was appreciated, like the general investments increased in

18,2%, the population experienced a growth of 3,1%, the expenses in

education also increased in 15%, those dedicated to the public health
about 8%, with a doctor per 190 inhabitants approximately and 58,4%
dedicated to the community medicine, and the social assistance with
an increase of 12%; the mining fell however in 9% in the period
between the years 1995 and 1999, what implied a reduction about 5%
of the personnel's dedicated to the mining that it was low when
representing the labor population's 1,1%.
Starting from these valuations and perspectives of new
markets it was decided among other actions to conclude the study and
to enlarge in extension the exploitations of these areas and to enlarge
their uses, not only to the glass production that was the traditional
national consumption, but also to the cement production, to the
construction, to the ceramic and the export. It is necessary to point
out that the production of silica sand had experienced a reduction
from the Year 96 to the 2000 in 57,4%
Several reefs existed, among them, the environmental
interests that could be opposed since exist a total endemic of 229
units and a strict endemic of 50 units in the area, their proximity to
the Cuyaguateje River, located in their nearer point to 2 kilometers,
basin hydrographic of national interest and with a sustained pollutant
load of 2,56 tons DBO/day; as well as the new uses it was sought to
dedicate, not foreseen initially, it should be meant that they constitute
the only locations in the country with more than 99,5% silica and an
iron content fluctuating between 0,010 and 0,17%, which determined
them at that time, they were protected only for the glass production,
the optics and the chemical industry.
Carried out the economic feasibility study in all these areas the
project was viable:
• Their quaternary flat morphology of silts of marine alluvial
origin, where the geologic cut is represented by white, brown and
yellow sands with a power up to 4 meters from its surface, the

possibility to use an already existent plant with capacity of

production of about 180 000 tons/year, from which was
exploding only 10% of its capacity, the expenses for the change
of use of the floor were minimized then when being most inside
protected mining areas, given in management to the Ministry of
the Basic Industry and the prohibition of carrying out agricultural
activities, the very next existence to the plant of rail facilities and
road ways, they fixed the production costs in an average of
2,15/MT in the one dedicated to the construction up 14 for the
other more special uses, to the beginning of the investment, and
annual utilities also to the beginning of the investment of
approximately 455,19 MUSD. Besides the increment of the
economic activity in other sectors, fundamentally that of the
transport.
• Row material supply prevails for two cement plants, dedicated its
final production a part to the export which earnings financed
another part for the construction of social works, supply of sand
for the construction and the ceramic for the constructive works of
the capital and the other western provinces. The existent demand
for the traditional uses was of 43 000 annual tons, with a demand
perspective to use it in the ceramic and the construction up to 157
435 tons/year
• Increase of 66 workers that it represents a growth of the labor
index in 0,5% of the population's in labor age dedicated to the
mining, and the employment of 4% of the utilities in the
personnel's training.
• Although for legal command it is formed a bottom for
environmental rehabilitation of 5% of the total of the investment,
the areas that don't present endemic species become rehabilitated
naturally and partly of the area this rehabilitation is obtained with
the deeming of the bench mark of exploitation for lagoons for
“alevines” to the feeding of existent crocodiles in the area and the

guarantee of conservation of the endemism of the area that was of

95% until the moment, thanks to its double protection.
Presented the corresponding requests to the Mining Authority
a compatibilización process began with the Ministry of Science,
Technology and Environment, and at the same time with the other
willing organs, being reached agreements in those that areas were
excluded that environmentally was not possible to explode and being
limited strictly to the mineral reserves that belonged together with the
production volumes that are foreseen, besides other protection rules
related with the equipment to use, the roads to use, the obligation to
recycle the water, etc. In a same way it was defined how to
rehabilitate from the beginning.
On its hand the Mining Authority and according to their
function to look after the rational uses of the mineral resources
carried out an analysis of the volume of the mineral existence it
reserves, up warded to 17 168 800 tons, of their levels of quality for
the existence not only of white sand, but the brown and the yellow
ones to 50% of the total of the reserves of the current levels of
production of the industry that demands of this raw material and the
future projections took into account the decrease each time larger
than the demand of the glass industry among others causes starting
from the recycling of its production; integral uses of the whole
resource at a minimum of sterile; the emission like pollutant to the
atmosphere practically only powder in less quantities than the
established ones; as well as the non affectation at the freatic level and
it decided the blocks that could be dedicated for the construction and
the ceramic and those that had to be reserved strictly to the
metallurgy, the glass, etc., so that a part of the earning fixed between
a 8 and 10% was invested in the modernization of the plant allowing
a better classification to obtain a bigger diversity of grains dedicated
to different uses, and the hydrociclons introduction for the obtaining
of highest purity of the mineral for more demanding uses, all that
guaranteed a more rational use of the resource.

4. CONCLUSIONS
It is possible a sustainable mining if the indicators fulfill that it is
economically feasible for their profitability, if it reports
economic benefits for the whole society, if it doesn't commit the
protection of the environment and it is compatible with other
activities prioritized for the national economy and if it
guarantees the social and cultural development of the
community.
The sustaining indicators are relative and their applications
depend on the mining type to carry out and of the characteristics
of the territory where it is developed.
It is indispensable the paper of the State as long as it approves
mining policies that rule strategies for the earlier fulfillment of
these indicators and to create organs and control mechanisms to
their execution and inspection.
The adoption of global strategies is imposed for the application of
the sustaining indicators in developing countries.

PROPOSAL OF SECTORAL ENVIRONMENTAL

INDICATORS FOR THE TERRITORY OF MOA.
Rafael Guardado Lacaba1 and Olga Vallejo Raposo2
1
Departamento de Geología ISMM
Rguarado46@yahoo.com; rguardado@ismm.edu.cu
2
Aspirante a Doctor de la Red ALFA/CYTED. Escuela Técnica
superior de Ingenieros de Minas de Madrid. olga@yahoo.com
Departamento de Geología. Instituto Superior Minero
Metalúrgico de Moa.
ABSTRACT
The environmental indicator allows an express diagnostic of
environmental changes happened in the mean. They are a reflection
of conceptual organization for the evaluation of the changes in the
ecosystems as a result of the human action.
The authors shows a proposal of environmental sectorial
indicators that to separate into trend indicators, impact indicators and
economic indicators for the environmental geo-mining. This impact
has been considered as devastating but the same time it has been a
source and support for the well being of the people of the territory
and the nation.
This indicators allows to develop the work multidisciplinary
better, to take with but rigor the environmental administration and the
classification of the territory, being able to make decisions more
specify and opportune.
Keys Words: environment indicator, environment sectorial indicator,
mining- environment ordination

1. INTRODUCTION
Moa is a municipal belonging to the province of Holguín that
is located in the north-eastern part of Cuba. It possesses the biggest
reservations of nickel in the country which implies an important
mining- metallurgic activity in this territory. It was in the decade of
the 50´s when we explored with more intensity the mineral wealth of
the region and in the second half of this decade the assembly of plant
begins for the extraction of the nickel (Company “Pedro Soto Alba”).
As a consequence of the construction of the plant and the lack of
employment in other regions of the country, a considerably great
migration takes place, in the municipal of Moa. At the present time
there exists two mining and metallurgic companies that are devoted to
the extraction of the nickel in this region, the above mentioned
undertakes technology of leaching to pressure and the other
Company “Major Ernesto Che Guevara” with a technology of
carbonate ammonia. The is presently another plant called ¨the
Camariocas that is in construction phase.
The productive development of the mining- metallurgic
industry causes a great impact on the environment. This deterioration
is owed partly to the irrational use of the geo- resources, for which
there is minor sustainable development, considering that a key tool
that marks sustainable development is environmental indicators.
An environmental indicator can be defined as “a variable that
has been socially endowed ,one derived of its own scientific
configuration, with the purpose to reflect in a synthetic way, a social
concern with regard to the environment and apply it cohesively in the
process of decision making” [Berger, A.R. 1983]. A peculiar
development of the environmental indicators is the indicators of
sectorial integration. These indicators interrelate the mining-
metallurgic sector and the environment, with the view of decision
making.

The environmental indicators constitute a fundamental

instrument in the development of the environmental politics and, it
orients us on the measures used in the utilization the land . In the last
years it has acquired relevance because they assist in the decision
making of the mitigation of the environmental impacts.
Working with the environmental indicators requires synthetic
and scientific information that will allow this way to facilitate the
decision making in the environmental politics. The origin of these
environmental indicators is in the social indicators. But contrary to
this, the environmental indicators arise out of a political urgency and
they have a computational and technological development that did
not exist previously. The employment of the environmental indicators
has two reasons; 1) to have the appropriate information to make
decisions with respect to the protection of the environment, and for a
pursuit of the same ,Organization for the Cooperation and the
Economic Development, OECD, 1994) 2) The necessity to reduce the
great amount of scientific information from the environment to a
governable number of parameters, appropriate for the processes of
decision making and of information it publishes (Environment
Canadá, 1991).
This system is approached by diverse countries each one with
a characteristic system of indicators. To have an international vision
we explain some of the countries that have developed their systems of
indicators recently. The organization for the Cooperation and the
Economic Development (OECD) it has among their objectives to
promote the sustainable development. For it proposes a system of
statistical environmental. This same model of systems of
environmental indicators is also developed for Spain.
In 1991 Canada has defined a system of environmental
indicators of which has continued working. The Agency of
Environmental Protection of Sweden has also proposed in march a
system of environmental Indicators able to offer a global vision of the

state of the ecosystems. The European Union has three generations of

statistics on the state of the environment, and the system of indicators
of Pressure - State - Answer. The objective of the Norwegian System
is to provide indicators of the state of the environment, meaning ,
response to the pressures caused by the human activity. The
Economic Commission for Europe of the United Nations (CEPE ) has
developed in the year 1985 a proposal and The Low Countries
present a system from the political point of view. The program
SCOPE (Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment) in
collaboration with the Commission on Sustainable Development of
the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations, has
embarked on a project on Indicators of Sustainable Development.
The OECD has also elaborated an application of the systems
of indicators of sectorial integration for the sectors of the energy and
the transport.
The environmental indicator should allow a succinct,
comprehensible and scientifically valid reading of the environmental
phenomenon in question. This indicator will describe a field of
information, constituting a synthesis. The indicators should respond
to the environmental questions that interest in decision making. An
unique model of system of indicators doesn't exist. The
environmental indicators are dedicated this way to provide an added
vision of the state of the environment of a country, coherent with the
dominant and useful social interests for the processes of taking of
decisions in this field.
The authors in this work propose a group of environmental
indicators that allow you to order the environmental mining work of
the territory and to reach a sustainable goal inside the mining-
metallurgic activity of the region. By way of summary we can point
out that the group of systems of indicators proposed for the mining -
metallurgic development in Moa is the indicators of sectorial

integration and the objective of these it is to integrate the

environmental aspects in the sectorial politicians
2. CARACTERÍSTICAS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL

INDICATORS AS POLITICS OF CLASSIFICATION AND
ENVIRONMENTAL -MINING PLANNING
The conceptual debate of the levels of the sustainable
development seems that this arriving to its end, the technological
efficiency, the technological quality of production of products, the
recycle of materials and the development of technologies with a
rational domain of the geo-recourses will have to attain a practical
approach to the sustentabilidad of the land. In this it plays a great role
in the environmental indicators, these values considered inside
maximum and minimum levels would allow us to know the
transformation that they carry out inside all type of technological
process. These values allow us to know the productive quality of the
system. It is as if the causes and effects you can express, quantitative
and qualitatively for the I implement from a new diffusion of a
technological system to implement in the mining metallurgic and
complex. They are not economic indicators, it is an indicator that
measure the sustainable development: population density, quality of
the development of the productive process, deterioration of the
natural and human resources, levels of contamination of the physical
means, etc. defining the load indicators, state, response and
sustainability are the great tasks that we have before all types of
systematic mining metallurgist process, and their social incidence in
the population. There are four themes in the Organisation of the
Development of Sustainable Mining –Metallurgy
(ODMMS) we have proposed. The following based on the
elements toasted by the Calendar 21 and other rectors documents:
1. establishment of a classification politics and plantations.

Analysis of the mining politics

Analysis of the security and stability
environmental Administration and rational use of the soil.
environmental Administration and sustentabilidad of the
primary and secondary activities.
2. to improve, to perfect, to rectify the Administration of the Natural
Resources.
Rehabilitation and conservation of the land.
efficient Use of the hydrous resources.
efficient Use of the mineral resources.
efficient Use of the process metallurgist's technological mining.
3. training of the institutional and human resources.
training and education.
Participation in the mining – Metallurgic development.
4. sure opening of the use of the geological- Mining activity.
geologicmining metallurgic Administration. Exploration,
exploitation, prosecution of the mineral.
Application and technological administration.
Efficiency miner metallurgic.
The indicators can be developed for each category of the
Organization of the Development Mining Sustainable Metallurgist
(ODMMS) in such a way that allows to measure the conditional ones
and the critical tendencies of each one of these sectors. In general, the
changes of the sustentabilidad are manifested naturally three-
dimensionally in the environmental thing, the economic thing and the
social thing, and also in the necessities of the international trade, that

is to say in the related with the economic growth and the protection of
the means; all they are determined by a dynamic system that will be
balanced. The three elements of the sustainable development are
valued with certain effectiveness. These factors will include:
Exploration and application of technologies.
• The variations of the market / I trade international.
• The assignment of resources (investments in the urban, rural
and the industrial thing)
• The population's · Capacity amble (fundamental natural
resources)
The indicators of the sustainable development possess
enormous changes inside the development mining metallurgist of
each region, these three elements are not considered equally in the
different countries and their influence in the territorial classification it
plays a great importance. It is ignored until the moment the
development of environmental indicators that you have been
generalized for other countries, to our point of view this is due to that
the development geo - mining metallurgist is variable in the different
countries and regions of the planet. In Cuba, these activities are very
institutionalised through the state, and this allows to develop the
activity of environmental administration better.
3. APPLICATION OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS

IN THE TERRITORY OF MOA.
In spite of the great environmentalist work carried out by the
Cuban revolution, the time has been very short to be able to have
abundant environmental data. This is one of the problems with those
that is the study territory, which hinders in great measure the proposal
of the environmental indicators.

For the territory of Moa a mining metallurgical city, the most

appropriate thing is to propose a system of indicators of sector
integration. The objective pursued by the sector indicators, is to
integrate the sector aspects in the environmental politicians. It is for
this reason that the sector administrations are the main ones to finish
their development.
This type of indicators is a field of relatively new work, they
go directed to the taking of more specific decisions. The sectoral
environment is the activity geo - mining and metallurgic, main
activity in the area. The proposal is based in the diagnosis of the
existent environmental problem in the territory; that they reflect
pressure, state of the means, and the answer of the means developed
by the activity miner - metallurgic.
To establish the proposal of indicators of sectoral integration
we follow their analytic mark:
1. excellent environmental sectoral tendencies. These are the
performance motor in the mining activity.
2. environmental impacts. They indicate us the state of the means and
they are function of the performances of the mining activity.
3. economic indicators.
Next the tendency indicators are exposed, of impact and
economic.
4. INDICATORS OF TENDENCY
They are those sectoral indicators that, without revealing
environmental aspects directly, for the systemic nature of the
phenomenon of contamination and exhaustion of the resources, they
allow to derive positive sectoral tendencies or negatives for the
means. (Jiliberto, R. 1996).

They have been considered that they are four the sectoral
tendencies.
Eficiency The efficiency as much in the mine as in the plant
is a good indicator of integration of environmental considerations in
the sector. This indicator gives us to know the rational use of the
resource.
The indicators associated to this tendency are:
- Mineral loss
- Dilution
Conditions of the mining resource. The content of the
different mineralogical component present in the location indicates us
if the mineral is capable for the process metallurgist or on the
contrary it is part of the rubbish, of there the importance that has to
know these contents.
- Relationship among the pulled up material, the one surrendered and
the exit of the process (process of technological mineralogy).
- Given mineral relationship and the nickel + obtained cobalt.
It is necessary to know the quantity of given mineral and the
nickel + cobalt obtained in the process metallurgist, and to determine
the variability of this relationship and to evaluate their causes and
consequences.
Technologies. To know the changes of the used technologies
and developed to reach but production in the exploitation of the
location with the knowledge of the increase or the decrease of the
impact that he/she takes place to the environment.
- nº of modifications in the technology - year pulled up Material (I
clear and mineral). it is important to know the material started up
since it implies an increment in the impacts environmental
associates, such as atmospheric contamination, noise, etc.

- pulled up material (t/año)
5. INDICATORS OF IMPACT
The mining activity maintains a dimensional relationship
with the environment, on one hand he believes the development in the
municipal, and for another it diminishes the well-being by means of
diverse aggressions to the means. These indicators are contained by
environmental areas.
The main repercussions of the activities of the energy sector
on the environment you can include in the following topics:
Atmospheric Contamination. Emission of a series of noxious
gases and powder to the atmosphere for the process mining
metallurgist. The indicator associated to this topic:
- polluting emissions (SO2, SO3,..)
- powder
Affectation to the vegetation. The mining activity affects to
great numbers of vegetable species, some of these species are
endemic.
- Ha forests cut of for the mining
- Ha. of autochthonous vegetation
Afectación to the fauna. As consequence of the loss of the
habitat of the fauna for the above-mentioned mentioned many animal
species die or migrateto other areas.
- Nº of vulnerable species and in extinction danger
- Introduced species
Production of solid residuals.
- t tail / tNi

Production of liquid residuals

- t WL/ tNi
- (WL: acid liquor)
- Affectation to the superficial waters
Quality
- longitude of the contamination of the hydraulically flow
- PH
- Temperature
- Chemical composition of the waters.
· Affectation to the underground waters
Quality
- aquifer nº contaminated by sulphates, chlorides, heavy metals,
others.
- PH
Affectation to the population
- nº sick people for toxic environmental / year
6. ECONOMIC INDICATORS
The economic characteristics can be interrelated with the
environmental aspects. The production, the expenses, etc. can be
analysed from the environmental point of view. With these indicators
it can be carried out an analysis and economic valuation of efficiency
guided environmentally.
Inside the tight of economic indicators they have been
considered the following topics:

Production of the mining sector. He/she gives us an idea of

the economic situation of the sector for the possible politicians of
environmental character.
- t/año
- International Bought ·.
- nickel price USD/t
- I price of the cobalt USD/t
- Expense of the mining metallurgic process. They are the expenses
that integrate all the phases of the mining cycle.
- expenses in mine
- expenses in plant
- expenses in transport
- energy expenses
- expenses of inputs
- expenses of taxes
- expenses of security and risks
- other expenses
- expenses in I+D (investigation and development) environmental. It
is necessary to know the expenses in activities of prevention or
derived correction of environmental impacts of the activities of the
sector.
- expenses in technologies environmentally favourable
- expenses of restoration of lands affected by the mining
- expenses in I+D

The analytic structure of this type of system of indicators can

explain to herself with the following example:
First, the efficiency in the mine is environmentally a excellent
sectoral tendency. In second place the mining sector generates in a
direct way a series of environmental impacts that is necessary to
know and to mitigate: the emissions of gases and powder to the
atmosphere, the elimination of the vegetable cover and of the
endemic, the contamination of rivers and seas, the increment of
different processes and geologic phenomenon that spread to form
different dangers and risks, the unbalanced elimination of the
exploitation of the mineral resources and others. Finally, economic
aspects that exercise a significant paper in the definition of the
environmental profile of the sector exist: the fluctuations of the price
of the nickel in the international market with the use of fuels to high
prices in this market have an incidence in their use in thermoelectric
plants and metallurgic with an excellent environmental impact; the
necessities of inputs like the current consumption of calcium
carbonate for the process of sour leaching derive significant
environmental impacts. It is of great importance to highlight that a
dynamics exists among these tendency indicators, impact and
economic. For example an increase in the efficiency in the mine
(tendency indicator), it will take a decrease of the environmental
impact and in turn a decrease in the expense (economic indicator).
The analysis of these indicators is of great utility in the
valuation of the environmental impacts. A way to value these impacts
is to compare the value of the state pre operational and the value of
the derived quality of the performance. The advantage of this method
to other is that it shows the approaches continued in the
transformation of the qualitative scales to quantitative explicitly.
These quantitative indexes are the base for the valuation of
the environmental impacts. The qualitative information transforms to
a quantitative information and consequently the valuations t become

of subjective to objective. With these quantitative values they are

facilitated the understanding of the environmental problem as well as
one has governable information for the development of political
environmental.
7. CONCLUSIONS
1. with the application of indicators of sectoral integration in the
territory of Moa, the main rules are to reach a sustainable
development, and they constitute a basic tool for the search of
solutions in the politicians of environmental development.
2. with the sectoral environmental indicators (IA) we see the existent
relationship among the tendency indicators, the impact indicators
and the economic indicators, serving as base for the analysis of
alternative to take. The IA integrate the environmental aspects in
the sectoral politicians.
3. knowing the economic indicators can be carried out a valuation of
these together with the impact indicators it stops this way, to see
the possibilities to minimize the environmental impacts caused by
the sector.
4. these indicators besides being good for the taking of decisions are
also the base for the valuations of environmental impact and I eat
consequence for the classification of the territory.
8. BIBLIOGRAFIA
AGUILO ALONSO, Miguel. ARAMBURU MAQUA, María Paz y
otros.1998. Guía para la Elaboración de Estudios del Medio
Físico. Contenido y Metodología. Ministerio del Medio
Ambiente. Secretaria General del Medio Ambiente. Madrid.
España.

ALVAREZ ARENAS BAYO, Manuel y otros. 1996. Sistema español

de indicadores ambientales: subáreas de biodiversidad y bosque.
Serie monográficas. Ministerio del Medio Ambiente. Dirección
General de Calidad y Evaluación Ambiental. Madrid. España.
BERGER, Antony R. 1998. Environmental Change, Geoindicators,
and the Autonomy of Nature. GSA TODAY. A Publication of the
Geological Society of America. Vol 8, N 1. p 3-8.
GILBERTO HERRERA R. Y otros, 1996. Indicadores Ambientales.
Una Propuesta para España. Serie monográficas. Ministerio del
Medio Ambiente. Secretaria General de Medio Ambiente.
Madrid. España.
GONZALEZ NOVO, Teresita. GARCÍA DÍAZ, Ignacio. 1998. Cuba
su Medio Ambiente después de medio milenio. Cesigma.
Editorial Científico Técnica.
Guardado Lacaba Rafael 1998. Gestion Ambiental, Curso de
postgrado impartido en la maestria de Protección del Medio y los
GeoRecursos, Instituto Superior Minero Metalúrgico de Moa.
CUBA,

SUSTAINABLE MINING?
GOLD IN NORTHERN PERU
Ivan Merino Aguirre
Peru
SUMMARY
The mining of gold in Peru has had an outstanding
development in the last 10 years; transforming to this country into
one of the main producing of the world; however, this mining boom
has not moved to other sectors of the national economy and on the
other hand it has generated important restrictions for the residing in
population's appropriate integral development the areas of
exploitation. This document tries to explain the approaches of
operation of the mining companies in a country like Peru, and it
shows a typical case: Mining Yanacocha. At the end, it proposes
some work lines to achieve that the mining is sustainable or spread it,
taking advantage of the changes in the government administration
and the reestablishment of the democracy in the country.
INTRODUCTION
Peru possesses a wide mining experience that began for
centuries ago; when sílex was carved in Ayacucho area, the central
mountain of Peru. Chavin culture began processing native gold and
Electrum between 1200 and 1000 b.c. Chimu culture, north coast,
(1200 - 1400 b.c.), the old Peruvians practiced the foundry of gold,
silver and diverse alloys of copper, in hearths; and they developed a
bound industry to this activity where they were common the laminate,
embossed, welding, etc.

At the present time, Peru has become the seventh producing

of gold of the world (3.4 million ounces approximately), the second
of silver (68 million ounces), the third in Tin and Zinc (22 thousand
tons and 900 thousand tons respectively), the lead room (200
thousand tons), and the seventh in copper (500 thousand tons). And
the investments programmed at the 2005, they can transform Peru
into the first producing of Silver and Tin, the second in Zinc, the
room in copper and recruit in Gold; becoming this way the main
mining producer of America. Everything considering it: The
attractive legislation, the fact that the whole territory has geologic
rising and detailed geographical letters; the existence of a totally
automated mining Registration, and the total guarantee for the
investment in the sector.
As for the biodiversity, Peru is considered as one of the 10
countries with more biodiversity: The surface of Forests in Peru is the
fourth in the world environment, and in Latin America it is only
overcome by Brazil. In spite of not having appropriate registrations,
in flora it possesses 25,000 species (10% of the world total, of them
30% is endemic); it is the first country in number of plants with well-
known properties and used by the population: 4,400 species; and also
the first one in native domesticated species (128). In Fauna it is the
first one in fish (2,000 species, 10% of the world total); second in
birds (1730 species); third in amphibians (330 species) and third also
in mammals (462 species). As for genetic diversity, the country is one
of the world centers of agriculture origin. It is the first one in varieties
of corn, potato (150 wild species of potato), Andean grains, tubers
and other (15 wild species of tomato for example). 5 forms of
domestic animals. Of four cultivation of world importance, the Peru
possesses the highest genetic diversity in two of them: Potato and
corn. The country is, also, well known as one of those "centers of
Vavilov", for the high number of domesticated species you would
originate. In a same way, the population in Peru shows multiple
traditions, organizations and cultural expressions: As example you

can point out that only in the linguistic aspect, although Spanish is the
official language, they share this space the Aymará and the Quechua
one in mountain, and more than 120 linguistic varieties in amazonía.
All this Peruvian diversity is at the present time threatened,
and before the dilemma: environment and amplification of human
capacities or Mining1; it is necessary to study the feasibility of a
sustainable Mining. For it is necessary to analyze the approaches that
define the investment and behavior of the operations of the mining
companies, the list of the state and of the organized civil society.
1
Farmers of Tambogrande and San Lorenzo, valley of coast of the department of
Piura, north end, eminently agricultural with 4 million fruit-bearing trees, 8 thousand
hectares of rice and 5 lemon thousand, as well as of other 50 cultivations whose
production is exported Ecuador, Colombia, United States and Europe they are
protesting, in an uncompromising way, for the installation of an auriferous mining
company of Canadian womb: Manhattan. Has caused the fire of the facilities of this
company in the area and the murder of the leader of the peasants, so far not resolved.
At the end of May of the 2002, one carries out a popular consultation, (financed by
OXFAM and with observers of diverse NGOs) where 98% of the residents you
pronounces against the mining exploitation. It consults it was requested two years
ago to the National Jury of Elections (JNE) and to the National Office of Electoral
processes (ONPE), this I finish organism you retirement some days before having
executed the consultation by pressures of the Central Government, to weigh that the
current President, in their campaign, you pronounces aggressively against the
installation of the mining one.
In the II International Congress of Communities and Populations from the Affected
Peru for the mining, organized by CONACAMI PERU carried out in Pasco, central
mountain, in November of the 2001, they demanded that it is declared in state of
environmental emergency the communities in those that the mining activity puts in
serious risk the human health, it contaminates its shepherding lands, to animals,
cultivations, lakes, rivers and lagoons, as well as against the spoil of lands, what
leaves in the most complete impoverishment to the neighboring communities of the
mining seats.

THE FOREIGN INVESTMENT IN MINING

The mining companies decide to already operate in a certain
scenario on the base of approaches very defined:
- The mining resource. - Since there is only interest if it exists or
there are evidences of the existence of the resource.
- The readiness of information as much for the exploration as for
the exploitation. - The access to the information of quality is
necessary for the taking of decisions, and better even if this
information was already financed for other (State).
- The readiness of human resources qualified according to the
technology to use. - The operation cost with personal native
qualified, in at least some areas, it reduces the costs thoroughly.
- Relative stability of the norms juridical, accountants and financial.
- The stable norms for the activity facilitate an appropriate
planning and the validity of the dear ones in the "cash flow" of
the project.
The previous approaches can be given in any scenario. Is
reason preferred then, to invest in countries like Peru and not in the
country where the company or do its proprietors reside? Given the
basic supposition that Peru, their companies and the state, they don't
have the enough capacity to invest autonomously in that sector. The
possible answer should consider the following thing:
The necessity of control of inputs for the local industry
It can be political of the company or of the State (in the case
of being a public company), to have the permanent control of the
inputs for the industry where their interests are reflected. In the case
of Peru, this approach is fulfilled the company Shougang whose
proprietor is the State of the Popular Republic China. It is the only
producer of iron of Peru and also the only outstanding location in the
American coast of the peaceful one.

The readiness of qualified manpower to cheap prices

The legislation labor Peruvian is extremely permissible to the
requirements of the companies, and before a permanent economic
crisis, it facilitates that it exists a wide offer of professionals and
qualified technicians and with experience at costs "moderate."
Diverse reductions of costs
Derived among other things of the negotiation power that a
great company obtains when operating in small markets and the
possibility of installing "lobbys" in the organs of the central power to
modify or to create favorable laws. The participation in the market of
final goods and inputs, as main, only or outstanding buyer, allows to
obtain offers and financing that would not be possible in wide
markets and developed as it could be in its origin country. The decade
of the 90, it represents an outstanding change in the Peruvian
scenario. In a coincidence with the coup d'etat of 1992; The Peruvian
mining lobby gets starting from that date that the executive prioritizes
the activity on the rest of the other sectors. They are generated, then,
special norms, where the environmental thing is subordinate to the
necessity of capturing investments. However, given this necessity, is
the mining sector where the biggest advances settle down as for
environmental legislation: Permissible limits, Environmental Impact
Studies, and processes of public consultation (quite limited). The
labor market also allows the use of contractors and subcontractors for
almost all the operations. As long as, the legal responsibility for
accidents and actions is diluted in the road.
Permeable environmental politics
In Peru a ministry of the Environment doesn't exist. The
effective institutions regarding the environment, they are distributed
among the different specialized units of each sector; being common
the overlapping problems and an applicable common approach
doesn't exist to all the sectors in the event of doubts and conflicts.

December 22 1994 (Law No. 26410) the National Council of the

environment is created (CONAM). Their Directory conformed by
three representatives "random" of the public sector, two of the
managerial sector, one of the regional governments (the regional
governments were disarticulated in 1998 and they begin January 1 the
2003 again) and one of the local governments (This governments lack
specifically vicarial environmental abilities); the president of the
CONAM is designated by the President of the Republic; but he has
not been assigned level some in the system of public administration.
The CONAM coordinates with and among the environmental units of
each sector, it lacks effective capacity of supervision or sanction. To
be in "limbo" of the state apparatus, caused for it interests explicit, it
impedes coherent and stable environmental Politics' promotion.
Favorable legislation
The foreign manager that invests in mining can consent to
diverse advantages in tributary matter, of handling accountant and
financial; and of such operation as:
a) To repatriate the capital total and the generated utilities, including
royalty's rights and payments for the use of technological transfer.
In Chile one has to wait one year to repatriate the capital.
b) The free capital remittance, dividends and financial resources
c) Liberate commercialization of products as much in the country as
in the exterior.
d) Stability of the régime of the exchange rate: It is used the lowest
rate or the highest as it is wanted to sell or to buy.
e) And. Tributary stability; the company single pay the taxes and the
effective rates to the moment of the contract.
f) No-discrimination right; any benefit for the national one benefits
him immediately.
g) g. Accounting in dollars

h) h. Depreciation of 20% annual, generates additional rents and a

reduction of the formal utilities and for it, a reduction of the
effective payment for tax to the rent.
It is necessary to indicate that the collection for taxes to the
Rent in the Country for the year 2001 had the following distribution
that shows the following square elaborated with data coming from the
Tributary National Superintendence (SUNAT).
Where the fifth category corresponds that collected
employees mainly and salaried; that of fourth category mainly to
independent professionals and that of third category mainly to the
companies. That is to say, a difference of 7 percentage points only
exists among the contribution of the group of companies that 90% of
the assets of the country, and the group of employees and
independent professionals that only control approximately 4% of the
assets control.
In comparison, the Peruvian manager, dedicated to other
sectors, only has, in outstanding way, the General Law of Societies.
And this subject to a tributary pressure and relatively severe norms of
handling accountant.
Also, in different countries corporate tributary analysis is
applying that include to the group of companies of certain managerial
group, preventing this way to avoid the payment of taxes; however in
the Peru the demarcation is made by each Social Reason, that which
facilitates the things for the companies, with the attaché of a possible
bigger total utility generated by the "tributary effect" (So much in the
Peru, as the one obtained in the origin country).
The Brazil, for example, also has special incentives to the
foreign investment, but it doesn't direct them to the exclusively to the
mining2: Quick depreciation for teams and new machinery for
2
Forbidden sectors to the foreign investment in 6 countries of Latin America
Brazil.- Direct operation of the mining sector. Health

industrial production. Reduction of the rent tax for subsidies of

transport and workers' foods. Reduction of the rent tax for donations.
Reduction in the IVA for expenses in investigation and development.
Financing advantages
For the access to financing (in Peru, in the origin country, and
in the international banking). This access not only understood by the
quantity of what is possible to obtain but for the interest rates cash to
those that the credit this fellow. It is curious to indicate that the great
part of the available credit in the Peru is absorbed by companies or
"joint venture" of companies of great magnitude that are few and
many of them are devoted to the mining.
High risks in the country where you resides
Understood by the strong established norms that you must
complete in tributary aspects, accountants, environmental, labor; that
makes that an investment has limited grades of freedom for
momentous modifications, since they would be subject of sanctions
and a reduction in the utilities or the closing of the project.
Colombia.- Defense and national security. Toxic waste

Costa Rica.- Public services. Sure. Hydrocarbons and mining. Distillation alcohol.
Public health. Defense and national security
Chile.- Lands.
Mexico.- Petroleum, basic Petrochemical Hydrocarbons. Telegraphs, Radio and local
TV.
Radioactive materials and Generation of nuclear energy. Electricity sale to the public.
Emission of money. Mail. Control and supervision of ports.
Peru.- Radio and TV

THE MINING OPERATIONS IN PERU STARTING FROM

APRIL OF 1992 YANACOCHA S.R.L, THE TYPICAL CASE
Antecedents
The extractive activities, mainly the mining, the petroleum
and the fishing have caused in Peru you burden environmental
problems: The biggest Andean valley in the country, has to the river
of its name, the Mantaro, completely polluted.
The important ports of Ilo and Chimbote, bound to the fishing
and Mining they present the worst health indexes. Fence in the north
as in the south, they are threatened by overflows of the courts of
waste, in a region where the earthquakes are daily.
The outlines of some managers of the sector who affirm:
"The mining is the only economic activity that is developed above the
3500 meters on the level of the sea" (Charles Preble, President of the
Southern Peru, Sep. 99), he's ignores the 18 million hectares of
capable natural grasses for the cattle raising of Andean camel, and the
industries related with them: For example, Textile of Alpaca fiber;
and it can cause norms and actions that finally achieve that the
traditional mining is the only one that works in this area. Their
behaviors, motivated by the lack of appropriate negotiators on the
part of the state or the local governments or agents of the civil
society, and of an appropriate information, they cause that the bound
managerial groups to the mining act with approaches of "to make the
easiest and cheap thing possible." Generating of conflicts that in turn
cause onerous expenses in the resolution of the same ones.
Yanacocha, the typical case.
The Newmont in alliance with peruvian group Buenaventura
3
, and BRGM of France, I believe the company Yanacocha, the one
3
Company was founded in 1953, mining that has specialized in gold and silver.
Landlady of 43.65% of Yanacocha, Has Joint ventures with Newmont, Teck-

that settled (1993) in the area of Cajamarca. The project is shown as

a world record: There is alone a lapse of 9 months from the meeting
of decision to invest to the obtaining of the first bar of gold and silver
(Dore). The International Financial Corporation is landlady of 5%.
Cajamarca city, capital of the county and of the department of
the same name, it is located in the north mountain, with minimum
mining experience. It occupies it leaves of a valley dedicated
especially to the cattle raising and dominated by small managers that
provided milk to a subsidiary of the Nestlé.
This era the first outstanding investment for the government
of Fujimori, already like dictatorial government. It is at the present
time the first producer of Gold, and the one that I install the
"jurisprudence" mining current in the country. Their cost net average
for ounce for the year 2000 were in 95.8 US $, and 125 US $in the
2001, range in which has stayed from beginnings of their operations;
Cominco, SPCC, BHP, and Billiton & Meridian Gold. Their actions are negotiated in
the Stock exchange of Lima (1971) and in that of New York (1996).
Improving Shareholders’ Value
2 ,0 0 0 33 0
1 ,8 0 0 31 0
29 0
1 ,6 0 0
27 0
1 ,4 0 0
25 0
1 ,2 0 0
23 0
1 ,0 0 0
21 0
80 0
19 0
60 0 17 0
40 0 15 0
A p r-9 8 O ct-9 8 A p r-9 9 O ct-9 9 A p r-00 O c t-0 0 A p r-01 O c t-0 1 A p r-0 2
M arket Cap . G o ld P r ic e

product of the mark institutional Peruvian and of the wealth of the

location. What allows to be very competitive, and to improve the
given corporate bills the drop "perfomance" of other units of the
Newmont as much in the USA as in other countries4.
Before the privatization in France of the BRGM, the
Newmont and the Peruvian group, they made you the process
necessary to obtain the part of the BRGM that was not outside of
scandals 5. The case is still opened up in diverse parts of the orb:
Buenaventura May, 2002

4
Yanacocha is alone an example. In January 2001 Barrick Gold Corporation
obtained in option the transfer of Alto Chicama project (1 200 Km2) when offering
in the auction an equivalent bonus to 2.51% of the annual net sales. Barrick was the
only bidder. April 23 the 2002, Barrick gave to know the discovery of around 3.5
million ounces of gold on Alto Chicama, calculated starting from 61 million TM of
dear mineral, with a law of 0.057 ounces for ton. Barrick Misquichilca, subsidiary of
Barrick Gold Corporation, is also owner of Pierina. In the 2001, Pierina took place
but of 900 thousand ounces with a "cash cost" of US$40 for ounce. Diverse
organizations of the civil society and local authorities criticize the environmental
handling of this mine; and the impact of their operation in the population. Pierina is
the most profitable mine in Barrick Gold (and one of the most profitable mines in the
world).
5
In 1998 the Supreme Court of Peru dictated sentence in favor of Newmont in a
voting of four against three. The sentence forced BRGM to sell Newmont its actions
of the mine. The last year, after the popularization of videotape of the former adviser
of Fujimori; the Newmont admitted to have maintained conversations with the
Department of American State on the case, but denied to have violated laws. The
National Council of the Magistracy agreed February 1 the 2002 to accuse
constitutionally to the provisional supreme former vowel, Jaime Beltrán Quiroga for
the infraction crime to the Constitution. The report concludes that Beltrán, to order of
Vladimiro Montesinos, emitted its decisive vote in favor of the Newmont. Civil
organizations presented complaints before the Unit of Investigations of Corruption
and Fraud of the Bank World, so that this unit investigated the accusations, but the
Unit remitted it to the IFC. The negative of the IFC to begin an investigation got the
attention of some American legislators. Dennis Jett, former ambassador from United
States in Peru, told journalists in 2001 that he remembered to have talked about the
case with Fujimori and Montesinos to who he noticed that any sign of having given
to French pressure would feed rumors of corruption in Peru and it would move away

France and USA; and this committing to the State in possible judicial
processes.
He denounces miner, it is property of a company of the
Peruvian partners whose main proprietor marks the rule of the
managers' of the sector behavior6 .
The hectare of land acquired it to 44 US $, to Andean
peasants, when the minimum price of market was of 500 US $, and
with the added difficulty that a rural family in Peru, difficulty sells
the entirety of its property. Mining Yanacocha controls 535 square
miles (1,385 Km2), in its beginnings it controlled 100 square miles
(259 Km2).
Mining Yanacocha has known how to use the different
favorable norms very well: Yanacocha doesn't buy inputs or materials
in outstanding quantity in the country7. Yanacocha doesn't sell its
production to the interior of the country; both decisions impede the
development of "clusters" or of linkages with the industry or local
trade. Their main offices are located in the Peruvian capital and
he/she has contracts of tributary stability and this included in the
agreements of protection of investments that it impedes, of facto, to
the Peruvian State some type of pressure on their operative or
institutional behavior. Their contribution to the Peruvian, given
the international investors. Jett highlighted that Washington supports to the American
companies in other countries, "but it would never accept the practice of the bribe."
6
In the Peru the proprietor of the surface, is not proprietor of the underground; it is
the State the one that grants the concessions and the companies have to pay for her an
annual quota to the treasure, determined by the quantity of hectares that possesses
statement I denounce miner and if it is the resource it is metallic or not metallic. The
priority that gives the State to the I denounce miner about the property of the surface
it is obvious.
7
Situation programmed from the beginning of engineering of the project, since all
company prefers to buy to its traditional or subsidiary suppliers, before to
"unknown."

revenue the magnitude of their operations and results, it is not

outstanding.
Yanacocha at the present time, is a great company to world
scale. Its participation in the production of gold for a great producer
as Peru comes closer to 50% of the total, if it is considered alone the
formal operations, and to 42% on the dear total.
As for the participation of Mining Yanacocha in the entirety
of extracted mining material and treaty in the whole country, it is but
that outstanding. For example, of the 63 millions of T.M.S. extracted
between January and March of the present year, 57 millions
correspond the great mining, and Mining Yanacocha it contributes
with 28 millions.
The main indicators of operation of mining Yanacocha are
shown in the following square:
PRINCIPALES INDICADORES DE OPERACIÓN DE MINERA YANACOCHA
1993-2001
Año 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Extracción-Tratamiento
Mineral 2454 8302 16107 21528 26672 38428 55660 75303 80200
Desmonte 991 4033 6094 6182 15603 24983 40409 44345 78300
Total TMS 3445 12335 22201 27710 42275 63411 96069 119648 158500
Producción Onzas Troy
Oro 81497 304552 551695 811426 1052806 1335754 1655830 1795398 1995000
Plata 24467 97349 180619 182979 163366 457183 826130 1536587 1966400
Capacidad Planta
M3/HR 243 293 429 586 765 1438 2286 2889 3900
Area Pad M2 195000 526500 939500 1104500 1652500 2247500 2747500 3415500 3910500
Fuente: Minera Yanacocha S.R.L.
The operations of mining Yanacocha have had a constant

growth, and their magnitudes completely different to the traditional
mining companies of the country, just as you it can appreciate in the
following graphics:

Producción de Oro
Minera Yanacocha S.R.L.
Onzas Troy
2500000
2000000
1500000
1000000
500000
0
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Capacidad de Planta
Minera Yanacocha
M3/Hr
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Capacidad de Planta
Minera Yanacocha
Area del PAD en Hectáreas
500
400
300
200
100
0
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Yanacocha took place the year 2001 near 2 million ounces of

gold and the projections for the 2002 it is of 2.3 million ounces due to
its mined adult. In the first trimester of this year it has produced
471000 ounces.
It is not superfluous, to indicate that the city of Cajamarca
has, today, an urban and residence deterioration, the violence and the
delinquency has been increased. The cattlemen have been displaced
by employees of the mining one in the directive of the social
organizations. The only business of small scale that they have
prospered they are the entertainment services, and the city is
expensive for its old residents. The social spirit that one lives in
Cajamarca is contrary to the company in a wide majority8 ; however,
the city of Cajamarca, without the company, would enter in a bigger
crisis9.
As for the environmental risk for the materials treaties10
28161000 T.M.S. alone between January and March of the 2002,
8
Motivated for: A) A traffic accident with a truck that transported mercury of
Yanacocha that caused a spill of 11.2 liters of mercury in the highway between
Yanacocha and Lima. The biggest spill happened, in the town of Choropampa to
some few kilometers of Yanacocha, located in one of the sources of "Blind
Cockerel", main it dams of the north of the Peru. At the beginning of June of the
2002 organized commoners they have presented three judicial quarrels before
tribunals of USA on this spill. B) AND for the exploitation of the Hill Quillish that
represents at least 15% of the reservations of Yanacocha. The residents argue that the
Hill Quillish is the aquifer mattress of Cajamarca; Yanacocha points out that studies
in charge by the International Financial Corporation (partner of Yanacocha) they
confirm that the impact of Quillish on the quantity and quality of water is minimum.
9
The main business and inclusive projects of diverse NGOs (CARE for example) in
Cajamarca, they carry out their actions in function of Yanacocha.
10
Materials treaties with cyanide of potassium, product of the lixiviation process
with activated coal that it uses the mine; and deposited in the properties of the mine
that it is located in the "divortium aquarium" of three basins of national importance
and with high standards of rains and humidity, in an area highly seismic. The cyanide
represents 10% of its total purchases, and it comes from the "Dupont Chemicals."

little it has been studied to discard it. The movement of lands for the
expansion of the lixiviation courts not represents for Yanacocha less
than 40% of the its annual investment for the 2002 (202 millions of
US $), and enter 10% to 15% to the mine development. Other
outstanding percentages in their investment are devoted to geology of
mines, perforation for delineation of locations, and some 15 Millions
of US $for a plan of control of silts.
THE POSSIBILITIES OF THE SUSTAINABLE MINING

In the Peruvian scenario, the possibility of a sustainable
mining is feasible, but anything easy: To the margin of the
commendable initiatives that has the State11, the normative mark of
the activity first should adapt to the agreements that the own country
has subscribed and to prevent that officials, not very objective, seek
to establish norms that alone they drive to the conflict and the no-
integration of the mining with the other activities.
In a same way, it should be to restructure the tributary system
that without modifications in the rates and in the quantity of taxes,
allow an exact collection with approaches of justness and
effectiveness.
As for the respect to the biodiversity and their maintenance,
already several managers and state officials, they have been given bill
that said respect, it is of supreme importance Peru it doesn't only stop
but for the whole region; it represents the economic, alimentary, and
productive security, security in the negotiations so much present as
future. The world tendency favors the consumption and trade of the
processes that consider the environmental standards (ISO 14 001).
Además la relevancia de la biodiversidad ya esta siendo considerada
en las entidades de financiamiento multilateral y de asistencia
11
Politics' proposal is presented in this respect, of the Ministry of Energy and Mines.
March 2002

técnica; such as the Agreement of Biological Diversity, the " Program

21" and the Global Environment Fund (GEF). All the above-
mentioned imply a great responsibility that is not limited to its
frontiers. They should be promoted and to establish sanction
mechanisms and with appropriate effect before fragrant violations of
the environmental legislation and the international norms in this
respect12.
As for the reductions costs "not tied explicitly to the mining
operation", these they can cause sanctions inside the GATT and the
different forums of regulation of the world trade; Restricting markets
and becoming an onerous politics to medium term. There have
already been blockade initiatives to diverse factories with the
argument of hidden subsidies (to maintain low salary costs), and an
evident example is that of the difficulties of the European steel
industry with the United States.
In the face of the shortage of you lead qualified and
appropriately informed in organizations of the civil society, the
solution goes by wide programs of institutional invigoration and the
diffusion of the advances, especially those generated in the
specialized forums, as the XIII CYTED.
12
A group of measures that caused mainly modifications in the price of the actions,
since most of the big mining company's trade on the stock exchange, will have
immediate answer on the part of these companies, in comparison to any judicial or
administrative initiative.

PRACTICAL SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS IN MINING:

THE CASE OF ECUADOR
Cornejo Martínez Mauricio (l), Carrión Mero Paúl (2)
(1), (2) Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral
SUMMARY
From the decade of the 70’s, Ecuador has experienced a
change of vision regarding to the mining, with an impulse to the
metallic exploitations and those not metallic that have taken to
consider -to the mining- like an alternative that motivates the
economic growth of Ecuador to medium term. However, always
hidden for the oil exploitations that it has paid the economy of the
Ecuador even in the moments of the most serious economic crisis that
Ecuador has confronted; the mining has shown a growth that deserves
to be considered.
As it was previously said, we notice the little incidence of the
mining in the Ecuadorian economy, due to their relatively young
mining tradition. Nevertheless, the mining potential is encouraging.
According to PRODEMINCA, Ecuador could have a high potential
due to:
1. Favorable position along the coast of the Pacific Ocean, inside a
classic section of plate tectonics.
2. Indications of alluvial gold in most of the rivers in the spurs of
the Andes mountain range, as much the oriental as the westerner,
they demonstrate that the primary fields are still hidden.
3. The antecedents of proven and exploited fields from the times of
the conquest, for example: Nambija 62 T and Zaruma - Portovelo
160 T.
4. It is considered that the 16 bigger deposits of gold in Ecuador
possess reservations of > 700 T of gold and > 600 T of Ag
(PRODEMINCA, 2000). On the other hand, the main metallic

and not metallic exploitations concentrate geographically on the

Provinces of Guayas, Zamora Chinchipe, El Oro and Azuay that
possess more than a third of the total population of Ecuador.
Also, it fits to point out that due to the bureaucratic entity and
lack of laws that offer security for all the social factors, these
provinces find themselves in a position of abandonment with
many difficulties that the centralism has originated.
However, many organizations have helped to the informal
mining in the environmental, social and institutional aspect without
losing of view their technical motivation as the CENDA-COTESU-
PROJEKT CONSULT that have offered advice in the question of
detoxification and neutralization of mine waters and mitigation of the
effect caused by the inappropriate use of mercury in the mining
districts.
In consequence, the present work will try to synthesize, the
functionality of the use of sustainability indicators in the Ecuadorian
mining extraction. Without losing objectivity, the repercussion will
be analyzed inside the mark of sustainable development of the
country in front of the acquired commitment before the AGENDA 21
of the United Nations. Also several series indexes will be established
that will help to the evaluation inside the mark of sustainability of the
Ecuadorian mining industry.
1. FRAMEWORK OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN

ECUADOR.
1.1 Antecedents of Ecuador.
The Ecuador has a total surface of 283,560 Km2, of which
6,720 are sea and bodies of sweet water. Also has as its main current
resources: petroleum, wood, fish, and banana. With an arable
surface, according to the last agriculture and cattle raising census, of
12,640,000 Ha.

1.1.1 Social general mark of Ecuador.

The population of Ecuador is 13,183.978 inhabitants, with a
population growth rate of 2%, with natality rate of 25.99 births / 1000
inhabitants, a mortality rate of 5.44 deaths / 1000 inhabitants, with
population's total relationship of 0.99 men / women, with a life
expectancy of 71.33 years, with a fertility rate of 3.12 born children /
woman. These data were processed by national institute of statistical
and censuses until July of the 2001.
1.1.2 Institutional general mark of Ecuador.
The type of government from Ecuador is the Republic one; it
has 22 provinces whose administrative divisions are under the Law of
decentralization that governs the Ecuador, reason why it has
autonomy about environmental, social, educational and institutional
aspects.
• Executive ramification: presided over the President Gustavo
Noboa from January 22 the 2000, chosen by the National
Congress after the elect President's Jamil Mahuad deprivation. All
the Ministers are designated directly by the President of the
Republic.
• Legislative ramification: Conformed for the National Congress
with 121 seats; 79 members are chosen in popular election at
national level to serve during four years known as national
deputies, the other 42 are chosen individually, and each province
has two representatives to the congress known as provincial
deputies.
• Judicial ramification: Directed for the Supreme Tribunal or
Supreme Court of Justice
As main groups of political pressure we can mention the
CONAIE (Confederation of indigenous nationalities of Ecuador),
environmentalist Groups, unions, syndicates, etc.

1.1.3 Economic general mark of Ecuador.

Ecuador possesses a wide range of natural resources, thanks
to its geographical location, it possesses a benign climate for the
agriculture, a wide mining potential and a considerable oil reality.
The country exports primary products as oil, bananas,
shrimps, gold and flowers, whose fluctuations in the world market
prices can have repercussions in the general economy of the state due
to its participation in the national GDP. It is necessary to emphasize
that the economic growth has not been considerable in the last years,
in spite of the economic crisis that still carries its sequels. This crisis
caused by inadequate fiscal measures to Ecuadorian reality, for
natural phenomenons, such as the Phenomenon of “El Niño” and
volcanic eruptions like the Tungurahua and the Guagua Pichincha.
Added to these, one of the biggest problems of the current society is
the corruption that caused the “dominoes effect” in the landslide of
the national banking inducing to the freezing of deposited capitals,
distrust in the banking and an abrupt migration with the logical
sequels in the human aspect that this separation causes. In
consequence, the economic uncertainty led to a depreciation of 70%
of the national currency. In that time the Sucre, that forced to the
precipitate decision of “dollarization”, without taking into account the
conditions of the Country during the year 2000. This abrupt decision
seemingly has stabilized the national economy, however, the
negotiations has not still ended with the International Monetary Fund
for an agreement in the form that this organism will help Ecuador,
reason why the destination of the Country in the economic aspect is
uncertainty. It seems difficult that, with the current tributary system,
with the interest rates that the banking manages, the distrust
generalized in the national bank system, the flight of qualified and not
qualified manpower, the low indexes of productivity and
employment, Ecuador can push toward deep reformations in order to
create a sustained economic mark so that at least it lasts long time the
system of the dollarization with the consequent increase of the rate of

economic growth of the Ecuador. The consequences of the economic

crisis are dictated next in figures:
The population's percentage under the line of poverty: 50%
GDP: parity of the purchasing power: $37,
2 thousand millions (2000 est)
GDP-rate of true growth: 0.8%
GDP-per capita: $2.900
GDP-composition for sectors: Agriculture: 14%
Industry: 36%
Services: 50%
Inflation: 96%
Labor Force: 4.2 millions
Labor Force for occupation: Agriculture: 30%
Industry: 25%
Services: 45%
Unemployment rate: 13%
Public debt: $15 billion
Bank interest rate
(May of the 2002)
Active referential: 15.32%
Passive referential: 5.86%
Conventional (limits of usury): 22.65%
Interbank: 1.40%
1.1.4 Environmental mark.
Inside the environmental mark of Ecuador we can mention:
Coast longitude: 2,237 Km2

Territorial Sea: 200 Miles

Climate: Tropical along the coast, the interior is more fresh with the
highest elevations and tropical in the low lands of the forest.
Natural resources: Petroleum, fish, wood, hydroelectricity.
Uses of the land: Arable land: 6%
Permanent harvests: 5%
Permanent grasses: 18%
Forests and wooded: 56%
Other: 15%
Arable earth: 12,640,000 Ha. (agricultural census, 2002)
Natural dangers: earthquakes, landslides, volcanic activity, periodic
droughts, the phenomenon of El Niño.
Environmental problems: destruction of trees, erosion of the floor,
desertification, water contamination, urban solid waste
contamination, floods.
International agreements: Treaty of the Antarctic, Protocol of climate
change in Kyoto, species on danger, protection of the ozone layer,
tropical wood 83.
2. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MINING IN

ECUADOR.
2.1 Social aspect.
One can affirm that the aspect that glitters the most inside the
context of mining sustainable development is the social one. Inside
this aspect, there are extenuating things that increase the situation,
mainly of the mining to small scale. One of the main ones is the
labor health, where inherent risks have been identified to the mining
like: the intoxication, lung infections, risks of explosions, and body
deterioration due to the physical effort. However, combined efforts of
private and public companies exist, that have mitigated the problem

in certain measure, always having the advice of the Switzerland

Government and the World Bank one can help in this aspect.
But a bigger problem exists like the one related with the
psychosocial tensions, derived of work conditions, quality of life and
depressions due to the separation with dear beings. Many of the
mining establishments are located in rural areas with little or none
infrastructure, services and clinics that even increase the precarious
mining situation. Also like they are populated centers where the
police surveillance barely exists, this has caused that the violence
proliferates, the alcoholism and the prostitution. The topic of the
prostitution is as difficult as the health one, because it has been
detected sick persons of AIDS in Ponce Enríquez's populations and
Shumiral that had been contaminated inside the near towns to the
mining centers.
Another important aspect of the social vision is the one that is
related with autochthonous groups as indigenous communities or
communes, that being taken by political groups or environmental
extremist they have spread an idea of repulsion to the mining with a
series of accusations, due to the consequent contamination and the
social problems that this brings. However, the lack of
communication, concerning to the activities that the mining company
carries out with regard to the execution of the environmental plan
handling and social compensation, they are the main causes of the
apparent civic disapproval, besides a lack of discharge arguments.
2.2 Institutional aspect.
As it was previously said, the evolution of the different laws
has taken a common factor as it is that the minerals are very common
and that the commercialization corresponds to the state. Nevertheless,
the only civic participation for taking of decisions on this resources in
the provincial Council and the municipal Council, because in the state
environment, the revenues that the mining generates are dedicated to
cover administrative expenses and technical dependences in the

Ministry of Energy and Mines, reason why an organism succession

hasn’t settle down and participate in the mining address in Ecuador.
In 1991, Ecuador lacked environmental norms in mining, but
with the implementation of the Environmental Regulation for mining
activities in the Republic of the Ecuador in 1997, that establishes
parameters to be done in the different steps in order to obtain an
environmental license, it also marks the responsible entities for the
reception and control of impact studies and plan of environmental
handling as they are the Regional Addresses of Mining and, the entity
responsible for the correction and approval of the same ones as it is
the Ministry of Energy and Mines. On the other hand, in this
regulation, the environmental guarantee was established for the very
first time for proven damages on the mining part, it also establishes
the possibility to carry out impact studies for groups or communities
with their respective combined plan of handlings.
The Ministry of Energy and Mines, gives the responsibility of
governing the legal part from the Ecuadorian mining to the Sub-
secretary of Mines, also the mining environmental unit that corrects
and approves the plans of environmental handling. But with the
Modernization Law of the State, the unit can hire specialized
consultants to carry out these tasks. But in the year 1997 the Ministry
of the Atmosphere was created, and seeking protection in the Law of
Mining of the year 2000, it’s established that under the coordination
of the Ministry of the Atmosphere the sub-Secretary of environmental
Protection of the Ministry of Energy and Mines will act. Practically
the figure institution has not moved, nevertheless some sectors affirm
that it should have more radio of action in mining questions.
On the other hand, the politics of the state with regard to the
mining are weak, there are not impulses that can grant security to
national or foreign investments, so that it promotes levels of
decentralization and stimulate the distribution of the benefits better.
The legal bases exist in Ecuador, but an application of the norms

doesn't exist to towns and indigenous communities. In this aspect

there is a very flimsy previous figure that limits the performance from
the communities only with the previous consultation, to participate of
the benefits and being reimbursed in the event of arising physical and
biotic damages of their sector.
2.3 Economic aspect.
Inside the macroeconomic indicators one has the contribution
that the mining activity gives to the GDP, in this aspect it is marginal
the contribution that makes the bonuses of the mining activity, of
course when it’s compare to the contributions that the oil and banana
industry makes in the Ecuador. On the other hand, the information
that is possessed in order to regularizing the offer and national
demand is very insipient and it is not pertinent, said otherwise it is
very little and of bad quality and also it is not attached to the reality,
what doesn't give us an idea of the true proportion that the mining
contributes to the Ecuadorian global economy.
On the other hand, in the macroeconomic aspect, the mining
helps to improve the levels of revenues and it opens a wide range of
employments directly or indirectly bound to this. It is important to
indicate that with the new investigations in order to prospect that
have been carried out in the country to look for metallic and not
metallic; the reserves of these have been increased in such a way that
also becomes tempting in the economic aspect.
2.3.1 Ecuadorian mining production.
When we speak of mining production in the Ecuador, we
refer to two poles like they are the gold and the limestone. Said
otherwise, the exploitation of metallic during this century has been
dedicated almost in their entirety to the extraction of gold from the
districts of Nambija, Zaruma-Portovelo and Ponce Enríquez, and also
we have the exploitation of auriferous pleasures in the spurs of the
Los Andes mountain range. Also, in the non metallic aspect the

biggest industry that consumes prime matter it is the Cement plant

and the construction activities, evidently the enormous limestone
locations that appear from the outskirts of the city of Guayaquil until
almost the line of Coast along 130 Km., they are the main resource
for the metallic mining exploitation in the Country.
The exploitation of gold from the beginnings of the century
was directed mainly in the district of Zaruma-Portovelo in the
province of El Oro, however the great quantity of informal miners
doesn't allow to have an right estimation of the quantity of gold that is
processed. The same thing happens with Ponce-Enríquez in the
province of Azuay and also in the sector of Nambija in the province
of Zamora - Chinchipe. In this sense, 78.1% of the gold production
corresponds to the province of El Oro with 18,047,953 grams of gold.
As for the non metallic exploitations it has been focused in
the extraction of the limestones, clays and feldspars for the cement
plant industry. We will also emphasize that 76.9% of the limestone
production in the Ecuador corresponds to Guayas with 20,528,176
Tons of limestone, most part of it correspond to the National Cement.
It has also been exploited, but in smaller degree, such materials as:
siliceous sands for the industry of the glass, bentonites mainly for the
oil industry and industrial minerals for export like pumice stone and
marbles.
To synthesize the economic aspects we use the data of INEC
(national Institute of statistical and censuses) about mining. Which
throw a growth of the "establishments" between 1981 and 1998 from
18 to 39, as well as the Total production mounts from 7,308,000 USD
to 29,952,000 USD approximately. The establishments that grew the
most were those linked with the metallic mining from the 16 to 49%
approximately. In consequence, the mining activity that grew faster
in the last two decades was the metallic mining. However, the data
due to the informality of this activity could not reflect the real
magnitude of this activity.

In summary, until March of the 2001, 859 inscribed

concessions have been granted that embrace 385,606 mining hectares,
which 34.6% of the concessions correspond at exploration and the
65.4 for omission correspond at exploitation. This proportion
indicates the grade of approval of the mining projects, that is to say
the percentage of projects that pass from an exploration phase to a
phase of exploitation. Nevertheless, 83.2 % of the total area
corresponds to exploration and only 16.8% corresponds to
exploitation.
2.3.2 Mining contribution to the GDP.
In the last 20 years, two stages exist in the evolution of the
contributions of the mining (in this epigraph when we refer to mining
we are involving the metallic and not metallic mining) because from
1980 up to 1988 the contribution incremented from 0.3 up to 1.2%,
after this year fell up to 0.5% and it has stayed in the last years. This
stagnation can obey the fell up of the gold price in the international
markets, lack of total production registrations.
2.3.3 Investments in the mining activities.
The mining investments oscillated, in the last three years,
between 6 millions and 4 million dollars. 62.3% corresponds to
explorations and 37.7% to exploitations. As for the public expense,
up to 1988 the contribution of the state was insipient, from 1% of the
expenditures.
2.3.4 Wages and employments.
Generally, in the areas of mining exploitation are hired
autochthonous personal and those that sporadically go there, because
most of the works don't require bigger qualification, they are also
temporary and without any public health benefit or doctors. For that,
many times their remuneration is a little bit higher that the vital
minimum wage. Also, another employment factor is the indirect one.
This employment type is conformed by those that supply of inputs of

first necessity that are generally people close to the personnel that
work in the mine. It is considered that 92 thousand people work in
mining, which conform 0.6% of the economically active population
(PEA). However when it is analyzed the rural PEA, the numbers
change, because one have 80.2 % of the PEA, but the real percentage
of those who get a salary is 42.7%, meanwhile the other 42.2% work
on their own.
2.3.5 Exports.
Very little dynamism exists, as for the figures of exported
values, because the registrations are not pertinent. An good example
is the case of Nambija. In Nambija of 100% of gold production, one
has just registered around 50%, while 35% escapes for the frontiers,
mainly for the Peru and finally 15% was used in the internal market.
It similarly happens in other mining areas of the country.
On the other hand, the industrial minerals are exported in
almost sporadic way because the entirety exploited material is for
internal consumption. It is necessary to emphasize that certain
materials had peak like the pumice stone in 1995; however with the
inclusion in the market of “substitute materials”, it blocked what
seemed to be a flourishing source of foreign currencies for the
country.
2.4 Environmental aspect.
Leaving from the fact that in Ecuador, in the last two decades
it has been developed of handmade mining (Law of mining of 1991,
Titles X, Of the special Regimens) to small scale mining (*) (law for
the Promotion of the Investment and Civic Participation (Law Trole
II) of the 2000), with certain advances in the legal questions has been
able to, in certain way, to control the environmental aspect of the
mining exploitations, including the metallic and not metallic. Since
the small scale mining it’s considered as the most aggressive in
environmental sense, also to have idea of the magnitude of the small

mining, during the year 2000 the contribution of this type of mining
to the total mining production was around 83.5%, also the
participation of the non metallic exploitations, for example plaster,
marble, barytes, zeolite was just of 30%.
Nevertheless, in spite of the efforts in the legal part that are
being carried out to formalize and to normalize the mining works, it
doesn't exist a reliable database that can be analyzed for successive
environmental monitoring, in order to evaluate the impacts along the
time and space.
Another aspect is the distribution of the mining activities in
Ecuador, although mining exists in the whole Country, just in the
Counties of Guayas, El Oro, Azuay and Zamora Chinchipe exist
mines that has some technology degree and production practice. Also
the areas where the mining works settle are of high environmental
sensibility as primary forests and with a high biodiversity grade.
There also bodies of water that cross some of them and that in lower
areas this water is used for irrigable and alive beings' consumption.
The mining has caused colonizations around the mining activities it is
calculated that 60,000 people inhabit near the mainly metallic mining
exploitations in the Country. These aspects impacts, due to the
precarious conditions of life, high risk of natural disasters, and biota
contamination that before the mining works they would have
remained unalterable.
The mining exploitations have also caused also the following
impacts:
Non technical use of the mercury, mainly in the mining of
gold.
Inappropriate location of remainders.
Mining Subsidence, caused by non-technical designs of
tunnels without the due disposition of struts or fortifications.

Atmospheric contamination caused by powders and noises,

mainly due to non metallic mining in areas near to urban
establishments.
Deterioration of the environmental quality in areas of mining
exploitations.
Finally, the environmental Regulation for mining activities of
the Republic of Ecuador (1997) is the first normative instrument of
this type that is dictated in the country, in order to mitigate, to correct,
to compensate and to annul the environmental impacts caused by the
mining.
3. SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS FOR THE MINING

ACTIVITIES IN ECUADOR.
As it was previously pointed out, the activities in Ecuador -in
the mining area - are relatively new. Gradually it has been sought to
fill legal spaces, institutional and also cultural and social holes.
Nevertheless, in spite of the lack of the elements before mentioned, it
is sought to create a feeling of commitment that forces the social
actors involved inside this activity, to fulfill with the things specified
in the law(*). Next it is pointed out, to the authors' approach, the
indicators that in function of the reality and being the most objective
thing, they can mark rules to establish the grade of growth of the
mining activities in Ecuador.
(*) It was ratified the term of small scale mining in the Substitute
General Regulation of the General Regulation of the mining Law,
promulgated April 17 the 2001, which is in vigor at the moment.

3.1. Social Indicators in the Mining


3.2. Institucional Indicators in the Mining


3.3. Environmental indicators in the mining


3.4. Economic indicators in the mining

(*) It can also be related with numbers of dependent people of the

mining like employees, it is considered that the mining employees are
92000 people of which can serve as denominator in the indicators to
evaluate their evolution.
4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.

Leaving from what was previously said, we notice that in
Ecuador we have no control over the emissions, also that it doesn’t
exist a real institutional figure that regularizes and can sanction the
offenders of any type of environmental damage. Also, so that a
process of sustained development can take place, the environmental
administration should be based on pertinent and affordable data, for
what is imperative to establish some institution that monitories and
controls the environmental and social indicators in the different
points that the mining areas are seated. Also, it should establish
priorities in the social objectives as housing, basic services, health
and education to improve the mark of the sustainable development.
On the other hand, the sustainable development strategies
must be participative in the sense of arriving to a consent in the
objectives and ways to achieve the proposed goals. Inside Ecuador,
that has been the main problem: the lack of communication. Also
that these media and transfer of information is available for all those
implied in the mining activity. Therefore, all mining activity must
seek protection in the legislative figure of the “Previous
Consultation” to obtain this consent that helps the mining
development in the Country.
As the mining activity it is relatively new, the legislation has
had to transform gradually until, aided in the State Law of
Modernization, at the moment is in a process of decentralization. For
that, the responsibility relapses on local entities that are still
“adapting” to its new responsibilities.

To conclude, it is also important for the mining activities the

access to fresh capitals and foreign investment that helps to the
investigation, development and training of the groups immerses in the
sustainable development of the mining. However, in Ecuador with
interest rates of 15-22% with which the banks are managed in
Ecuador, it is very difficult to make the decision of carrying out such
companies, because they should have a period of recovery of very
short capital, what is not the case of the mining activities in Ecuador,
due to the geologic uncertainty and the economic uncertainty.
Therefore, it is almost null the access to credits for the development
of the mining.
5. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
COMMISSION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
UNITED NATIONS, Calendar 21, Indicators of the sustainable
Development for the countries, 1992.
CENTRAL BANK OF ECUATOR. Inform economic, 2002.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STATISTICAL and CENSUSES,
Inform socioeconomic situation per provinces in Ecuador, 1997.
NATIONAL ADDRESS OF Mining, Report of mining Cadaster of
Ecuador, 2000.
MINISTRY OF ENERGY and MINES, environmental Regulation for
mining exploitations in Ecuador, 2001.

SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS IN THE SPANISH

EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRY
Dr. Arsenio González Martínez and Domingo Carvajal Gómez
CYTED XIII-D - Huelva University -High Polytechnic School
The Rabida Campus - 21819-Palos de la Frontera. Huelva. Spain
arsenio@uhu.es - dcarvaj@uhu.es
ABSTRACT
In the literature specialized in sustainability indicators in the
European Union and in environmental indicators in Spain there is not
an important absence regarding the natural resources renewable, for
what the progresses cannot be measured in the environmental
dimension of the mining companies and if the performances are
adjusted to the Strategy of Sustainable Development that praises for
years the European Union and for the one that comes betting in a
resolved way through the European Environment Agency (EEA).
For the importance of the thematic one and of the extractive
industry in Spain, in this report a study of the situation of the
sustainability indicators is made and they intend some from the
qualitative point of view based on the experience of the authors, with
the purpose of contributing to travel the one on the way to the
necessity of a mining whose sustainability can be evaluated as soon
as possible by means of indexes that allow to know the progress in
the execution of the environmental commitments on the part of the
mining companies, to compare some performances with other and to
serve as base for the design of the environmental administration in
mining.

1. THE MARK OF THE SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS IN

THE EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRY
The necessity to measure and comparisons that allow to those
responsible for the environmental politicians to have excellent
information that drives to establish control measures and
administration of the sustainability of the natural resources, to settle
down leads to potenciar nowadays the investigation of those
denominated environmental indicators (Jiliberto, 1996).
The sustainability indicators are a category of environmental
indicators used to measure the progresses in the environmental
dimension in a strategy of sustainable development (EEA, 2002).
Since they can be defined many indicators it is necessary to
optimize their election to allow to pick up the biggest possible
information with the smallest number of indicators. This is not an
easy task, since detailed studies and experience are needed.
The study but serious that has been carried out in Spain to
this respect he has gone guided to present a first proposal of
environmental indicators (Jiliberto, op. cit.), based on the pressure-
state-answer system that has been adopted by the countries that
integrate the OCED -Organization of Cooperation and of Economic
Development- and that it develops what is made in the main
organizations at international level in this field (European Union,
Canada, Sweden, etc.).
In the ordination approaches that have been continued for it
prevails it the definition of areas based on big means (atmosphere,
waste, water, etc.). The proposed outline consists of four main areas,
being divided the area of natural resources in turn in five subáreas:
1. Atmosphere
2. Waste
3. Population

4. Natural resources
4.1. Biodiversity
4.2. Forests
4.3. Coast ecosystems
4.4. Marine ecosystems
4.5. Soils
4.6. Waters
With the purpose of selecting the appropriate information for
the pursuit of the sustainability objectives the areas they are
structured in environmental topics –excellent topics of environmental
character - and inside each area and for each environmental topic they
have been selected a series of indicators that they respond in turn to a
mark of causation (pressure-state-answer) that doesn't seek another
thing that to link the effects of the human activities on the state of the
environment and the social answer that it modulates those activities
for an approach to a certain ecological balance.
In the following table the structure of the proposal of the
Spanish system of environmental indicators is shown (Jiliberto, op.
cit.).

POLITIC ENVIRONMENTAL THEMATIC INDICATORS (*) OF

AREAS → ASPECTS → PRESSURE-STATE ANSWER
Destruction layer of Thickness of the layer of ozone
ATMOSPHERE
ozone
Global heating Emissions of CO2
Acidification Emissions of SO2
Photochemical Inmissions of NO2 population
contamination
Elimination of waste Net production of toxic and dangerous
WAST
waste
E
Volume of mires generated in purifying
Atmospheric Inmissions of SO2 regarding legislated
POPULA
contamination values
TION
Urban deteriorations % population's with ordinances of noise

Surface of green areas for inhabitant
Specie and ecosystem Vulnerable species and in extinction
BIODI
VERSITY
disappearances danger
Index of agricultural escalation
NATURAL RESOURCES
Quality and extension of Rate of variation of the forest mass

FORESTS
the forest
COAST Change the uses % of the surface of the coast occupied
ECO
SYSTEMS Contamination by constructions
MARINE Overexploitation Fishing capacity in jurisdictional waters
ECO
SYSTEMS Contamination
SOILS Soil erosions Hydrological-forest repopulation
Water quality River longitude with quality of bad
WATERS water
Water quantity Aquifer overexploitations
9 AREAS / 18 TOPICS 79 INDICATORS
SUBÁREAS
(*) Alone they are picked up in this table some of the 79 selected indicators
It structures of the proposal of the Spanish system of
environmental indicators (Jiliberto, 1996)
It is of standing out that in this proposal the sustainable use of
the susceptible natural resources of exploitation includes to the
renewable resources and it doesn't contemplate the mining resources.

Particularizing in the Andalusian Community, in which

exercise our activities, is of interest for the context of our report
indicating that the Plan of environment of Andalusia 1995-2000
(CMA, 1995) it already established seven topics or performance areas
(that were of high-priority concern of the European Union as regards
environment in the years ninety, and that they follow it being at the
present time):
1. I change climatic
2. Acidification and quality of the atmosphere
3. Biodiversity and protection of the nature
4. Water administrations
5. Urban environment
6. Coastal areas
7. Waste administrations
For the performance in these thematic ones instruments and
measures were developed as the following ones:
- it improves of the information on the environment
- scientific investigation and technological development
- sectoral and space planning
- correct fixation of prices
- it improves of the public information and the environmental
education
- professional and continuous formation
- financial attendance
When describing the environmental situation of the natural
resources of Andalusia the plan he dedicated alone some lines to say
something obvious as it is the one that the ground resources constitute
one of the clearest example of what they are the non renewable
resources.

The plan justified the decadence of the Andalusian mining for

the widespread crisis of the world mining, that makes that the
profitability of many exploitations descends in mining districts that in
times they were of great prosperity (Linares-La Carolina, in the
county of Jaén; pyrite belt of Huelva-Sevilla; basin of the Guadiato,
in the county of Córdoba).
To likeness with what has been exposed before, the plan
neither outlined the study of the environmental repercussions of the
mining by means of the use of indicators, and it although the mining
contributes with 12% of the gross production of the Andalusian
industry.
On the other hand, the plan recognized to provide the mark of
a new position of the environment in Andalusia to achieve the
sustainable development and fixed the evaluation indicators and
pursuit of the same one (CMA, op. cit.):
1. Physical indicators
1.1. Indicators of the plan of urban environment
1.2. Indicators of the biodiversity plan
1.3. Indicators of the Andalusian forest plan
1.4. Indicators of the coast plan
1.5. Indicators of the plan of water
1.6. Indicators of the plan of development of compatible
activities with the environment
2. Financial indicators
In the public information on environmental protection in the
autonomous Community of Andalusia (JA, 1999) the main threats are
described to the environment (he doesn't make an appointment for
anything the extractive industry):
- The atmospheric contamination

- The water
- The disappearance of the forests
- The ozone hole
- The erosion and the desertization
- The effect hothouse
- The energy
- The waste
At international level the use of environmental indicators to
measure the ecological behavior of the companies has received a
great impulse with the presentation of the report 2001 Environmental
Sustainability Index, in the last meeting of the World Economic
Forum, taken place in January of 2001 in Davos (Switzerland). There
it became public the result of the collaboration among the group of
work of environment -Global Leaders for Tomorrow (GLT)- of the
World Economic Forum's, the Center for the Politics and the
Environmental Legislation of the University of Yale and the
University of Columbia –a inclination of their Center for the Net of
Information of the Science of the Earth–. In this report it is clear that
to measure the environmental sustainability of a country or a sector
can be complicated if indicators are not used that are comparable.
The report picks up an analysis of the progresses carried out
by 122 countries from the point of view of its sustainability. That is to
say, according to their capacity to put into practice the concept of
sustainable development –that allows the current development
without putting in danger the capacity of the future generations to
satisfy their necessities–. The indexes seek to measure in a numeric
way the ecological efforts of a country, a sector or, even, a company,
through variables as emissions to different means, consumption and
saving of water, generation of residuals and impact in the ecosystems.
The study is based on the analysis of 22 indicators that
combine 6 variables that, in turn, they give place at 67 different

(Fernández, 2001; WEF, 2001; www.weforum.org). Starting from

this information, the universities and organisms responsible for the
report have tried to establish an index of environmental sustainability
–Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI)–. The index seeks to offer
a base of comparison of the environmental conditions of different
countries. She also seeks to become a support to the taking of
decisions on the application of political ecological.
In general, a high index indicates that a country has achieved
a high level of environmental sustainability. On the other hand one
under it indicates that the country is having problems to achieve a
sustainable behavior.
The main problem that presents the use of sustainability
indicators is the lack of comparability of the ecological data that they
are used as starting point. The file and the organization of all this
information is, according to the study, one of the priorities at local,
national and international level.
Also, according to the report, “the economic conditions
affect, but they don't determine, the environmental aspects”. The
comparison among different indicators reveals that the decisions in
both fields don't always go of the hand.
Among the challenges to confront in next years the main one
seems to be centered in to define with clarity the used concepts and to
try to harmonize their use. Among these concepts, she is that of the
base triple –triple bottom line– that defends the realization of efforts
in three slopes: the economic one, the social one and the
environmental one. The experts agree, also in that the sustainability
index should be based in a series of common components. This way,
they highlight as aspects key the reduction of the ecological
problems, the human vulnerability, the environmental systems and
the social and institutional capacity.
The main sustainability indexes proposed are (WEF, op. cit.):

Environmental systems:
– Air quality
– Water quantity
– Water quality
– Biodiversity
– Territorial systems
Reduction against the exhaustion of resources:
– Prevention of the air contamination
– Minimization of the water consumption
– Reduction of the ecosystems exhaustion
– It fights against the pressures it has more than enough
waste and consumption
– Measures against the pressures on the population
Reduction of the human vulnerability:
– People's basic necessities
– environmental health
Social and institutional capacity:
– Science and technology
– Regulation and administration
– Responsibility of the private sector
– Eco efficiency
– You distort of the public mechanisms
Global behavior
The conclusions of the study were:
– The environmental sustainability can be appraisable through
indicators.

– They have been detected more than 67 variables inside 22

indicators that allow to create sustainability ratios in 122
countries.
– The indexes allow to establish a comparison, through the
benchmarking1 technique, of the environmental conditions in
different countries and the possibility of those responsible for
the taking of decisions about the necessity of ecological
changes with a rigorous analytic base.
– The economic conditions affect, but they don't determine, the
environmental aspects.
– The non comparability of data environmental file the
mensuration of the sustainability.
Among the multiple actions undertaken by the European
Environment Agency to show the interest of the sustainability
indicators it highlights the proposal to the Meeting of the European
Union, taken place in Barcelona in March of 2002, so that this finally
grants to the environment the since rightfully it corresponds him
(EEA, 2002). For it the Agency contributed data and evaluations of
the sustainability indicators used by the European Union to measure
the progresses in the environmental dimension of the Strategy of
Sustainable Development:
- I change climatic
- Transport
- Production and energy use
1
I process of identifying, to understand, and to adapt practical exceptional (the best
to the but low cost) with the purpose of helping to improve the operation of
organizations in any place of the world. It is a practice highly respected in the world
of the business. It is an activity that she looks toward it was to find the best practice
and the high yield and later it measures real business operations of agreement with
those goals

- Public health in their relationship with the urban

contamination
- Production and administration of urban waste
Although it is foreseen that in the future they will leave
perfecting and enlarging the indicators the certain thing is that in that
list indicators neither appear to measure the sustainability of the
extractive industry, and it in spite of philosophies so interesting as the
one managed in that Meeting “the climatic change, the transport, the
energy, the waste or the tourism are among the motive forces and
press on the environment that they are reflected in the landscape and
the territory in one or another way; in fact, the landscape and the
territory can be considered like a metaphor of the environment: the
sustainable development is largely sustainable use of the soil and of
the territory.”
Soon after this Meeting of Barcelona the States members of
the Union has requested since they are included among the indicators
of sustainable development the changes in the uses of the soil and of
the territory and its relationships with the protection of the nature and
the biodiversity, among other matters.
As we know, the mining has a lot to say in all this, but the
certain thing is that at the moment it doesn't consider it to him.
The day in that sustainability indicators for the extractive
industry figure in that list a great step will have been given in the
European and international space, since it is necessary to indicate that
the European Environment Agency (EEA) it is the main source of
information for the European Union and their States members when
developing political environmental. The Agency has as objective to
support the sustainable development and to help to get a significant
improvement and quantifycable of the European environment
facilitating a modernized information, specific, pertinent and
trustworthy to those responsible for the environmental politics and to
the public in general. Created by the European Union in 1990 and

operative in Copenhagen from 1994, the EEA constitutes the central

axis of the European Net of Information and Observation of the
environment (ENETIO), a net of about 600 organisms through which
the Agency gathers and it diffuses data and information related with
the environment. The Agency, open to all the nations that share its
objectives, has twenty-nine countries members at the present time:
the fifteen States members of the European Union; Iceland, Norway
and Liechtenstein (members of the European Economic Space) and
eleven of the thirteen countries of central Europe and of the east and
of the mediterranean area candidates to the adhesion to the UE:
Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia,
Lithuania, Malt, Rumania, Eslovenia and the Slovak Republic. The
incorporation of these countries transforms to the Agency into the
first organism of the UE in admitting to countries candidates to the
adhesion to the UE. It is possible that the two countries remaining
candidates, Poland and Turkey, ratify their agreements in next
months. With it, the countries members of the Agency will add thirty
and one. Also, they are in course negotiations with Switzerland.
In the VI Program of Action of the Environment European
Community 2001–2010 (CCE, 2001) it is opened the way when
including the sustainable administration of the non renewable
resources. Would it rot the extractive industry to find this program it
is the opportunity and the place that correspond him? he will be
necessary to wait!.
At the moment, the certain thing is that it represents the only
program where is bet with determination by the environmental
administration of the resources.
This new program establishes environmental objectives for
next 10 years and further on, and it determines the measures that it is
necessary to adopt in a term from 5 to 10 years to reach them.
Although the program is centered in measures and commitments that
it is necessary to assume at community level, it also indicates the

measures and responsibilities that it is necessary to adopt at national,

regional and local level, as well as in the different economic sectors.
The conclusions of the global evaluation and of the reports on
the state and tendencies of the environment have guided to the
program toward a series of high-priority questions that they have
grouped in four main topics (CCE, op. cit.):
1. To solve the problem of the climatic change
2. Nature and biodiversity: to protect an unique resource
3. Environment and health
4. Sustainable administration of natural resources and waste.
The program will be object of a revision in 2005, and she will
modify and it will modernize if it is necessary in view of the
evolution of the situation and to keep in mind new data.
The philosophy of the program is based in that the wise use
of the natural resources of the planet and the protection of the world
ecosystem are indispensable factors for a sustainable development,
besides for the economic prosperity and a balanced social
development. The long term well-being of the society in Europe and
the world, and the patrimony that we will leave our children and
grandsons depend that the development is sustainable. The program
points out the ecological problems that have to be solved so that the
development is sustainable:
- I change climatic
- excessive use of renewable and not renewable natural
resources
- biodiversity loss
- accumulation of toxic and persistent chemical substances in
the environment.

The program proposes five high-priority strategies that they

will help to complete the environmental objectives:
- The first one consists on improving the application of the
effective legislation
- The second have for object to integrate the environmental
problem in the decisions that are adopted in other politicians
- The third seek to find new roads to work in a more narrow
way with the market through companies and consumers
- The fourth search to qualify each citizen to allow him to
modify their behavior
- The fifth, lastly, it is guided to perfect the planning and
administration of the uses of the soil
For the colateral interest that has with the thematic object of
the report, we analyze the strategy of sustainable use of the natural
resources and administration of residuals shortly.
The objective of this strategy is the one of getting that the
consumption of renewable and not renewable resources doesn't
overcome the capacity of load of the environment; to dissociate
consumption of resources and economic growth by means of a
remarkable increase of the efficiency of the resources, the
desmaterialización of the economy and the prevention of the
residuals.
The resources of the planet, mainly renewable resources as
the soil, the water, the air and the wood, they support a strong
pressure of the human society. A strategy is needed centered in such
measures as taxes and incentives that it guarantees a more sustainable
exploitation of the resources. The volume of generated residuals will
continue increasing if measured proofreaders don't take. The
prevention of the residuals will be a fundamental element of the
politics's position integrated on the products. It is necessary to adopt
other measures to impel the one recycled and the use of residuals.

The use of non renewable resources as the metals, the

minerals and the hydrocarbons and the production of waste that
generate has numerous repercussions about the environment and the
health of people. The consumption of limited non renewable
resources puts us also before the moral dilemma of deciding the
quantity of resources that we can use today and the quantity that we
have to leave to the future generations, but this question is not strictly
of environmental nature and it is preferable to treat her inside a global
strategy of sustainable development.
The strategy of the European Union on the sustainable use of
the non renewable resources goes the appropriate political mark that
allows to define approaches to fix two basic priorities to settle down:
- the necessary realization of the analysis tasks and of
collection of data to determine the resources that are in a
situation more difficult; these approaches will be good to
determine if the damages caused to the environment by the
use of a concrete resource threaten to be long term and
irreversible, if substitutes can be for the future generations,
etc.
- to apply specific political measures that allow to reduce the
consumption of these resources, for example modifying the
conditions of the demand, improving the effectiveness of
their use and impeding their waste increasing the percentages
of having recycled economic.
Among the measures that could figure in a thematic strategy
as the suitable one it is necessary to mention:
- The investigation and the technological development of
products and processes of production that consummate less
resources
- Programs of development of the best practices dedicated to
the companies

- Transfer of the fiscal load to the use of the natural resources,

the creation of a tax on the products and the use of other
economic instruments, such as the trade of the emission
rights, to encourage to the companies to adopt technologies,
products and services that make an effective use of the
resources
- Elimination of the subsidies that foment the excessive use of
resources
- Integration of considerations of effective use of the resources
in the integrated politics of products, plans of having labeled
ecological, political ecological of public recruiting and a
system of presentation of reports on the environment.
Among the recent contributions at international level for the
search and definition of sustainability indicators for the extractive
industry and for the discussion of their credibility they are necessary
to highlight those of Azapagic (2000), Forero (2000) and Vargas
(2000).
Based on them, we formulate a proposal of indicators next for
the Spanish extractive industry.
2. PROPOSAL OF SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS FOR

THE EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRY
The position for our proposal portions of the base that a
sustainability indicator is different from an environmental indicator.
In the extractive industry they are known many indicative,
essentially of environmental impact (for example acidity of the water,
particles in the air, level of noise, etc.), but alone they have been
defined some few sustainability indicators (Azapagic, op. cit.;
Vargas, op. cit.) and some of them are annoying when quantifying
them (Forero, op. cit.).

For that reason we seek to go further on and to propose

qualitative indicators of sustainability, simple of evaluating but they
define of the state of sustainability of the extractive industry and with
universal validity it stops whichever it is the sector that it is.
The methodology that we propose is based on the realization
from a sustainability test to the mining company that it is. The
support of the test is indicative of sustainability, each one of which it
is evaluated with answers yes/no to a series of simple questions but
that they respond to actions keys on the part of the mining company.
Starting from this test she is defined an Global Sustainability
Index (GSI):
   
   
 ∑ (TC + AC + ELC + SCC)  x100  ∑ (TC + AC + ELC + SCC)  x100
 
 YES   YES 
GSI(%) = =
Total actions 28
If the GSI > 50% the extractive activity would be in the field
of the sustainability and it would be so much more sustainable the
more she approached at 100.
If the GSI < 50% the extractive activity would enter in the
field of the non sustainability and therefore the mining company
should thoroughly revise all the actions that it carries out.
In the following square the indicators of proposed
sustainability are shown.

Name of Action type It completes

the the action
indicator YES NO
Is the genetic pattern of location known?
Does it exist a planning of the use and
TECHNICAL CHARACTERIZATION
administration of the mineral reserves?
Does it exist a geomecanical characterization
of the exploitation and their environment?
Does a system of integral administration of
the water exist?
Does a program of prevention of labor risks
TC
exist?
Does a plan of ordination of the mining
territory exist?
Is the method of exploitation optimized?
Has some certification of administration of
the quality been obtained (ISO 9000)?
Does plan of closing of the mining activity
exist?
Does some plan of energy efficiency exist?
Does it exist pursuit program and control of
emissions?
Has some certification of environmental
CHARACTERIZATION
ENVIRONMENTAL
administration been obtained (ISO 14000)?

Do studies of evaluation of environmental
impact of the project exploitation exist?
EC
Is the plan of mining restoration completed?

Has she had the mining company some
environmental audit?
Is some program of minimization of waste
continued (zero discharge)?
Does a plan of minimization of
environmental damages exist?

Name of Action type It completes

the the action
indicator YES NO
Is it known the degree of execution of the
CHARACTERI-
normative one and environmental
ECONOMIC-
ZATION
legislation?
LEGAL
Are the administrative, fiscal and labor
requirements completed?
Has it foreseen the company some bottom of
guarantee of their activities?
Is there informative transparency on the part
SOCIO-CULTURAL CHARACTERIZATION
of the mining company?

Does it exist compromise and social
responsibility of the company with their
employees?
Have protection performances and
valorization of the patrimony been
undertaken?
Do programs of continuous formation and
SCC
training exist for the employment?

Do mechanisms of civil participation exist in
the company decisions?
Does a study of social demand of the mining
product exist?
Does linking of the mining company exist in
local Agenda 21?
Does a study exist on repercussions of the
mining activity in the population?
∑
Disposition of indicators and actions for the sustainability test
A high GSI would indicate that the mining company has
achieved a high level of environmental sustainability. On the other
hand a low GSI indicates that the mining company is having
problems to achieve a sustainable behavior.

It is necessary to stand out that the proposed indicators are

qualitative, that is to say they are not based on quantities (physical
measures), and that it stops their definition they have been considered
the following basic principles (FEA, 1997; in Vargas, 2000):
- Comparability: that allow to make comparisons and to reflect
changes of environmental impacts.
- Orientation for objectives: that pursue goals of improvement
that can be influenced by the company.
- Balance: that propitiate a coherent focus among the
environmental acting, the areas of environmental problems
and the potentials of improvement.
- Continuity: that use the same selection approaches in every
period and that they refer to comparable intervals.
- Opportunity: that they are determined with short and enough
intervals and the use of untimely information is avoided.
- Clarity: that are clear and comprehensible for the company
and the user, also coherent and that they concentrate on the
essential aspects.
The uses of the proposed system dog serve ace it bases to it
defines action plans for the sustainable development of the extractive
industry whose object is the implementation of politicians that they
allow to advance to the mining companies and the local community
where they it plows framed toward social the, economic and
environmental sustainability.
They will also be able to be used in the territorial ordination
of mining spaces and even in the definition of strategic ecosystems2
(Agudelo, 2002).
2
A strategic ecosystem (SE) she is defined like a concrete geographical portion,
exactly delimited, in the one which the environmental, natural offer or induced by the

CONCLUSIONS
The mark of the sustainability indicators in the Spanish
industry extractive presents a not very encouraging panorama for the
time being since the programs (European, national and regional) of
sustainable use of the susceptible natural resources of exploitation
they are designed for the renewable resources. The non renewable
resources are hardly contemplated and the mining resources are
completely unknown.
Taking like base the experience of the authors intends an
Global Sustainability Index (GSI) based on the use of qualitative
indicators of sustainability for the extractive industry.
The application methodology is simple and it is based on the
formulation from a sustainability test to the mining company, with
universal validity it stops whichever it is the sector that it is.
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del territorio, huella ecológica y ecosistemas estratégicos. Fac.
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http://www.fescol.org.co/VLibrary/PDF/Conversatroio%20IV/Lu
is%20C%20Agudelo.pdf
Azapagic, A. (2000). Indicators of sustainable development for the
minerals extraction industry: environmental considerations.
Technological challenges posed by sustainable development: the
mineral extraction industries, pp. 202-217. R. Villas Boâs & L.
Fellows Filho Eds. CYTED/IMAAC/UNIDO. Brasil.
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population that defines them as such

CCE (2001). Propuesta de Decisión del Parlamento Europeo y del

Consejo por la que se establece el Programa Comunitario de
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medioambiental, económica y social. European Environment
Agency. Copenhague.
FEA (1997). A guide to corporate environmental indicators.
Federal Environmental Ministry and Federal Environmental
Agency. Bonn. Berlin.
Fernández, M. (2001). El sector empresarial busca indicadores
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Directo. Secc. Medio Ambiente.
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.html+indicadores+de+sostenibilidad&hl=es
Forero, C.F. (2000). Sustainability, indicators & credibility. Inf.
Jorn. Cyted-XIII IMAAC COPPER FORUM. Technological
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Filho Eds. CYTED/IMAAC/UNIDO. Brasil.
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Andalucía. Huelva.
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España. Centro Public. Secretaría Gral. Técnica. Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente. Madrid.

Vargas, E. (2000). Indicadores de sostenibilidad y su aplicación a

las empresas mineras. Cierre de Minas, experiencias en
Iberoamérica, pp. 354-380. R. Villas Bôas y Mª Laura Barreto
Eds. CYTED/IMAAC/UNIDO. Brasil.
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Leaders for Tomorrow. World Economic Forum. Ginebra. Suiza.

INDICATORS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN

COLOMBIAN MINING
Jorge M. Molina and Alejandro Cardona A
jmolina@ingeomin.gov.co./ alcardon@ingeomin.gov.co
INGEOMINAS, Colombia.
ABSTRACT
The sustainable development of the mining is based on a
model of State, on which the determining actors for the development
interact: the State, the community and the privates sector;
considering the regional and local peculiarities, whose main
objective must be to generate a dynamic process of economic growth
by means of the harmonization and integration of goals, objectives
and strategies for the economic, social and environmental actions
designed for such aim. This model for its control and monitoring
requires of the design of a system, based on impact indicators, with
which it is possible to be measured quantitatively and qualitatively
the management and interaction of the determining actors and who
must serve as support for an appropriated decisions.
INTRODUCTION
The economic development is a dynamic process of growth,
in which changes in the essential characteristics of the social and
economic structure of a State is generated. The mining industry is an
economic activity of world order, but framed within the Model and
economic order, socio – cultural and environmental of the states that
make this activity, for which can be identified like determining actors
of its development: the State, the community and the Private
Investment.

It is the action on the model under which they interact and

closely they are bound to the determining actors and their elements,
having like fundamental counting on the regional and local
peculiarities. It must have a focused strategy coherently according to
the comparative advantages existing or created on the macro
processes of the mining industry, exploration, production, added
value and commercialization, the required support to confront the
challenge of the mining and minerals to advance to the sustainable
development.
In this document is tried to show to the actors and elements of
preponderant importance in the development of the mining sector,
and on which the strategies and actions are due to define that allow
to the profit of the objectives and raised goals of development within
each economic model, for which a system of indicators is due to
design that allows to the monitoring and the pursuit of the obtained
results.
This subject will be developed from the identification for
each actor, the State, the community and the deprived investment, of
the elements that constitute and their relations with the mining
sector, defining the critical factors of success towards which the
strategies and actions for the profit of the development of the mining
are due to orient.
THE STATE
It is from the first approach, the mining industry like an
activity of world order, but framed within you order them state within
which it is carried out, under which one defines the relations of the
State with the mining sector and this one assumes the role of owner,
supervise and administrator of the resource.

The roll defined for the State, forces it like owner of the
subsoil and its nonrenewable resources to the efficient administration
without damage of the rights acquired and perfected in accordance
with preexisting laws.
It is through the effective planning of the handling and
advantage of these resources, giving strategies and policies that they
induce to the growth of the sector within a competitive and stable
legal frame, facilitating the private investment and the integration of
all actors, that may be guaranteed the sustainable development of the
mining in benefit of the society.
Elements of development
The main and determining elements of the development
within the State are the administration of the Resource, the laws and
the Institutionalism.
Administration of the Resource
Colombia that counts on geologic environments of formation
which they could be compared with productive deposits in other
nations and considering pre-Colombian tradition, it shows a modest
development of its mining industry, product of a little geologic
knowledge and the mining potential of its territory.
It is required to lead by the State, the systematic campaigns of
prospection and regional exploration, with a suitable cap of the
territory national that provide the knowledge of the suitable subsoil,
like only means of which the geologic potential acquires a real value,
confirming the models or hypothesis, raised with base to the
formation environment and became as potential.
The information generated by this process, is due to store in
data bases and GIS, with the objective to facilitate to the investor a
fast vision of the potential and serve as support to the decision
making on the execution of mining projects.

The evaluation of the mining resource from intelligence

targets or "targets", the reserves and the mining production is based
on offering to the investor the possibility of making its own
projections, considering that the mining presents/displays lengths
terms to obtain the consolidation and to generate yield indices
acceptable.
The Laws
The state must obtain the balance of the laws that converge in
the development of the mining sector, like the environmental
legislation, the tributary legislation and the labor legislation, that
improve the effects of the mining legislation (code of mines). This is
due to establish sure a regulatory frame so that the agents related to
the sector can have a coherent law and fit in operative form each
other.
Colombia presents a new Code from Mines which needs
measure the impacts on mining competitiveness of the country, along
the evolution of the mining legislation in Latin America and its
interpretation as far as the effects of the competitive position of the
country. In addition it is required to implement a process of re-
engineering to the management of mining environmental proceedings
to take them to the required minimum duration, with the objective to
obtain a comparative advantage.
In addition the prescribed decree to the code is required,
which must reinforce the spirit expressed in the same one, raising
with a lever the criteria of transparency, administrative agility and no
discretion, with direct implication to all the areas, legal, fiscal,
institutional and others.
The law of mining investment of is recognized necessity and
complementariness with the code of mines, thus requires the joint
evaluation with the organizations responsible for the law project, this

must touch the points related to the competitiveness that the sector
requires for its development:
• the schemes of incentives required for the development of
suitable mechanisms of mining financing on the part of the
private bank
• the favorable conditions to the infrastructure development on the
part of the sector deprived in regions with mining potential.
The fiscal load of the Colombian mining sector is onerous.
There is a high-priority action to develop talks about better fiscal
parameters, jointly with the organizations responsible not only for the
total tax, but also for the tributary incentives to the mining.
Institutionalism
The mining authority and the attached organizations demand
an integral policy function with a new approach of modern and
efficient state, oriented to the profit of the beneficial institutional
stability for the development of the sector from the following
strategies:
• To foment the competition and the concurrence of the
industrialists throughout the productive chain of the power
mining sector (production, added value and commercialization).
• To guarantee the free access to the infrastructure.
• To eliminate the barriers the entrance of new agents in all the
activities of the sector.
• To rationalize the subsidies and to implant a structure of costs it
is transparent for each one of the goods and services of the power
mining productive chain.
• To utilize mechanisms that facilitate the fulfillment of the
environmental law in the sector.

• To have a suitable and sufficient basket of power to the country,

to generate as well excessive of export them international markets
and to assure a sustainable development such.
• To incorporate the social responsibility with the communities and
the areas of influence of such in all the projects of the sector.
• To always look for regulatory and normative clarity of the sector.
THE COMMUNITY
It is the segment of the society that takes the hit of the
execution of the mining activity and it as well contributes goods,
services and labor force around the mining projects. Also, given the
particular conditions of each site where the mining activity is
developed, the community by means of organization mechanisms, has
the possibility of constituting itself in executor of viable and
sustainable mining projects.
It is important to stand out that the support of the state as
opposed to the communitarian development in operative terms must
be transitory, and is due to make with a facilitator approach to the
entailment of private capitals that support the sustainability of the
activities anticipated for the project.
The elements defined with preponderant in the search of the
development of the community are the well-being, the qualification
and the formation and the organization.
The wellfare
The well-being for the community is considered like the
balance between the three dimensions of the sustainable
development, identified like the social welfare, in which the rights of
the community are not opposite to the national interests; the

economic well-being, remembering that the mining is or can

constitute in the main sustenance of many regions and the
environmental wellfare, starting off of the sustainability as it bases of
the resources of the future communities.
The qualification and formation
The rational exploitation of mining resources by the
communities demand of a learning process that stimulates the
knowledge increasing the levels of qualification and formation and
entails to a faster process of increase of the productivity. This
knowledge is due to visualize on basic, vocational, technical and
enterprise scale.
The organization
In anyone of its forms, the fact to add forces always is
considered like advantage on the particular performances, still more if
the weakness is considered that disorganization provides at the
moment for competing in the present conditions of the market. The
Code of Mines stimulates the creation of shared in common
companies, besides to draw up specific and oriented actions to the
communitarian organizations for the fortification of the mining
activity.
It is to stand out that it is through the communitarian
organization, like is possible to be managed to go beyond the
marginal and illegal mining activities, which affect great part of the
Latin American countries with negative impacts in the environment
and the advantage of the resources, to viable and sustainable mining
units.
THE PRIVATE INVESTMENT

Starting off of the constitutional principle that says that the
economic activity and the private initiative are free, within the limits

of the communal property, the private sector identifies like elements

necessary to enjoy its right the resources, the investment and the
production.
The resources
Although the State is the proprietor of nonrenewable the
natural resources of the subsoil, the private sector is who will have to
assume the responsibility of the development of operation projects,
generation of added value and commercialization, in all its phases
pre-feasibility, feasibility, basic engineering, engineering of detail
and execution, the mineral resources offered like mining potential by
the state, fulfilling in taxes with the effective mining law.
The investment
They are the financial resources, applied to the acquisition of
technologies and machinery, to the development of the required
infrastructure and to the investment in capital of work among others,
required by the deprived sector to make the operation, the
transformation and the commercialization of a mining deposit.
The required financial resources for this investment can be
had directly by the investors or be provided by internal or external
sources founding.
The production
It includes the relation with the other chains around the
mining activity as they are it the inputs, the technology, the manual
labor, the commercialization, the infrastructure and the transport,
among others, within the productive process by means of which the
mining resource is extracted and is transformed or into the market
(accompanied or by a process that generates added value). It also
demands to establish competitive productivity indices, of which they

affect the costs of the same one directly and they do not determine its
competitiveness in the national and international markets.
Additionally, being the resource of property of the State, the
productive activity, specifically the extractive process, is generating
of a rent for the state (mining rent).
AN SPECIFIC CASE, INDICATORS FOR A NICKEL MINE IN

COLOMBIA
Cerro Matoso S.A. (CMSA) is a company of world-wide
class, conformed by an outstanding human group almost totally
Colombian with the financial, organizational and technological
support of BHP - Billiton, owner of 99% of the actions of the
company. Some achievements of CMSA were certification ISO
14002 in 2000 and re-certification ISO 9002 in 1999, after being one
of the first companies of the country in obtaining it in 1995. ISO
14002 already means satisfaction in environment indicators. In the
2000 it obtained the Cross Emerald of the Colombian Council of
Security and in 2001 prize DHL - Logistic of Export 2001.
“What it is not possible to be measured is not possible to be
improved", deep and accurate concept of Karou Ishilkawa, the great
Japanese writer who as much contributed to the quality concept. With
this same spirit the independent evaluation of the economic impacts
was promoted partner of the "Complex of Production of Ferro- nickel
de Cerro Matoso S. A." This study study was made by the consultants
“Econometry" with the contribution of the "University Corporation of
the Sinu '".

Economic effects
Sales of
Production Investments
Ferronickel
(million pounds) (US$ million)
(US$ million)
1982 –1999 757 2,598 986
2000 – 2020(e) 2,399 7,058 330
1982 - 2020(e) 3,156 9,657 1,316
Contributions to the Domestic Economy
The total of Production Matoso is exported, process that
obtained an annual average in period 1994 - 1999 of 170 US$
millions /year, positioning to CMSA like the industrial company of
the country with greater value of annual exports
Added value total generated by Matoso
1982 - 1999 2000 – 2020(e) total
Paid wages 449 658 1.107
Taxes and
311 1.815 2.126
contributions
Royalties 101 789 889
Excessive
gross of 1,203 1,991 3,194
operation
US$ 2,064 US$ 5,253 US$ 7,316
Added Value
millones millones millones

Improvement of the quality of life

Improvement in UBN by
UBN
CMSA
Rest of department(*) 20,8%
Montelibano 31,7% 11%
% Rest of the area of
22,8% 2%
direct influence
UBN=Unsatisfied Basic Needs Index
(*) Without Montería, neither Matoso’s influence area
Reduction of the rate of illiteracy

1973 1993 Reduction
Montelíbano 49,78% 23,96% 52,42%
Rest area of influence 51,57% 29,31% 41,96%
Rest of the department of
40,89% 23,73% 36,57%
Cordoba
Communitarian development and support to productive projects
Educative Foundation of Panzenú
Foundation San Isidro
Montelíbano Foundation
$10,169 millions $30,818 millones $21,375 millones
US$ 12,3
US$ 6,3 millions US$ 18,5 millones
millones
Constant Colombian Pesos $ and constant dollars US$ of 1999
The foundation San Isidro generates direct and indirect

employment in the zone of the area of influence direct Matoso. In
1999 it altogether generated 42 employees of which 31 is direct; In
1999 it took care of 147 communities which meant a 49% of cover of
the influence area developing programs such as: Support to
productive projects with credit and qualification, contributions to
productive projects, communitarian development and donations to
social projects, projects of house, fortification of the communitarian
and institutional management among others.
The Educative Foundation Montelíbano was founded on 1981
to offer education of high quality to the children of employees

Matoso the Hill and of his foundations, also, from his foundation it
has offered the opportunity to study to students employees Matoso
hill, not being represented a 15% of the student population of the
foundation; the results of the foundation in the tests of the ICFES
between 1993 and 1997, classified to the school in their Maxima
category (high). In 1998 and 1999 the yield of the establishment was
catalogued like superior.
The Panzenú Foundation is a IPS dedicated to the benefit of
the service of health to Matoso’s workers and of its foundations as
well as to their relatives, its cover is close by 4,800 people who
represent 11% of the population of the municipality and 19% of the
municipal head.
Impacts in the physical infrastructure development
Other munici-
Monte pallities that exemptions Average
libano receive from Cordoba national
CMSA royalties
36,4% 18,68% 39,8% 69,7%
Average Cover of
(1985) (1985) (1985) (1985)
the service of
68,9% 67,02% 74,8% 85,0%
aqueduct
(1997) (1997) (1997) (1997)
17,30% 12,8% 11,60% 46,30%
Cover of the
(1985) (1985) (1985) (1985)
service of sewage
35,10% 33,06% 27,30% 67,00%
system
(1997) (1997) (1997) (1997)
45,30% 30,26% 37,80% 65,70%
Cover of electrical (1985) (1985) (1985) (1985)
energy to domicile 93,90% 65,98% 70,30% 91,80%
(1997) (1997) (1997) (1997)
2,1% 1,6% 2,4% 9,5%
Density of tele- (1985) (1985) (1985) (1985)
phone service 4,8% 2,43% 4,5% 11,1%
(1997) (1997) (1997) (1997)

Royalties
CMSA’s royalties create new conditions and institutional
necessities in the receiving organizations that they generate: changes
in the territorial finances, new opportunities of investment and
institutional handling and decision making.
During the period of 1982 - 1999 Matoso paid by concept of
royalties US$ 101 million constant dollars of 1999, which were used
in the area of direct influence like investment in projects of: health,
education, aqueduct and sewage system, electricity, environmental,
house, routes, service of debt, operation, institutional fortification
among others.
Environmental Management System
CMSA with the objective to orient its work in the care of the
environment has implemented the system of environmental
management with base in norm ISO 14001/96 and through the
environmental policy it is engaged with the protection of the
environment and the preservation of the natural resources achieving
the sustainable development.
Synthesis of effects in CMSA
Additionally to the economic effects before presented, , the
payment of royalties and the support to the community through their
foundations have produced important effects in the area of direct and
indirect influence: improvement of the quality of life of the region,
communitarian development and support to productive projects,
extension of the cover and quality of the services public and the
physical infrastructure and better possibilities of investment on the
part of the receiving municipalities of royalties.
Main obstacles
The main obstacle to the profit of the CMSA competitiveness
is the high costs of electrical energy, the double of the cost for the

international competitors, as well as frequent and the very substantial

new surcharges that it represents more of 30% of his direct costs of
production. In 18 months until June of 2001 to the positions and taxes
to the electrical energy were duplicated, those that already represent
half of the invoice. Only half is negotiable by contract.
Maintaining the competitiveness CMSA that as much has
made an effort in obtaining, aspires to remain several lustrums and to
continue exerting its deep social responsibility in the region where it
operates.
In the future he will be indispensable to reduce the production
costs of Ferro nickel, if it is wanted to extend the useful economic life
of the deposit. As lowing the grade of the available ore, since it
started was of 3% and today is 2,3% , requires more energy by
production unit. The years of life utility of the mineral deposit depend
then, of the lower cost of producing.
POTENTIAL OF DEVELOPMENT IN COLOMBIA

In Colombia a great potential of mining projects exists to
develop, which can generate economic and environmental impacts
partner equal or superior to the one of complex Matoso, as long as
they are advanced with the criteria of sustainability, and
competitiveness, under stable a legal and tributary frame, looking for
its location in the first lines of export and therefore a high mining
positioning world-wide level. Now appears a listing of possible
developments for metallic minerals accompanied by projections of
investment and currencies and the possible impact in the employment
generation and they are compared with two actual projects in Peru
(Yanacocha and Pierina)

EMPLOYMENT ANNUAL
INVESTMENT EXPORTS
DEPOSIT
INITIAL M US$ DIRECT TOTAL AVERAGE USS
US$
MOCOA 570 1500-2000 3000-4000 180
PANTANOS PEGADORCITO 380 1000-1500 2000-3000 120
MURINDO 700 2000 4000 180
MARMATO 500 500-600 1000-1200 120
CERROMATOSO 420 1338-2688 3227-6697 150
CERREJÓN 3000 3500-5500 7000-1000 1000
YANACOCHA 400 3000-4000 6000-8000 300
PIERINA 260 2000-3000 4000-6000 240
CONCLUSIONS
An integral development of a nation based upon mining,
needs to integrate de exploitation of its mineral potential,
transformation processes, high add value and commercialization,
using sustainable indicators. It is a key to identify the critical success
factors that induce the growth of the mining sector under the
integration of all actors.
EXPLOITATION
TRANSFORMATION –
ADDED VALUE
COMMERCIALIZATION
IMPR OVEMEN T A N D OPTIMIZA TION
EXPLOR A TION , OPER A TION TRA N SFOR MA TION

- A D D ED VA LU E C OMMER C IA LIZA TION
D EFIN ITION OF
A C TOR S INDICATORS
, ELEM EN TS FA C TOR S
STRATEGIES
AND ACTIONS

Design of system of control to measure the management of

the State, as developer roll, is an important work as the design of the
strategies and actions for the development. With the identification of
the actors and their elements, the action of the State would be use the
indicators to measure the following aspects:
ACTOR ELEMENT INDICATOR

Ambient of formation
Administration of Knowledge of the subsoil
the Resource Information
Evaluation of the mining resource
Environmental Legislation
STATE
Tributary Legislation
Labor Legislation
Legal Issues
Mining Legislation
Schemes of Incentives
Development of Infrastructure
Institutionalism Clear Regulation
Social Welfare
COMMUNITY
Welfare Economic Welfare

Environmental Welfare
Qualification and Levels of qualification and
formation formation
The organization communitarian Organization
THE PRIVATE
The resources Development of projects

INVESTMENT
The investment Levels of investment
The production Indices of productivity
The process of economic growth must be the continuous and

persistent increase of real the national product, but still more the

sustainable economic development are due to look for by means of

the harmonization and integration of the objectives and goals on
economic, social and environmental component, with defined
strategies and actions for each actor.
As result of this process must improve the qualitative
conditions of life, such as nutrition, living, education, health and
recreation conditions, for all the classes in equal proportion.
Therefore, a diminution of the poverty, the inequalities, the
unemployment, at the same time that is due to improve the quality of
life, the environmental conditions and the political stability; this it is
the challenge that really must confront the mining and minerals in
century XXI.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
UPME. 2002. Documents in process of the National Mining
Development Plan 2002-2006
CMSA. 2000. Evaluation of the economic impacts partner of the
industrial mining complex of Ferro- nickel of Cerro Matoso
S.A. 1980-1999, 2000-2020
UPME. 2001. Competitiveness of the Colombian mining sector
MINISTRY OF MINES and ENERGY, UPME 1998. National plan
of Mining Development

SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS IN METALLIC AND NON

METALLIC ORE MINE DISTRICTS IN VENEZUELA:
INVESTIGATIÓN PROPOSAL
MSc. Alba J. Castillo1, Br. Aurora Piña2 and Br. Sixto Jaspe2
1
Instructor, Mining Department, FI-UCV.
2
Mining Engineer Candidates, FI-UCV. castillo_alba@hotmail.com;
abetpina1@hotmail.com; sixtojaspe@hotmail.com.
INTRODUCTION
This paper presents the research proposal description:
“Evaluation of Sustainability Indicators to Decision Making
Optimization in Creation of Sustainable Mining Districts Process”.
Mining and Environment docent unit researchers, to the Venezuelan
Science and Technology Ministry, have submitted this proposal. This
proposal has been welcomed with interest and enthusiastically by
public officials of scientific and technical research and natural
resources administrative agencies.
Particularly in the research subject, the academic realm of
university studies in mining still has the need to include the temporo-
spatial vision of mining concessions groups. These concessions are
simultaneously operating in a particular territory ecosystem. The
ecosystem is characterized by the coexistence of hydrographic basin,
biological communities, and indigenous communities; each one
representing Venezuelan and global, natural and cultural patrimonial
actives.
In one hand, knowledge has been reached in cumulative
environmental impact, even potential or manifest. On the other hand,
knowledge has been reached in visualization strategies of risk scenes
and business opportunities, using process evaluation and diagnostic
tools. Both have been reached in other applications of industry.

Nevertheless, these can be applicable in mining and environmental

modern management. This practice can be included toward an
extractive mineral optimization plan. Sustainable Development model
might be made operative by improving initial phases of mining
process, as it is sustainable mineral reserves identification and
creation of sustainable mining district.
JUSTIFICATION
Traditional mining in Venezuela is modest, from the point of
view of diversity of mineral commodities, mineral production scale,
organizational structure, investment capital, and national gross
product quote. Primary productive sector has been creating business
opportunities, at the same time it has been recognizing the multiple
limitations for mining industry expansion. However, there is interest
to expand la national output of commercial commodities for internal
consumption and exportation.
Exploration and mineral reserve analysis in Venezuela have
been important, but there are still a lot of expectations on people
aware of geologic potential in the national geography. Venezuela
owns a significant mineralogical potential in metallic and non-
metallic ores. Metallic ore bodies, of importance as gold districts in
Bolívar state, in the amazon region, of Venezuela; mineral coal ore
bodies at the occidental basin, in Falcón and Zulia states, and
industrial ore bodies in the north region: coastal, oriental, and Andean
mountain chains.
Venezuelan Government Executive Office, for instance, has
been changing the natural resources administrative structure and
bureaucratic procedures for land use and environment ordering. It has
been dealing with making legal transactions more effective and less
time consuming. When possible, exploration and exploitation
permits, as mining concessions, and environmental authorizations, as

land occupation and resources effects. It has also been dealing with a
more effective tax recuperation procedure of developing mining
operations and others to initiate. Environmental protection agencies
have been making more pressure, since 1992, by the time when
Venezuelan Environment Penal Law and technical norms were
enacted.
Constitución Bolivariana de Venezuela, of 1999, includes a
declarative chapter of Environmental Rights, in which Sustainable
Development Model has been declared as a principle to follow by
Venezuelans. The same way, another chapter about Indigenous
People Rights, recognizing their existence and their rights to use
natural resources in their traditional habitats. On the other hand,
Venezuela has also sign international agreements, as those of 1992
Rio Summit Conventions on Climate Change, Biodiversity, and
Dryness Process Fight.
The searching strategy to convey agreements in mining
matter and environmental protection allows taking advantage of
national mineral potential and international environmental
engagements. This way, it can environmental decision taking be
incorporated as sustainability parameters in developmental programs.
Such proposal has been made in Chapter 8 of 2100 Agenda.
Environmental Decision Taking in Developmental Programs
constitute the main reason to look for consensus between economic
development and nature conservation. Thus, the need to attend
international agreements in biodiversity protection, climatic change
rate control to attenuate global warming, and dryness and desert
creation control, with reduction control of fresh water degradation
rates.
Finally, Venezuelan national reality in mining matters is
complex. It is known the Venezuelan State traditional limits to
organize the mineral extractive sector, especially gold and diamond
extraction. Acceptable legal conditions, attractive economic

incentives, equal opportunities to interested people in investing on

mineral commodities extraction, even under small or median
production, respect to traditional land use and occupation, are all
demanded by mining sector.
INVESTIGATION SCOPE
Figure 1 shows a Venezuelan map indicating selected areas to
identify sustainable development indicators, for Venezuelan
extractive industries. Iron and gold extraction in metallic ore mining
districts, coal in energetic mineral industry, and industrial minerals
sector, such as: clay, shale, and feldspar ore deposits. The objective
of this selection is to attend different geographic areas, systematically
characterizing them by distinctive risk scenes and business
opportunities.
Although in each region, each group of indicators is present,
each area is characterized by the emphasis of one or more incidence
indicator: biophysical, social and cultural, social and economic, and
geopolitical matters. On the other hand, to some mineral commodities
there are economic settings from artisanal production, to cooperative
and corporate ones. Sometimes coexisting in mining districts, such as
gold and carbon districts.

Figure 1. Venezuelan map with schematic mining districts

With relation to metallic mining, this research proposal
includes the identification of sustainable development indicators for
iron and gold, in Sierra de Imataca, in Bolívar State, in the Guayana
region. It presents a tropical humid forest ecological system of the
amazon region, with diverse indigenous communities, as pemón y
yanomami.
In the Venezuelan occidental coal basin, research is
performed in two states: 1) in the northern region, in Zulia State, and
2) in Falcón State. In Zulia State, exploitation is undergoing since
1986, as a corporate economic activity. On the other state, it has been
traditionally exploited with a cooperative pattern economic activity;
nowadays there is an opening process toward concessions of mayor
capital investment.

In Zulia State, of major consideration is the ecological fact

that coal basin is under a specially administrated protection zone, the
hydrographic basin of Guasare river. Thus, potential cumulative
impact of coal exploitation would have an intended spatial
directionality along coal strata strike. This directionality is oblique to
natural watershed. This protected area ecosystem is a tropical dry
forest, in which dryness susceptibility is already a condition to trigger
desertification processes. Up to now, there have been permitted 22
exploration and subsequent mining exploitation permits, those of
which are in different phases of mining processes.
Zulia and Bolívar states are at the frontier region, with
Colombia and Brazil, respectively. In both states cohabit important
indigenous communities. It is also necessary to consider cooperation
international agreements in those frontier regions.
Related to industrial mineral districts sustainable indicators,
researched regions were selected based on concentration of extractive
source areas where there is considerable urban pressures. It is known
that for these mineral commodities, the local value factor is a very
important variable to consider in the economic analysis. There were
selected three central Venezuelan states, nearby Capital District, with
very dense demographic and industrial cities. Thus, Aragua,
Carabobo, and Cojedes states were selected. In those states
sustainable indicators would be studied for shale, clay, and feldspar
minerals, respectively.
Clayey minerals, in Carabobo State, might not be the best
mineral commodity to be selected there. It has been some thoughts to
reconsider the industrial mineral in the same state, Carabobo, or
better, to select Lara State, more western, with the same mineral
commodity for the ceramic industry.
It is more evident that creation of sustainable mining districts
is the opportunity to strength the mineral extractives sector.
Recognizing mining projects traditional limitations is convenient and

ethically correct. Inadequacies include very little attention to

ecological and social consequences in places with not very well
probed geologic certainty and economic and technological viability.
OBJECTIVES
Identify most relevant local sustainable indicators, out of
biophysical or ecological, social, economic, political, and public
perception realms.
Develop criteria to create sustainable mining districts, in
diverse mineral commodities and at specific geographical regions in
Venezuelan territory.
Manage as much necessary information to develop a mining
and environment decision making tool optimization, that it would be
possible to plan land use attending land vocation and vulnerability of
environmental factors quality, ecological and cultural.
Recommend criteria and political ideas, from mining and
environmental management, to evaluate mineral reserves considering
the three fundamental variables: geological certainty, economical and
technical viability, and ecological and institutional sustainability.
HISTORIC ANTECEDENTS VENEZUELAN MINING

With respect to metallic mining, as in other American
countries, auriferous mining was the more ancient. Since pre-
Hispanic period, including commercial production with exports
toward the end of the XIX century to present times. Mendoza (1988)
describes a potential of 8,000ton gold reserve in Venezuelan Guayana
and average annual production by the nineties of 10,000 kg,
approximately.
On this own side, of relative high rate production, iron
mining was initiated by the first quarter of XX century. Even with
many market difficulties at the present time, there exists interest to

find opportunities to continue iron extraction and refining activities in

the economic sector. The mining publication Anuario Estadístico
Minero (MEM, 2000) presents iron probed reserves of 4,000 Mt.
With respect to energetic mining, it was the Venezuelan
oriental coal basin the production source in the second half of XX
century. Overwhelming limitations, even today, avoid coal extraction
in this region. However, oil industry is the major economic activity
there. Venezuelan coal competes in the national and international
market with some fossil fuel sources, as crude natural gas. Even
more, it competes with the advance of alternate energy generation
sources.
Since the eighties, coal extraction operations began and today
annual production reaches 10 Mt, mainly in northern occidental
basin. It represents 50% production in South America. Venezuelan
coal reserves amount 8.200Mt, representing 0,8% world coal reserves
(Anuario Estadístico Minero, 2000).
Venezuelan non-metallic commodities sector, especially
industrial minerals, is diverse and it is almost overall distributed
national territory. It supplies national market inputs, such in the cases
of cement manufacture industry and ornamental rocks industry.
Besides, a portion of production is exported. Clayey soils, sand,
shale, diamond, precious minerals, sulfur, granite, among many
others are just few examples of industrial mineral diversity. Total
production by 2000 was 21Mt (Anuario Estadístico Minero, 2000).
PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
Original efforts to this research proposal began in July 1996,
at National Mining Politics Symposia, a technical event organized by
ÚCV Secretary Office research committee. The main objective
consisted in technical opinions in different aspects the mining sector
problems, particularly auriferous mining and mining development
agenda, toward a political plan of national mining opening.

In that opportunity the need of governmental planning of land

use and environmental protection as conditions of mining
development was discussed and concluded. For the first time, it was
proposed to explore giving sustainability to Venezuelan mining
processes, although recognizing exhaustion conditions of mineral
resources. It was asked to make deep paradigmatic and structural
changes, in institutions and organizations with mission and vision of
mining sector, to warrant mining process continuity (Castillo, 1996).
It was postulated the need of mining sustainability from the initial
viewpoint of Sustainable Minerals Reserves.
It was insisted on the thesis of identification of sustainable
mineral reserves, at the Engineering Faculty Research Symposium:
JIFI´98, in 1998. This event served as an academic exercise to give
shape and a methodological strategy. In JIFI´2000, there was
formulated a conceptual model to develop risk scenes and business
opportunities evaluation and to identify sustainable developmental
indicators to calculate sustainable mining reserves (Abstracts
Proceedings, JIFI´98 and JIFI´2000).
In 1999, a proposal was published in the Proceedings of the
XVI Mining International Congress, celebrated in Ankara, Turkey. In
1999, the VII Iberoamerican Congress of Superior Mining Education,
in Caracas, was another opportunity to present the ideas. On
November 2001, the research project was submitted to the Science
and Technology Ministry, in Venezuela. The Environmental
Management Coordination and Engineering and Development
Coordination evaluated this project. It was then assigned to the
Environmental and Social Impact Coordination of the Industrial
Innovation Management.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The type of research is exploratory and correlacional. The
research design is no experimental, on discrete samples of mineral

resources. There were selected three types of mining districts,

metallic, non-metallic energetic, and non-metallic industrial minerals,
in those of which is going on mining exploitations of gold, iron, coal,
clay, shale, and feldspar, in specific regions of the Venezuelan
territory.
There were presented three projects as Thesis Degree to opt
to Mining Engineering professional tittles. Three candidates showed
interest to develop the ideas of sustainable mining districts. In first
term, these mining districts are described as currently traditional
mining operations and their current status. Furthermore, they are
included different aspects about national and international market
opportunities, traditional volume of national mineral reserves,
international prices, and national production costs, to each
commodity.
In second term, for each mining district case it is described
local legal aspects and administrative procedures to each commodity.
In Venezuela, metallic and energetic mining are administrated by the
federal government and industrial minerals are administrated by local
state government. This last group of mineral commodities is included
in a special administration law toward decentralization process and
territory land use planning.
In third term, aspects of environmental management are
described, including environmental impact assessment,
environmental surveillance and control plans, in those cases that they
are performed. This section includes the factorial identification of
international environmental conventions, i.e. national strategies to
control global climatic change, biological diversity conservation, and
dryness and soil desertification control.
Analysis of available data includes the diagnosis of strengths
and limitations of current ore exploitation, for each mineral
commodity. It also prognoses opportunities and hazards of expanding
exploitation volume, to convey research conclusions. Conclusions

and recommendations of research offer identification and proposal of

local development indicators and criteria to create sustainable mining
districts.
The research relevance consists in innovate and support
optimization of environmental decision adoption or taking process, in
the scenario of economic development politics, fundamentally with
the vision of expanding mineral resource use, over space and time.
CRITERIA TO SUSTAINABLE MINING DISTRICTS

Some sustainability criteria to mining districts evaluated in
this study, using available information, are:
Bolívar State: in the gold mining district, which represents the
major challenge to Venezuelan society, indicators are identify in
the realms: ecological, social, legal, and public perception:
Exceeding habitat fragmentation; speed soil erosion and
transportation; water source reservoir depletion; mercurial
and cyanide water contamination.
Territory use conflicts: forestry, mining, agriculture, tourism,
indigenous traditional territories, and subsistence life modes.
Revision process to legalize more than 600 mining rights
permits actually declared invalid.
Conditioned opportunity equality to exploit gold, from
artisanal to corporate production, public and private, in
relation to economic development vision, environmental
regulation accomplishment, technology, and fiscal matters.
Very limited confidence in Venezuelan institutional
transparency and bureaucratic matters, neither in economic
performing.
Bolívar State: iron-mining district, most relevant indicators are
identify in market and environmental self-regulation model:

National and international commerce; national operation

costs.
Politics to submit to national environmental regulations by
public industry.
Zulia State: coal mining district, indicators are identify from
ecological, social, and market:
Cumulative environmental impact; tropical dry forest
protected area habitat fragmentation, total solid particulate,
SDT; ionic sulfate concentration, SO4.
Frequent conflicts and complaints by hispanic and indigenous
comprised community; frontier region characteristics.
Alternate energy source generation, competence, and
availability: Venezuelan oil crude and natural gas, and
renewable ones.
Falcón State: coal mining district, sustainable indicators are out
of ecological and social:
Soil degradation; speeding dryness processes.
Conditioned opportunity equality related to artisanal to
corporate production.
With respect to Venezuelan northern mineral industrial
mining districts, only preliminarily, it can be said that most relevant
sustainable indicator is recognized in social ordeal, then in economic
one. Demographic pressures and urbanism fundamentally limit these.
An economic restriction of mineral local value is opposite to mining
potential access due to urbanistic expansion.

CONCLUSIONS
It has been described a research proposal in environmental
mining management, helping consolidate systematic knowledge in
mining industry risks and opportunities. There have been identified
sustainable indicators in metallic and non metallic mining districts of
Venezuela. This research will help to develop a numerical tool to
optimize environmental making decision processes.
Most relevant sustainable local indicators and tendencies
were:
Gold mining district of Bolívar State:
Habitat fragmentation: affected vegetation Caroní river basin:
47.3% forest, 51.3% savannas, and 1.4 % morichales: (data from
the nineties). Tendencies in cumulative and increasing progress.
Soil loss river canal: suspended sediments: Icabarú 390ppm,
Caroní 20ppm y Chiguao 190ppm (data from the nineties).
Increasing tendencies.
Mercurial concentrations in Caroní river basin streams, as
indicated in the graphic. Data was collected in the nineties in
undergoing non-legal and legal gold placer mining concessions.
Resulting analytical curve from regressive analysis shows an
exponential tendency, y=axb. More data is required to give a and
b parameters, from the equation, in order to have more
confidence in the results.

Hg in Sediments
Hg (mg/g)
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4
Years
Each digit represents five years since 1990.

(Gathered data by Piña, 2002).
The following two graphics are from coal mining Zulia State
districts. These show TSD and SO4 local sustainable indicator
tendencies. These are the result of projecting coal production to
year 2010. More data is required to give a and b parameters,
from the equation, in order to have more confidence in the
results.
TDSESTIMATION SO4 CONCENTRATION
8000 5000
4000
6000
3000
(mg/l) 4000 mg/l
2000
2000 1000
0 0
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Gathered and analyzed date by Jaspe, 2002

REFERENCES
MINISTERIO DE ENERGÍA Y MINAS (2000). Anuario
Estadístico Minero. Venezuela.
CASTILLO, A. (1998). Identificación de Reservas
Sustentablemente Económicas. Memorias de Resumens
Jornadas de Investigación JIFI´98. Facultad de Ingeniería. UCV.
CASTILLO, A. (1999). Sustainable Ore Reserves Identification.
Memorias 16th Mining Congress of Turkey. The Chamber of
Mining Engineers. Junio. Ankara, Turquía.
CASTILLO, A. (1999). Minería Sustentable: Revisando el
Espíritu Económico de la Minería. Dimensión Académica de
los Aspectos Ambientales en el Programa de Estudios de Minas
en la UCV. VII Reunión de la Asociación Iberoamericana de
Enseñanza Superior de la Minería AIESMIN. UCV. Noviembre.
Caracas, Venezuela.
CASTILLO, A. (2000). Identificación de Reservas
Sustentablemente Económicas: Escenarios de Riesgos e
Indicadores de Sustentabilidad. Memorias de Resumenes
Jornadas de Investigación JIFI´00. Facultad de Ingeniería. UCV.
Caracas, Venezuela.
JASPE, S. (2002). Evaluación de la Minería del Carbón en los
Estados Zulia y Falcón para la Creación de Distritos
Mineros Sustentables. Trabajo Especial de Grado.
Departamento de Ingeniería de Minas. Universidad Central de
Venezuela. Inédito (En edición).
MENDOZA, V. (1988). Desarrollo Aurífero de Guayana. CVG –
Técnica Minera, CA. Resumen Gerencial. Puerto Ordáz.
PIÑA, A. (2002). Indicadores de Sustentabilidad en la
Optimización de Toma de Decisiones para Creación de
Distritos Mineros aplicada a Minería Metálica: Au y Fe en el

Estado Bol+ívar. Trabajo Especial de Grado. Departamento de

Ingeniería de Minas. Universidad Central de Venezuela. Inédito
(En edición).
Anteproyecto: Lineamientos para Optimización en Toma de
Decisiones para Creación de Distritos Mineros de Minerales
Industriales en Región Central de Venezuela. (En proceso de
asignación para su desarrollo).

PROPOSAL FOR THE THE USE OF INDICATORS FOR THE

RESOLUTION OF CONFLICTS AFFECTING PERUVIAN
MINING
Maria Chappuis
Peru
1. BACKGROUND
The substantial growth experienced by the Peruvian mining
sector in the last decade (7% annual mean growth) meant challenges
as well as exceptional opportunities for the country. Although Peru’s
economic and political conditions have been improving
progressively, a number of conflicts have also arisen, particularly
between certain mining units and their surrounding communities.
These conflicts have been largely motivated by fear of environmental
pollution and the perception that these companies extract the
territory’s wealth but do not create employment opportunities or
tangible permanent improvements to benefit the local inhabitants,
who are mainly engaged in traditional small-scale agricultural and
stock-raising activities.
The ever-increasing technical nature of mining activities
limits the number of direct employment openings created to satisfy
the needs of these mining projects as well as the possibility of hiring
local inhabitants for such activities. This perception has been
exacerbated in recent years, when one compares the amounts of
money that the mining industry invests in the development of its
projects, the income these companies generate and the minimal
participation of neighboring communities within this scheme.
Likewise, the presence of some organizations totally foreign
to the area (and very often also foreign to the country itself), carrying
their own agenda, coupled to the limited knowledge of the locals
regarding the risks and benefits inherent to the mining activity,
becomes an additional disturbing factor. In this context, perhaps the

major risk factor that any prospective investor has to face today, is
the socio-political conflict in its area of influence (1). These conflicts
can arise during any stage of the project: exploration, construction or
operation stage.
Area of Influence
Geographical space over which mining-energy activities
execute any type of considerable impact. The impact can be on flora,
fauna, air, rural communities, natural landscape archeological sites,
etc. (Glosario, Guía de Relaciones Comunitarias, Ministerio de
Energía y Minas del Perú)
Before having to face the consequences resulting from this
type of dispute, it is always better to create consultation and
communication channels between the communities and the industry,
agreeing on parameters of measurement created to encourage the
growth of mutual trust between the two players. The Peruvian mining
industry considers its involvement in the sustained development of
the communities within its area of influence to be fundamental,
contributing to their welfare by directing a significant portion of its
technical and financial resources generated by its activity to an
initiative of social responsibility and sustained development.
The Concept of Sustained Development: to ensure economic viability
of the area of influence of mining and oil operations through the
application of part of the income derived from the exploitation of
non-renewable resources towards the rational exploitation of existing
renewable and potential resources.
The implementation of a sustainable development program
implies not only an opportunity to offer viability to the communities
generally located in inhospitable geographical environments lacking
in materially important resources, and relying on subsistence-level
agricultural economies, but also an effective tool in the fight against
poverty. (2)

Moreover, by actively participating in the sustainable

development of the communities within the area of influence in
which it operates, the industry creates the opportunity to redefine its
archetype and improve its image. In a society which ever-increasingly
questions the use and acceptance of extraction activities, it is
important that these activities are not seen as an end in themselves,
but rather perceived as a means of reaching a better quality of life for
many communities.
2. THE PERUVIAN MINING INDUSTRY

The contribution of the mining activity in the generation of
foreign currency in Peru is an essential element since this accounts
for roughly 45% of national exports (see Table No. 1). Likewise, this
industry realizes a significant contribution to the State’s tax income
since it contributes 18% of Public Treasure income, despite the fact
that it only represents approximately 5% of the country’s GNP.
Table N° 1 - Export value of mining products (Million US$)
YEAR 1999 2000

Total 3,008 3,212
Gold 1,193 1,145
Copper 776 931
Zinc 462 496
Lead 177 190
Regarding employment, the mining industry is also a

significant player since its contribution is reflected in an estimated
200,000 direct and indirect job opportunities dependent on mining
activities, equivalent to almost 4% of the national Economically
Active Population (see Table No. 2).

Table N° 2 - Direct, indirect and dependent employment -

Year 2000
Total Direct Workers 52,484
Indirect Workers 209,936
Total Direct and Indirect 262,420
Family Dependents 918,470
General Total 1,180,890
Finally, according to a recent study, the mining cluster, made

up of equipment manufacturers, supplies and services is most likely
the most developed in the country.
3.PROCESS FOR THE RESOLUTION OF CONFLICTS

This process requires open and permanent communication
channels open to all participating entities, as well as the full
integration of an adequate understanding of the existing
environmental concerns for the communities involved in regional
development programs. For this, it is important to determine the most
appropriate mechanism to implement such a program.
The initial means chosen has been the Consultation Forum
which ought to be transformed into a true “Agreement for
Development” set forth in a defining document, establishing clear
guidelines and backed by the State’s commitment through the
signing of a preliminary agreement, and structured as an
organizational framework consisting of a clear mandate which
permits its execution.
Since 1998 real agricultural prices have dropped to 17.6%,
causing a severe crisis.
The Consultation Forums summoned by the State are made up by
representatives from a diversity of civilian sectors such as:

• The communities within the area of influence.

• Representatives of the companies within the mining district(s).
• The central, regional and local governments, and their
autonomous institutions, such as the National Environmental
Council (CONAM-Consejo Nacional del Ambiente).
• The Civilian Community (the Church, NGOs, Professional
Colleges, Chambers of Commerce, Defense Movements, etc.).
Through these Forums the State seeks to ensure that the
implementation of a program of sustainable development actually
reflects the authentic ambitions and expectations of the beneficiary
communities and does not come over as a scheme paternalistically
imposed by a Central Government. In this context, it is fundamental
that the communities within the area of influence assume active roles
and are not merely simple passive observers within this process.
To date, the traditional focus towards sustainable
development in mining has generally tended to be the result of private
sector initiatives (such as “Global Mining Initiative” and related
organizations) in response to the call made by international
organizations such as the UN and the World Bank. However due to
the present urgency in this respect, the State has acted as the
promoting and coordinating entity of this initial dialogue process.
In order to ensure the success of these Forums it has been
indispensable for the Administrative government to issue clear
guidelines to grant this matter maximum priority and to designate a
specific national entity as director in addition to instructing the other
Central Government entities to fully collaborate (3). In this case, the
designated speaker is the President’s Ministry.

The state entities involved are the Congress of the Republic; the
Ministry of Energy and Mines; the Ministry of Education; the
Ministry of Agriculture; the Ministry of Health; CONAM: the
National Environmental Commission and the local governments.
With respect to the conflict generated in Cajamarca involving
the Yanacocha mining company, the Forum has established ad hoc
commissions to supervise compliance of the commitments assumed
by the company, such as an international and independent
environmental audit and the installation of a water analysis laboratory
in the city.
In order to adequately manage the environmental concerns of
the community it is necessary to create additional informative
technical workshops (“there is nothing better than to be well informed
in order to act appropriately”), to have established parameters agreed
upon between the companies and the communities for evaluative
purposes and which would, at the same time, serve as evidence of the
sustainable progress of its area of influence. These indicators must be
economic, social and environmental, with datelines, pre-requisites
and conditions.
Proposed Indicators:
Economic
Investment in Research and Development
Productivity
Investment in Training
Social
Social Investment
Local Acquisitions
Local Workers
Environmental
Observance of Environmental/Safety Regulations
Number of Incidents and Accidents
Power Efficiency

The development of the indicator framework shall be based

on a preliminary relationship, as well as the establishment of number-
objectives for different periods, budgets, ad hoc work programs and
strategies.
Once the validation of the community and the successful
establishment of this initiative have been attained, then the scope of
the program may be extended towards the management of a social
responsibility program consisting of the cooperation of the main
players, and achieving in this manner, an effective mechanism in the
fight against poverty and healthier company/community relations.
Likewise, every social responsibility project shall be designed to fit
within the regional master plans (4) avoiding, in this way, the
atomization of available resources and the loss of synergies.
The regional master plan, shall require the creation of an
intangible fund so as to ensure that funds shall not be withdrawn
in the future and diverted towards short-term needs and shall be
subject to a series of control mechanisms regarding its
applications, without affecting its operational agility.
The financing of this fund shall be realized through State
contributions (mining canon), the mining industry’s social
investment, contributions made by the communities themselves and
eventually from additional resources proceeding from international
donors. Since the mining canon will not be sufficient to allow for the
successful implementation of these activities, the existing legal
framework is currently under study to determine whether it is
convenient to reform it and establish a tax credit for those expenses
incurred by the industry and which are directed towards improving
the communities within the areas of influence.
The present viability, as well as the stability and continuity in
time of this initiative, of measuring the execution of the social
responsibility of a company by means of indicators, may be boosted
by the involvement of multilateral entities (5), explicit State

commitments, and the consensus between the representatives of the

administrative, legislative, central and local governments.
It is essential to develop an organic structure which
contributes towards this participation and ensures actions which
integrate the efforts of all the participants within this initiative, and
supports a development agreement based on a diagnose of the present
situation as well as the identification of concrete and real objectives
and goals.
The participation of multilateral agencies could ensure the
participation of a perfectly neutral and trustworthy player capable of
providing support based on technical experience and standing firm
against distortions in the program so as to guarantee continuity and
fulfillment of its primary objectives. All too often programs which
include State-participation tend to stray from their original objectives
in response to economic trends, and thus wavering their original
mission. The participation of these organizations would guarantee
any such program with elements of transparency and external
supervision.
4. INITIATIVE FOR THE USE OF INTERNATIONAL

INDICATORS
Multilateral organizations can contribute not only with their
human and financial resources, but also with its wealth of experience
and related projects in other parts of the world to define
methodologies which would enable assessing the companies’
environmental performance. This is the case of Global Reporting
Initiative (GRI), which designed a methodological guideline for
drawing up Sustainability Reports. This permits a common language
both for the companies as well as for the government and civilian
community, which in time will foster enhanced levels of trust and
credibility.

5. CONCLUSIONS
• The road is long, but worthy. The participation of the
communities within the area of influence is fundamental, since
these must carry out a proactive role.
• The comparable measurement of the performance of the industry
in different parts of the world would permit its better acceptance.
Companies which know the reality of their area of influence
better than the regional or central governments can offer better
input towards the district’s sustainable development.
• A sustainable development initiative cannot be executed without
the close coordination and collaboration of the local, regional and
central governments.
• Private companies are also another indispensable protagonist
within the articulation and implementation of this initiative.
Nevertheless, it is important to evaluate the level of
representation such participants should have.
• The destabilizing effect of some non-governmental organizations
in industry-community relations has already been mentioned. It is
indispensable therefore to ensure not only the cooperation of the
most representative elements, but also those which are more
inclined to cooperate and negotiate.
Some Indicators for Cajamarca
In the case of Cajamarca we can say that the presence of Minera Yanacocha
has contributed towards boosting its economy, from the very beginning.
Between 1992-1993, construction works mobilized hundreds of persons. In
the last three years, 686 million dollars were invested in the area,
representing roughly 70% of the billion dollars invested between 1992 and
2001. There is no question about this is massive investment having an
exceptional impact on Cajamarca’s economy. In effect, the GNP rose by
109% between 1993 and 2000 while the national GNP grew only by 45% in
the same period.

During 2002, Yanacocha will produce between 2.2 and 2.4 million ounces of
gold, valued between 660 and 720 million dollars. This sum could represent
between 8 and 9% of the total value of exports for the country. Programmed
investment is estimated at 200 million dollars out of which 100 million
dollars are to be invested in the country. The purchase of goods and services
in Cajamarca accounted for 44 MM in 2001. Workers and contractors
(5000 people) represent approximately 10% of the economically active
population of Cajamarca. Indirectly, Yanacocha creates additional
employment for 15 to 20% of the economically active population.
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cabrera, Cesar Humberto, “Inversión Minera y Desarrollo Regional,
Algunos Indicadores para Cajamarca”, Abril 2002.
Gomes, Claudio “Crescem os Investimentos Privados no Social”
Gazeta Mercantil, Abril 15, 2002
Hoyos Juan, “Balance Social de la Minería”, IDEM, Marzo 2002
Joyce, S, Thomson, Ian “Cultural Dimension to Sustainable
Development”, Mining Journal, London May, 10, 2002
Stoddart,Richard “ Desarrollo Humanamente Sostenible en Mineria y
Energia”, MEM, Julio 2001
World Bank, “Large Mines and the Community, Socioeconomic and
Environmental Effects in Latin America, Canada & Spain”,2001
World Bank-IFC, “Large Mines and Local Communities: Forging
Partnerships, Building Sustainability”, 2002
World Bank-IFC,” Treasure or Trouble? Mining in Developing
Countries”,2002

IV. Region
Case studies
THE UTILISATION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

INDICATORS WITHIN THE EU MINING INDUSTRY
Luís Martins
Head of Department, Instituto Geológico e Mineiro, Apartado 7586,
2721- 866 Alfragide, Portugal, Tel.: (351) 214 718 922, Fax: (351)
214 718 940, - e- mail: luis.martins@igm.pt
INTRODUCTION
In 2000, the 15 EU member countries consumed
approximately 30 tons/per capita of raw materials necessary to
maintain their standard of living, which represents a total
consumption of 11 295 Mt. The mining industry is the only capable
of obtaining these materials for domestic and industrial use. It is
obvious that the processes required to extract from the earth these
mineral products have an impact in our environment.
Although the mining industry (post 60 ‘s) is not one of the
most polluting sectors, it is viewed with a tarnished image by
politicians and political opinion as well as the media in general.
However, this image is often unjust and environmental impact is
confused with visual impact. Recent estimates published by the
European Environment Agency indicate

That the total area of Europe affected by nitrate and pesticide

pollution resulting from agricultural activities is 600 to 1200 times
higher than that caused by the mining industry, even though this
activity is often viewed as a “necessary evil”. On the other hand, the
approval, implementation and development of recent EC directives
have severely limited the industry to access to necessary geological
resources, which is a highly penalising factor since the location of
these high economic value deposits is controlled by natural processes
and cannot be chosen or modified.
Within the mining industry, the denomination of the word
“contaminated” that may be conferred to the environment, by way of
exploitation, results mainly from the accumulation of sterile
materials from mining, rejected materials resultant from ore
treatment and the circulation of liquid effluent carriers of heavy
metals and reagents, some of which contain some organic matter.
Therefore, it is largely due to chemical factors that these attain
greater relevance; be it by their inherent element toxicity or other

constituent components or by the aerial extension of influence.

However, this environmental problem cannot be disassociated from
other aspects such as those that deal with the security of people and
assets although risk situations can occur due to abandoned structures
that are frequently in ruin, unsealed or unprotected escavations,
shafts and addits, Subsidence phenomena resulting from the cave-in
of underground stopes.
Lousal Mines- Iberian Pyrite Belt, Alentejo, Portugal

It is known that in developed countries, authorities and
economic operators are increasingly understanding that generically
“a sustainable industrial development has to include an
environmental facet” such that the mineral extraction does not affect
subsequent use of the land and subterranean water and the land
planning. On the other hand, it is known that in the past the mining
industry was guided by criteria that allowed the optimal use of
deposits based essentially on economic factors. Due to this type of
thinking and lack of control of the mining activity resulted situations

of environmental danger, which have worsened over time. These

factors result in the fact that now the governments of developed
countries, namely the EC, consider environmental with a greater
weight than economic or social factors, i.e. this situation is inverted
or on the way to becoming disequilibrated. This highly visible
scenario in a continent with long historical traditions such as Europe
has generated the necessity to define sustainable development
indicators, which can objectively measure this disequilibrium and
make a decisive contribution towards achieving a balance between
economic, environmental and social factors.
São Domingos Mine - Iberian Pyrite Belt, Alentejo, Portugal
THE WORK GROUP "RAW MATERIALS SUPPLY GROUP"

(RMSG)
The primary objective of this group, which was formed some
years ago under the aegis of the EC Directorate- General Enterprise,
is to improve sustainable competitivity within the mining industry.
The group further pretends to promote the interchange of information
and discussion on issues related with this problem by involving
various stakeholders as representatives of the Commission, delegates
from member countries and candidate countries, industrial
associations and interested NGOs.

Extraction of clays in the Barracão area, Pombal, central

Portugal
In 2000 this work group produced a Communication – Com
(2000) 265 on the application of the concept of sustainable
development within the mining industry (a first in this sector)
entitled "Promoting sustainable development in the EU non-
energy extractive industry", in which are proposed some priority
actions, one of which is the necessity to maintain and enlarge
dialogue between members and subsequently create work groups that
pragmatically deal with those priorities. Therefore, subsequently,
there were created groups to study the themes of Mining Security,
Sustainable Development Indicators, Expansion and Restructuring
of the RMSG.

THE “MINERALS POLICY SECTOR" OF THE

EUROGEOSURVEYS
The Association of European Geological Surveys
"Eurogeosurveys", presently all 15 European member countries as
well as Norway, Switzerland and Iceland and more recently
Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary and Czech Republic. Its structure
contemplates 11 different thematic topics or "Policy Sectors", which
have as their main objective to make public the role of the
Geological Surveys in each of those areas of intervention in the
offices of the EC.
One of those wok groups, entitled "Mineral Resources",
integrates various members with a long mining tradition which have
contributed to the discovery of new mineral deposits that have
guaranteed the supply, to Europe, of raw materials thereby
maintaining the standard of living of its citizens while
simultaneously assuring a equilibrated sustainable development.
Old infrastructures of the Aljustrel Mines - Iberian Pyrite Belt,

Alentejo, Portugal

Conversely, these organisations have played a pivotal role in

maintaining the balance between the needs of the industry and
environment, supplying practical geoscientific multidisciplinary
know-how on an impartial basis. This knowledge has aided
governments, industry and the general public to ensure that mining
activities continue in and environmentally friendly manner. The
"Minerals Policy Sector" (MPS) has as members, representatives
from the Geological Survey of Portugal (IGM- coordinator), France
(BRGM), Spain (IGME), Sweden (SGU) e United Kingdom (BGS),
which form the Executive Committee. As corresponding members
the MPS has Greece (IGME), Norway (NGU), Germany (BGR),
Ireland (GSI), Austria (GBA), Finland (GTK), Denmark (GEUS),
Holland (TNO/ NITG), Iceland (OS) and Hungary (MAFI). Its
mission is based on the following points:
• Promotion and follow up of development of all actions related
with mining resources.
• Application of information and geoscientific know-how in the
exploration of mineral resources within the EC.
• Intervention in the establishment of a European mineral raw
material investigation policy taking into account aspects related
with land planning.
• Contribution towards the solution of problems related to the
supply of mineral raw materials and the environment as well as
aspects related with geomining assets.
The MPS has been participating regularly in meetings and
various other activities of the "Raw Materials Supply Group" and has
produced various documents dealing with matters related to its core
mission as well as being represented in the work groups
“Expansion”, “Mining Security” and “Sustainable Development
Indicators”.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS WITHIN

THE EC: METHODOLOGY AND CRITERIA
We can use several different types of Sustainable
development indicators, i.e. pressure, which describes the variables
that cause environmental problems, state, which reflect the most
common conditions within the environment, impact, which shows
the end effects of a significant change in the environmental context
and finally
Old sulphur factory at Achada do Gamo- São Domingos Mine,

Iberian Pyrite Belt, Alentejo, Portugal
Action
Which demonstrates the effort spent for dealing with specific
problems. The choice of these indicators is often not easy since they
have to be sufficiently relevant to deal specifically with each
developing situation as well as being scientifically sound, resistant to
change in space and time and social change, sufficiently clear,
comprehensive and coherent, easily accessible and able to detect
alarm situations.

Limestone quarry in Salgueiras, Maciço Calcário Estremenho,

Portugal
Furthermore, these sustainable development indicators group
themselves in the following classes or categories: social, economic,
environmental and institutional. In this domain the work carried out
by the "Commission on Sustainable Development" of the United
Nations.
The work group “sustainable development indicators”
formed under the above mentioned "Raw Materials Supply Group"
has been working on these matters since the beginning of 2001 and
has tried to define criteria and work methodologies in the selection of
indicators to be used within the EC in such a way that they have a
consensual acceptance by the mining industry and all other
stakeholders. The following steps have been taken:
1) The group initially planned to present a series of indicators for
approval in the plenary meeting of the RMSG until the end of the
first semester of the current year and has met 6 times so far.
2) In the first meeting, objectives, scope and methodology were
discussed. It was concluded that the indicators served to better
communications between the various partners involved (industry,

entities and administration, general public). The indicators will be

defined following the various levels: a) companies and/or locals;
b) industrial sectors; c) regional or national; d) EC.
3) In the second and third meeting it was decided that the indicators
would be established under the following categories or classes: a)
social; b) environmental; c) economical; d) institutional.
Panasqueira Mines, Centre of Portugal-Mine dumps next to the

old Rio plant
4) In the fourth meeting it was concluded that a group of indicators
would be defined so they could be tested, by way of a
questionnaire, by a group of companies. The IMA ("Industrial
Minerals Association") offered to select 15 companies and this
motion was carried.
5) The fifth and sixth meetings discussed the replies from the above
mentioned questionnaire, which had a resounding acceptance.
From this evaluation resulted the selection of 22 indicators, 16 of
which will be used at a company or local scale, 6 at national level
of the member states, while 2 of the indicators will be common to

both. The following types of indicators were discussed and

debated: Employment and Education; Health and Security –
Employment Conditions; Investigation, Investment and
Exploration; Communication; Use of Energy and Resources. For
example, we can refer the separation between direct and indirect
employment would cause confusion and hence would be treated
as one and quantified through an index termed “full time
employment equivalent" and that the indicator "proximity to
natural reserves" would only be used at the national scale. Finally
it was suggested that the objectives and form of this task should
be made clearer as well as paying close attention with respect the
publication of results since many of these contain delicate and/or
confidential data.
6) In the plenary meeting of 8 March 2002 of the RMSG, these
conclusions were presented and accepted. It was also decided to
continue the work of the group so that the points raised above
could be clarified as well as to compare the results and other
similar and contemporaneous initiatives.
REFERENCES
CE, Promoting sustainable development in the EU non- energy
extractive industry, COM (2000) 265, Brussels, May 2000.
Espí, J. A., Métodos actuais de análise de qualidade e gestão
ambiental, aplicados a operações mineiras, conferência
proferida no IGM, Março de 2002.
Martins, L., Regueiro, M., Arvidsson, S., Mining in Europe: the
Future, Documents du BRGM 297, pp. 24-27, BRGM, Orléans,
Novembro de 2000.
Regueiro, M., Martins, L., Féraud, J., Arvidsson, S., “EGS' Opinion
on the document of the European Commission Directorate-

General Environment, Towards an European strategy for the

sustainable use of natural resources, Madrid, Maio de 2002.
Santos Oliveira, J. M., Matos, J., Farinha, J., Ávila, P., Rosa, C.,
Martins, L., Machado, M. J. C., Daniel, F., Machado Leite, M.
R., Diagnóstico preliminar das minas abandonadas do País,
Relatório interno do IGM, Lisboa, Maio de 2001.

UNIDO’S POSITION
STRATEGY OF THE ORGANIZATION TO ACHIEVE
SUSTAINABILITY IN PROJECTS RELATED TO MERCURY
POLLUTION OF INTERNATIONAL WATERS CAUSED BY
SMALL-SCALE GOLD MINING
Christian Beinhoff
Artisanal mining which is sometimes used synonymously

with small-scale mining means different things to different people.
There is no universal definition of what constitutes an artisanal or
small-scale mine. In general, artisanal mining is used to refer to those
mining activities carried out by individuals, families, and/or adhoc
groups (some form of co-operatives) of indigenous people, the
majority of which have no technical skills and lack adequate working
tools. Although the term “artisanal mining” is used in some
countries, e.g., Zimbabwe, to refer to illegal alluvial gold mining
activities, it is used in others to refer to those activities that are carried
out without following conventional mining engineering norms. As
such a good number of artisanal miners in countries like Brazil,
Indonesia and Tanzania are licensed and there are policy drives to get
all mining activities licensed as a way of transforming them into
organized small-scale mining activities. Although there have been
improvements by various countries in recognizing artisanal mining as
a significant economic activity, the promulgation of legal frameworks
that are conducive to this sector remains elusive.
Despite these activities being individually small, their
combined economic and social impacts are substantial for the
economies of many developing countries. Globally, it is estimated
that up to 12% of metallic minerals, 31% industrial minerals, 20%
coal, 10% diamonds and 75% of gemstones production come from
small-scale mining operations. In individual countries the economic

benefits are even higher. For example, whereas in Brazil activities of

garimpeiros are estimated to produce 50% of the country’s total gold
production averaging around 60 tons, it is estimated that in both
Tanzania and Zimbabwe artisanal miners have the capacity to
produce 10 tonnes of gold per year. On average, it is estimated that
artisanal miners in Indonesia and Laos have annual gold production
of nearly 50 and 0.5 tonnes respectively. Although statistics are hard
to establish, estimates show that in Sudan where artisanal gold
mining is relatively limited, 10 tonnes of gold have been produced
over the last thirty years (1970 to 1999). These activities provide
considerable employment especially in the rural areas and thus
contribute substantially to poverty alleviation. It was estimated in
1993 by the International Labour Organization, (ILO), that out of the
30 million mineworkers throughout the world, 6 million were
engaged in artisanal mining in developing countries. Given the fact
that rural poverty is prevalent in most developing countries, artisanal
mining has room to contribute fully to economic and social
development. It is now widely accepted by large mining companies
that artisanal miners are one of the most important tools for finding
sizeable gold deposits. Artisanal mining also allows the exploitation
of marginal reserves that would otherwise be classified as
uneconomical.
Although artisanal mining has shown some positive
contributions, it has also suffered negative conceptualization as a
misnomer to mineral sector development by host Governments.
Whereas some countries choose to ignore the existence of such
activities, others lack adequate legal frameworks to regulate them. As
a result, the activities are carried out illegally thus denying the host
Governments the badly needed revenues. Even in countries that have
enacted legal and regulatory frameworks for controlling such
activities, the lack of adequate resources limits the capacity to
institute them effectively. The combination of this and the lack of
technical know-how and financial means make it difficult for miners

to invest in appropriate technology. Mining and processing activities

are carried out by manual means or through application of locally
improvised but inefficient equipment and tools. As a result, the
activities have become synonymous to negative environmental
impacts, inefficiency, lack of adherence to health and safety
standards, and activities that have negative social impacts. The
uncontrolled use of mercury as a cheap means for recovering gold is
now threatening the health of miners and members of communities
far away from mining areas. Most of the negative factors tend to
reinforce one another resulting in a vicious circle that is difficult to
break. For example, the lack of regulatory mechanisms means that
Governments lose the much-needed revenue that in turn makes it
impossible to provide adequate control due to lack of resources. The
lack of, technical know-how, access to credit facilities, and technical
support coupled with poor organizational structures means that
miners are unable to invest in technology and hence cannot improve
their working methods. This results in negative environmental
impacts, low productivity and hence earnings and the vicious circle
continue.
In many gold producing countries, women are major
participants in artisanal mining activities. In Laos it is estimated that
almost 80% of all artisanal gold panners are women. In Zimbabwe,
the majority of the 350,000 estimated artisanal miners are in gold
digging and panning with 50% comprising of women and children. In
Tanzania, 26% of all 600,000 artisanal miners are estimated to be
women most of which mine gold and gemstones. In Sudan it is
estimated that 35% and 10% of the miners consist of women and
children in the Southern Blue Nile and Eastern Bayuda Desert regions
respectively. Despite these impressive figures, the number of women
miners with mineral rights is still limited. In other words the majority
of women operators are still in the illegal miners category. Direct
entry into mining production activities is often determined by taboo,

socio-cultural factors, financial and economic capacity, technology

and organizational aspects.
ARTISANAL GOLD MINING ACTIVITIES IN

INTERNATIONAL WATERBODIES
Recently a new project has been approved by the Global
Environment Facility (GEF) for UNIDO execution in six countries
(GLO/01/G34). The selection of countries participating in this project
was done based on the intensity of mercury based artisanal gold
extraction activities and their impacts on water bodies of global
significance. In the South American region, the Amazon Basin is the
largest drainage system in the world with an area of about 6.0 million
square kilometres. The Amazon River has a total length of 6400
kilometres, which is slightly shorter than the Nile. Stretching almost
2760 kilometres from north to south at its widest point, the Basin
occupies a great part of Brazil and Peru, significant parts of
Columbia, Ecuador and Bolivia and a small area of Venezuela.
Almost two-thirds of the Amazon’s main streams and by far the
largest portion of its Basin are within Brazil. More than two thirds of
the Basin is covered by an immense Amazon Rain Forest which
represents about half of the Earth’s remaining rain forest and
constitutes the largest reserve of biological resources. At the peak of
the gold rush in the 1980s, it was estimated that nearly 1.0 million
people were directly involved in the activities, with 400,000 of those
being in the Tapajos area alone. Available figures show that nearly
1,000 tonnes of mercury were dumped into the Amazon Basin during
the 1980s and nearly 130 tonnes are currently dumped annually.
Within the participating countries of the African Region, the
significant International Waterbodies include the Nile River system,
Lake Victoria and the Zambezi River system. The Nile River system
is composed of the Blue Nile (Abbai) River that originates from Lake
Tana and the White Nile that rises from Lake Victoria. Sudan

occupies a major part of the River Nile basin. Along its course (6825
km), the Nile drains from the Equator up to the Mediterranean coast
in Egypt. Areawise, the Nile basin represents one tenth of the African
continent. Mining along the Nile covers nearly 2,000 km2 in the
Southern Blue Nile region with mine workings developed in old river
terraces along the riverbanks and its tributaries at the foothills of the
Ethiopian highlands. It is estimated that nearly 120,000 people are
engaged in these activities. On the other hand, Lake Victoria which
has an area of more than 70,000 km2 is Africa’s largest lake and
second largest in the world only to North America's Lake Superior.
The Lake, which is surrounded by one of the most highly populated
areas in the world and is shared by Tanzania (51% of the Lake area),
Uganda (43%) and Kenya (6%), is a source of employment for nearly
30 million people. The Lake Victoria Goldfields which cover almost
200,000 km2 are estimated to employ nearly 300,000 people and
produce nearly 70% of the country's total gold production. Nearly 12
tonnes of mercury are released annually to the environment in
Tanzania alone. More than 50% of artisanal gold panning activities in
Zimbabwe are carried out within the Zambezi River system (more
than 2400 kilometres are panned) and its tributaries. The Zambezi
flows along the northern and Southern borders of Zimbabwe and
Zambia respectively before cutting across central Mozambique on its
way to the Indian Ocean. There are about 350,000 gold panners in the
country with as many as 300 panners concentrated in every kilometre
of the widely panned sections of the Zambezi River system and
releasing nearly 12 tonnes of mercury annually to the environment.
River Mekong in Laos and River Kahayan in Central
Kalimantan, Indonesia are the significant International Waterbodies
within the Asian participating countries. The River Mekong which is
about 4,500 kilometres long and is a life-stay for almost 50 million
people and their cultures sets out at the Qinghai plateau in Western
China before flowing into Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and
Vietnam. Although the upper portions of the river are characterized

by turbulence, the lower Mekong is more placid, and the annual

flooding supports a biologically diverse ecosystem. In Laos, alluvial
mining activities are carried out as seasonal activities during the dry
non-agricultural season mainly by dredging on the River Mekong and
its tributaries. Up to 3,000 miners have been found at any one time
working on River Mekong. The Kahayan River, is the largest river in
Central Kalimantan and drains directly into the Java sea and thus with
effects to Singapore, the Islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali and others.
Most activities are based on alluvial operations within the river
systems with a few mining hard rock gold veins. However, even
those in hard rock mining transport the ore to the rivers for
processing. The Kahayan River in Central Kalimantan and the Tapian
River in North Sulawesi are known to have a high concentration of
miners per kilometre length. It has been reported that more than 2,000
illegal miners would converge on single mining site following a
reported gold recovery. In Indonesia where artisanal gold mining
activities are carried out either through village cooperative units or
through illegal operations and are found in the provinces of West and
Central Java, Sumatra, Central and East Kalimantan, North Sulawesi
and others, nearly 180 tonnes of mercury are released to the
environment annually.
NEGATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS DUE TO

ARTISANAL GOLD MINING
Artisanal gold mining activities within the participating
countries under review show negative environmental impacts that
tend to overshadow their positive contributions. Mining is carried out
either by pitting in both hard rock and in old riverbed alluvium or by
dredging existing riverbeds all of which generate substantial amounts
of rubble. Whereas pits in abandoned areas are dangerous to people
and animals, the mined rubble blanket the top fertile soil and thus
lead to loss of grazing and agricultural land. The exposed mined areas

are susceptible to accelerated erosion from both wind scour and

surface runoffs and may lead to Acid Mine Drainage. Piles of tailings
most of which contain toxic chemicals, e.g., mercury, are directly
washed into rivers resulting to siltation and water pollution problems.
Pools of stagnant water left behind during washing and abandoned
flooded pits turn into breeding grounds for Malaria spreading
mosquitoes. Poor sanitation from mining camps, hydrocarbons from
machinery, uncontrolled use of explosives and others, add to
pollution of surface and ground water systems.
During the preparatory phase of this project, it was revealed
that mercury is directly released into rivers and lakes during panning
of the alluvial ore or washing of the hard rock-based ore within the
waterbodies. The key concerns here are the direct release of mercury
into the waterbodies, its accumulation and subsequent methylation to
organo-mercury and hence transfer into the food chain through the
aquatic ecosystem. The transformation of inorganic mercury to an
organo-metallic compound, methyl mercury, is the most significant in
terms of uptake and accumulation of mercury by man as this
compound can block enzymes and so damage essential metabolic
processes.
Available data indicate that the amount of mercury released
during burning of the amalgam is approximately in the ratio of 1.2 -
1.5:1 to the amount of gold produced. There are clear indications that
mercury pollution from small-scale mining is a threat to public health
not only in the proximity of mineral processing activities, but also in
the mining villages themselves and even far downstream of
contaminated rivers. New results from UNIDO projects in Ghana
and Philippines give evidence that approximately 50 percent of gold
mining communities in these countries must be considered as
mercury-intoxicated, i.e. the threshold limits in body fluids are by far
exceeded and the neurological symptoms can be detected.

At present, there is not any single “off-shelf ” solution to

problems related to artisanal mining. The introduction of cleaner
mining and extraction technology would go a long way to minimize
the activities impacts to the environment, maximize the socio-
economic benefits and ensure that operations are sustainable and
adhere to health and safety standards. Although piecemeal solutions
have been tried in many countries, a more holistic approach is
required in dealing with artisanal mining problems. Attempts to such
an approach that will ensure the introduction of cleaner mining and
extraction technologies is a priority for UNIDO.
INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL ACTIONS

The plight of artisanal and small-scale mining has attracted
the world attention since the seventies. In 1972, the United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs published the
proceedings from a seminar organized to discuss small-scale mining
activities. Although a number of meetings have since been held and
strategies laid on how to transform the sector, there have been limited
actions "on the ground". A meeting of different international
organizations and mining experts that was convened in Harare,
Zimbabwe in 1993 in search for solutions to artisanal mining
problems, came up with what is known as “The Harare Guidelines on
small / Medium-Scale Mining”. The implementation of the guidelines
whose main objective was to provide a framework for encouraging
development of small and medium-scale mining as legal sustainable
activities was left to individual countries and has had limited impacts.
In 1995 the World Bank hosted a “Round Table on Artisanal
Mining” meeting in Washington to chart out a strategy for dealing
with the sector's problems. The meeting came up with what the Bank
published as a proposal for assistance known as “A Comprehensive
Strategy Towards Artisanal Mining” aimed at minimizing the
negative side effects and thus maximize socio-economic benefits of

artisanal mining. The strategy which has since been implemented in a

number of countries identified the negative side effects of artisanal
mining as being; unacceptable environmental practices; poor social,
health and safety conditions; illegal mining and marketing and waste
of resources. Where it has been implemented, the programme has
succeeded in strengthening the institutional capacity and introducing
internationally competitive legal, regulatory and fiscal frameworks
and hence enhanced the process of legalizing the artisanal mining
activities. With the increase in poverty in the developing world and
the lack of coordinated international actions, the amount of mercury
that is released to the environment from artisanal gold mining
activities is bound to keep increasing.
Following the problems of the gold rush experienced during
the 1980s, the Brazilian House of Representatives commissioned the
Centre for Minerals Research, CETEM, of the Brazilian Research
Council, to evaluate the state of the art of the operations, propose
solutions, and advise the House on possible control legal measures.
Through a four-year programme, comprehensive descriptions of the
activities, data related to mercury and particulate matter pollution,
proposals for control legislative measures, were produced. However,
practical implementations of the findings of this programme were
hampered by the lack of adequate resources especially when dealing
with such a large area like the Amazon Basin. Some years later, the
Government of Tanzania in collaboration with the World Bank
formulated the Mineral Sector Development Technical Assistance
Project in order to provide the Government with necessary technical,
managerial and material support for the implementation of its new
private sector oriented mining development strategies. One of the
major components of the US $13.9 million five-year project was to
improve the economic, social and environmental performance of the
artisanal mining in order to encourage and expand private investment
in the mining sector. Although the project resulted in the country's
first mining environmental legal and regulatory framework, it has not

addressed itself fully to the negative environmental impacts resulting

from artisanal mining activities. The European Union in collaboration
with the Government of Zimbabwe has embarked on a US $38.7
million project part of which will be spent on development and
control of the small-scale mining sector. Although there are similar
programmes in other countries, most do not address environmental
problems of a global nature.
UNIDO’S RELEVANT EXPERIENCE AND POSITION

REGARDING SUSTAINABILITY OF SMALL-SCALE
MINING OPERATIONS
Over the years, UNIDO has gained a lot of experience in
dealing with artisanal related problems especially in developing
countries. In 1995, UNIDO initiated a programme named “High
Impact Programme” with the main theme being to “Introduce New
Technologies for the Abatement of Global Mercury Pollution”.
Following the launch of this programme, an international workshop
was conducted in November 1995, in Jakarta, Indonesia on
“Ecologically Sustainable Gold Mining and Processing” and it
attracted 41 participants from 14 countries. Based on the
recommendations of the workshop and with support from the donor
community and host Governments, UNIDO initiated programmes in a
number of countries, e.g., Cameroon, Ghana, Philippines, and
Tanzania, aimed at assessing the potential for the introduction of new
technologies for the abatement of mercury pollution. These
programmes, some of which are ongoing, have enabled UNIDO to
gain experience and appreciation of the magnitude of the mercury
pollution problems, project co-ordination and establishment of
working relationships with Governments and local institutions. In
addition, during the preparatory phase of this GEF project, UNIDO
conducted preliminary investigations in the six countries participating
in order to assess the intensity of the artisanal mining activities and

their impacts on the International Waterbodies. Review of previous

related studies, identification of the “hot spots” areas (rivers and
waterbodies) and estimation of levels of pollution resulting from the
application of mercury around these areas, were carried out. Apart
from assessing the most affected International Waterbodies, barriers
limiting the introduction of cleaner technologies were identified in
each of the participating countries.
CURRENT OPTIONS FOR DEVELOPING SUSTAINABLE

ARTISANAL MINING
The barriers limiting artisanal miners from adopting
sustainable and cleaner technology result from the fact that both the
miners and the relevant Governments find themselves in negative
circles of cause and effect. The application of poor technology leads
to low productivity that in turn results in low revenue earnings and
hence inability to invest in appropriate technology, it traps miners in
crude and inefficient working methods and hence results in severe
negative impacts to the environment, health and safety. On the other
hand, the institutional weaknesses that lead to inability to enforce the
existing legislation results in illegal operations, poor environmental,
health and safety standards and loss of the badly needed fiscal
revenues. The loss of fiscal revenues makes the authorities unable to
perform their regulatory functions and hence perpetuates uncontrolled
artisanal mining. In order to develop artisanal mining into sustainable
and environmentally acceptable activities, both negative circles must
be broken.
In view of the difficulties facing both miners and the
governing authorities, the increase in knowledge and awareness and
the introduction of efficient and cleaner technologies are at present
the best option for developing environmentally acceptable activities.
Prior to such intervention measures, the baseline data regarding
environmental, technological and socio-economic issues, should be

established. Both training and awareness campaigns should be

developed through involvement of miners and their organizations in
order to enhance their acceptability. Such programmes should
provide special considerations for women whose direct entry into
artisanal mining activities is often limited by socio-cultural issues and
the strenuous nature of the activities.
Since there is medical evidence that women and the unborn
are especially vulnerable to mercury, it is regarded as indispensable
to give priority to women miners during training and awareness
campaign programmes so that the majority of them can adopt cleaner
technology. Demonstration of efficient and cleaner technologies
should be conducted in selected demonstration sites so as to enable
miners appreciate the monetary and non-monetary benefits.
Assistance should be provided to Governments to enable them
develop policies and legislation that would lead to implementable
standards. Development of enforcement programmes and building
capacity to enable local institutions to carry out continuous
monitoring, is essential for promotion of environmentally acceptable
artisanal gold extraction activities.
IMPORTANCE OF THE GEF INTERVENTION

It is now widely accepted that the problems associated with
artisanal mining in developing countries are similar and require
integrated solutions and partnership between different players. The
problems relate to protection and effective resources utilization, to
general environmental conditions in areas surrounding the mines and
in remote areas receiving mine waste and contaminants and to safe
working and health conditions of miners. Whereas most attempts
indicate appreciation of the extent of the negative environmental
impacts resulting from these activities, no single programme within
the six countries has addressed itself to the effects of these impacts on
International Waterbodies.

The GEF intervention will show, through the establishment

of the envisioned demonstration projects, how the current
uncontrolled artisanal mining activities can be transformed into more
organized, environmentally acceptable and sustainable operations. In
each of the participating countries, the programme will aim at
assessing the extent of mercury pollution, raising awareness and
increasing knowledge of the miners and the public, introducing and
demonstrating the application of cleaner and efficient technology,
assisting the Government to put in place practical and implementable
policies and legislation and building capacity to ensure continuous
monitoring of mercury pollution on the surrounding waterbodies.
PROJECT STRATEGY
LONG-TERM OBJECTIVE
The long-term objective of the GEF project is to protect
international waters from mercury pollution emanating from small-
scale mining operations. Measures and methods to reduce this
pollution are demonstrated in a pilot suite of developing countries
located in several key transboundary river/lake basins. The main tools
for reducing the pollution consist in assessing the extent of mercury
pollution from current activities, introducing cleaner gold mining and
extraction technology that minimize or eliminate mercury releases
and developing capacity and regulatory mechanisms that will enable
the sector to minimize negative environmental impacts.
BROAD DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVE

The broad development objectives of the six
participating countries is to transform the current artisanal
mining activities into organized activities in order to enhance
incomes of the participating members of the population,

minimize negative environmental impacts and enhance

development of the mineral sector and hence the economy. Like
in many developing countries, artisanal mining activities are
carried out in the six participating countries mainly as a way of
dealing with poverty by the rural populations. As a result, the
short-term gains envisaged by miners in order to escape from
poverty have largely been outweighed by the negative impacts
caused by these activities to their environment, health and
safety and the neighboring communities. In addressing the
negative environmental impacts resulting from these activities,
some Governments have initiated programmes to address the
issues related to the uncontrolled use of mercury in the recovery
of gold. However, since most activities have been operating
outside the legal framework, major efforts are still directed
towards putting in place legislative and regulatory frameworks
upon which artisanal mining activities can be conducted.
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL OBJECTIVE

The global environmental objective is to assist developing
countries in creating conditions necessary to minimize mercury
pollution and other negative environmental impacts on International
Waterbodies resulting from artisanal gold mining and extraction
activities. Most artisanal gold mining activities within the
participating countries are carried out within basins of major
ecological significance and that cross geographical boundaries to
many countries, e.g., the basins of the Amazon, River Nile, Lake
Victoria, River Zambezi, River Mekong and River Kahayan in
Indonesia. As such, the negative environmental impacts on the
International Waterbodies within these basins are bound to affect
many countries most of which do not even have gold mining
activities. The Governments of the participating countries, acting

unilaterally are unable to finance the high initial start up costs of

dealing with mercury related pollution problems. The GEF project
will lead to an assessment of the extent of mercury pollution, increase
of knowledge and awareness on environmental issues, introduction
and demonstration of the application of efficient and clean
technology and provision of assistance to Governments to enable
them develop policies and legislation that are practical and
enforceable. These efforts will in turn lead to artisanal mining
activities that are efficient and environmentally acceptable.
SPECIFIC PROJECT OBJECTIVES

There is general agreement on the need for a globally
consistent approach to address the removal of barriers to the
introduction of cleaner artisanal gold mining and extraction
technologies. Since the issue cannot be addressed at the same time in
dozens of countries suffering from the same problem, typical cases
for mercury pollution of international waters have been selected.
The following specific project objectives and related
activities will be implemented within the participating countries.
Objective 1A: To ensure effective project coordination and support
(providing information, communications,
professional assistance, programme implementation
and evaluation and assessment) through
establishment of a UNIDO based Programme
Coordination Unit (PCU) and a Global Project Task
Force.
Objective 1B: Identification of, and provision of resources for the
establishment of the programme management
structures in each of the six participating countries
and the creation and operation of the basin and
country specific project task forces.

Objective 2: Identify project demonstration sites and organize

training aimed at increasing knowledge and raising
awareness of miners, Governments, NGOs and the
general public on the environmental and health
impacts associated with the current artisanal mining
practices and the environmental, health and economic
benefits of employing appropriate technology.
Objective 3: Identify hotspots in project demonstration sites,
conduct geochemical and toxicological studies and
other field investigations in order to assess the extent
of environmental (mercury) pollution in surrounding
water bodies and devise intervention measures.
Objective 4: Establish a databank comprising of technological
requirements relevant to artisanal gold mining and
extraction activities through field investigations,
interviews with miners, miners' associations and
other relevant institutions.
Objective 5: Acquire and demonstrate, within the project
demonstration sites, the application of affordable
high-efficiency clean technology with improved gold
processing methods while avoiding environmental
degradation from mercury contamination.
Objective 6: Based on the acquired experience, develop
sustainable extraction indicators and hence assist
Governments to develop generic and to the extent
possible, country specific policies and legislation that
will lead to implementable standards on the
application of mercury with special attention to
minimization of environmental impacts.
Objective 7: Promote the dissemination of the produced project
results and identify opportunities that will allow the

project to continue beyond the three-year time frame

through self-financing and to initiate and conduct a
Donor Conference to solicit financing.
CONCLUSION
One of the priority areas identified by GEF under the
“international waters focal area” is the degradation of the quality of
the transboundary water resources, primarily due to pollution from
land-based activities. The negative impacts resulting from artisanal
mining, which is a land-based activity, lead to degradation of the
selected International Waterbodies resulting to far reaching
consequences. The project is also consistent with the GEF
Operational Programme #10, which targets projects that “help to
demonstrate ways of overcoming barriers to the adoption of best
practices, waste minimization strategies and pollution prevention
measures that limit contamination of the international waters
environment”. The activities aim at removing barriers that inhibit
artisanal miners from applying cleaner and efficient technology.
Apart from removing the barriers the project is demonstrating the
application of cleaner technology and conduct training to the miners
in order to enhance the application of cleaner technology and thus
reduce pollution and minimize waste resulting from the currently
applied poor technology. Supplementing ongoing activities of the
respective countries in developing the artisanal activities to the level
of an organized small-scale gold mining sector, the project
contributes to a substantial incremental progress regarding the
reduction of mercury pollution.

V. CVRD
Vale do Rio Doce
Company
VALE DO RIO DOCE COMPANY– CVRD
Founded on June 1, 1942 as state company, and privatized on

May 7, 1997, CVRD is the largest diversified mining company in the
Americas, with market capitalization of approximately US$ 11
billion. Composed by a holding company and by more than 50
subsidiaries, CVRD has its shares negotiated in reais (Bolsa de
Valores de São Paulo – BOVESPA), in US dollars (New York Stock
Exchange – NYSE) and in euros (Madrid Stock Exchange –
LATIBEX), being constituted as the most exporting Brazilian
company. In 2001, international sales reached a volume of US$ 3.3
billion.
Companhia Vale do Rio Doce is the biggest producing and
exporting company of iron ore and pellets in the world and one of the
main global producers of manganese and ferro-alloy. It also produces
bauxite, gold, kaolin, potash, alumina and aluminum. CVRD is one of
the main cargo transportation companies in Brazil, where it holds and
operates a series of railroads and ports. It has stakes in two
hydroelectric power plants under operation and in other seven under
construction. It also takes part in steel and fertilizers producing
companies in Brazil and abroad.

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY AT CVRD
CVRD considers the environmental quality of its products and

services a fundamental factor to its competitiveness.
“Everyone has the right to an ecologically balanced
environment, a fundamental gift and essential to a
healthy quality of life, being a duty of the Public
Authorities and the community to defend the
environment and preserve it for both present and future
generations”.
Federal Constitution of Brazil
CVRD has a clear perception of the large influence that
environmental issues have on the market. It’s Environmental Policy
and management directives express the Company’s commitment to
environmental quality. Full conformity to the law is the absolute
minimum requirement to be observed by all its operational units,

which also comply with the Company’s internal norms and standards,
which take a preventive and proactive approach.
At the beginning of the nineties, with the ECO 92, in Rio de
Janeiro, environmental issues began to be dealt with in the economic
arena, influencing companies strategic decisions and calling for more
wide-reaching and rigorous government action, in response to the
growing demands of society.
In line with these changes, in 1994 CVRD introduced its
Environmental Audit Program, a pioneering move in Brazil, which
involved a complete environmental diagnosis of its operations and
allowed for better planning of preventive and corrective action. As a
result, the First CVRD Environmental Program 1994-2000 was
formulated, covering over seventy projects, with investment of some
US$ 110 million.
CVRD placed environmental aspects alongside other
management issues with the introduction of its System of
Environmental Quality Management – SGQA, based on the ISO
14001 standard specifications. The first two ISO 14001 certificates
obtained by CVRD (Mineral Development Center – Minas Gerais
State - 04/1997 and Iron Ore and Manganese Mines at Carajás – Pará
State - 10/1998) were a world-first in their field.
CARAJÁS IRON PROJECT

CVRD’s Carajás Iron Project is globally recognized for its
pioneering initiatives in the consideration of environmental variables
since its initial conception. As neither specific laws nor standards
existed at that time, CVRD organized the Environmental Study and
Advice Group – GEAMAM, made up of well known Brazilian
scientists, which made more than 200 recommendations, all of them
implemented by CVRD.

Preservation of the areas surrounding the Carajás mines

Since 1987, IBAMA (Brazilian Institute of Environment) and
CVRD have maintained a joint agreement to protect the Conservation
Units located around the Carajás Mineral Region. Thanks to the
introduction of the Carajás Iron Project, and the consequent creation
of conservation units, a continuous area was designated as one of the
largest and best preserved areas of primary rain forest in the south of
the state of Pará. This area, together with the indigenous land of the
Xikrin do Cateté, totaling more than 1.1 million hectares.

CVRD AND INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES IN THE

CARAJÁS REGION
The Brazilian Federal Constitution confers special rights on
indigenous communities with the aim of guaranteeing their integrity.
The responsibility for providing assistance to the Indian communities
lies with the Federal Union, through the National Indian Foundation.
Although most of the indigenous communities located within
the area of influence of the Carajás Iron Project have close
relationships with farming and urban populations – some for more
than a century, since the start of the Carajás Iron Project to the end of
2001, CVRD had spent US$ 25 million in support of projects for
indigenous communities.
With CVRD’s support, 2.8 million hectares of 20 Indigenous
Territories were demarcated by the Brazilian government; education,
hygiene, health and environmental preservation programs were
implemented; local infrastructure of villages, building dwellings,
sanitary installations, first-aid posts, schools, communication systems
and roads has been implemented and improved. The indigenous
communities self-sufficiency, though the promotion of agricultural
and forest management projects, is also an important program
supported by CVRD.
The Xikrin do Cateté community is the closest one to the
Carajás mines, the reason why it is the object of special attention on
the part of CVRD. One of the most significant indicators of the
success of this partnership is the reversion in the decreasing
population curve: 1982 there were a total of 397 indians in this
community, while today there are more than 700.

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OF INDUSTRIAL

OPERATIONS
CVRD invests more than US$30 million per year is the
continuous improvement of the environmental performance of its
industrial activities. In all the Company’s installations, atmospheric
emissions, effluent outflows, waste generation, treatment and disposal
are monitored and controlled, using the most appropriate technology
for the activity or process of each operational unit. Only in the
Tubarão Port and Industrial Complex, in Vitória, CVRD has invested
more than US$ 90 million in the control of particle emissions,
achieving a reduction of around 75%.
Spraying in the ways to the mine – Carajás, Pará State

REHABILITATION OF DEGRADED AREAS BY MINING

ACTIVITIES
CVRD has developed technologies for the rehabilitation of
degraded lands by mining activities. On it’s Natural Reserve of
Linhares (22.000 hectares of primary Atlantic Forest, opened to the
public in 2001), CVRD is able to reproduce more than 800 tropical
species. Only in 2001, six million trees were produced by CVRD’s
nurseries.
In 2001, the Company began the rehabilitation of seven
mines already closed, a total of 436 hectares. This involves
reprofiling of slopes, hydrogeology, revegetation and monitoring. The
revegetation projects take into account the diversity of the
ecossystems, giving priority to native species so that the new
vegetation blends in naturally.
FORESTS IN INDUSTRIAL AREAS

In the Tubarão Industrial Complex, enrichment of covering
vegetation on 411 hectares of land is being carried out, with the
planting of one million seedlings over three years, adding to more
than five million trees already planted. The vegetation coverage in the
Tubarão Complex covers about 53% of the entire industrial area and
is the largest forest in the municipality of Vitória. Species are being
planted that act in a similar fashion to the green belts around the stock
yards and the areas where bulk solids are handled, improving to the
existing function of containing airborne dust clouds and flying
particles.
In Itabira Mining Complex, CVRD carries out the enrichment
of the forests in order to form natural tree barriers between the mines
and the urban areas.

SOCIAL RESPONSABILITY
The Vale do Rio Doce Foundation - FVRD, CVRD’s social
action instrument, has as its central purpose the improvement of the
quality of life in the communities. Since 1998, FVRD has carried out
a number of projects that seek to promote regional development, in
partnership with sates, municipalities, private-sector companies and
civil organizations. Its implements and supports initiatives that are
focused on education, social development and culture in regions
where CVRD operates. During 2001, CVRD invested approximately
US$10 million in social programs, which have benefited thousands of
citizens.
The Escola que Vale (school that counts) program has
benefiting more than 15.000 people, among pupils, teachers and
professionals at 33 schools. In 2001 this program won the ECO 2001
Education Prize, awarded by the American Chamber of Commerce in
São Paulo.
The Citizenship Train offers to the communities located at
the influence area of Carajás Railroad the possibility of obtaining
basic documents and provides access to health facilities. Besides
medical and dental treatment, it promotes illness prevention, In 2001,
the Citizenship Train had 118,684 visits.
Environmental education, music teaching, literacy, sports,
information technology (installation of computers in 300 schools), are
also social programs developed by CVRD

Vale on Information Technology

CVRD is a global player, recognized for its competence in all
its business areas. The inclusion of the environmental and social
factors as being a key element in its ability to compete, as well as
increasing its market value, is a typical stance of a modern company,
committed to satisfying its shareholders, clients, the communities in
which it operates and other interested parties.
To continue to benefit from being in the spotlight as a
benchmark company, both domestically and internationally, CVRD
has a consolidated environmental culture and social action, with
strategies clearly defined by the Board, applying professional
management to environmental issues and to its relations with the
communities.

CYTED XIII
http://www.cetem.gov.br/cyted-xiii
Coordinadores Internacionales
Roberto C. Villas-Bôas (desde 1998)
Lelio Fellows Filho (1986 a 1996)
Subprogramas por Áreas Temáticas

APOYO A POLÍTICAS DE CIENCIA Y TECNOLOGÍA
I. METODOLOGIA EN CIENCIA Y TECNOLOGIA
Dr. Jesús Blanco Álvarez
XVI. GESTION DE LA INVESTIGACION Y EL DESARROLLO
TECNOLOGICO
Dra. María Carlota de Souza Paula
MEDIO AMBIENTE
XII. DIVERSIDAD BIOLÓGICA
Dr. Peter Mann de Toledo
XV. CORROSION E IMPACTO AMBIENTAL SOBRE MATERIALES
Dra. Mª. Carmen Andrade Perdrix
XVII. APROVECHAMIENTO Y GESTIÓN DE RECURSOS HÍDRICOS
Dra. Alicia Fernández Cirelli
XVIII. TECNOLOGÍAS DE PREVISIÓN Y EVALUACIÓN DE
DESASTRES NATURALES
Dr. Hugo Alfonso Yepes Arostegui
RECURSOS ENERGÉTICOS
IV. BIOMASA COMO FUENTE DE PRODUCTOS QUIMICOS Y
ENERGIA
Dr. Roberto E. Cunningham
VI. NUEVAS FUENTES Y CONSERVACION DE LA ENERGIA
(EXCLUIDA BIOMASA)
Dr. Luis Roberto Saravia (VI)

TECNOLOGÍA DE LA INFORMACIÓN Y DE LAS

COMUNICACIONES
VII. ELECTRONICA E INFORMATICA APLICADAS
Dr Ricardo Baeza Yates (VII)
IX. MICROELECTRONICA
Dr. Jordi Aguiló
TECNOLOGÍA DE LA SALUD Y DE LA ALIMENTACIÓN
II. ACUICULTURA
Dr. Manuel M. Murillo (II)
III. BIOTECNOLOGIA
Dr. Mitermayer Galvao dos Reis
X. QUIMICA FINA FARMACEUTICA
Dr. Mahabir P. Gupta
XI. TRATAMIENTO Y CONSERVACION DE ALIMENTOS
Dra. Jenny Ruales Nájera (XI)
XIX. TECNOLOGÍAS AGROPECUARIAS
Dr. José Ramón Díaz Álvarez
TECNOLOGÍA DE LOS MATERIALES
V. CATALISIS Y ADSORBENTES
Dr. Paulino Andreu
VIII. TECNOLOGIA DE MATERIALES
Dra. Osmara Ortíz Núñez
XIII. TECNOLOGIA MINERAL
Dr. Roberto Cerrini Villas Bôas
XIV. TECNOLOGIA DE VIVIENDAS DE INTERES SOCIAL
Dr. Edin de Jesús Martínez Ortega (XIV)

Diretoria Executiva do CNPq
Esper Abrão Cavalheiro

Presidente
Alice Rangel de Paiva Abreu

Vice-Presidente
Lélio Fellows Filho

Chefe de Gabinete da Presidência
Albanita Viana de Oliveira

Diretoria de Programa Témáticos e Setoriais
Celso Pinto de Melo

Diretoria de Programas Horizontais e Instrumentais
Gerson Galvão
Diretoria de Administração
Maria Claudia Miranda Diogo

Assessoria de Cooperação Internacional

http://www.gefweb.org
http://www.unido.org
http://www.undp.org
http://www.cetem.gov.br
http://www.cyted.org
http://www.cetem.gov.br/cyted-XIII
www.cvrd.com.br

Other books of interest:

Zero Emission
Roberto C. Villas Bôas & James R. Kahn, Eds
IATAFI & CETEM Publishers
Technological Challenges Posed by Sustainable Development

Roberto C. Villas Bôas & Lelio Fellows Filho , Eds.
CYTED & IMAAC Publishers
Mining Closure in Iberoamerica

Roberto C. Villas-Bôas & Maria Laura Barreto, Eds.
CYTED & IMAAC Publishers
Quarries Schools in Iberoamerica

Roberto C. Villas Bôas & Gildo Sá , Eds.
CYTED & CNPq Publishers
Mining Heritage and Mine Closure in Iberoamerica

Roberto C. Villas Bôas & Arsenio Gonzalez-Martinez, Eds.
CYTED & SEDPGyM , CNPq Publishers
Land Use in Mining

Roberto C. Villas-Bôas & Roberto Page , Eds.
CYTED, SEGEMAR & CNPq Publishers
Mercury in the Tapajos Basin

Roberto C. Villas-Bôas , Christian Beinhoff & Alberto Rogério da Silva ,
Eds.
UNIDO & GEF Publishers

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A WORD OF CAUTION

The texts hereby presented are authors' full responsibility: no

It was decided to make this book available in the present

It is expected that only minor corrections may be needed,

We believe that the book is, thus, edited to a satisfactory

Carajás, Oriental Amazon, Brazil

CURRENT ISSUES ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

As the selection of a given set of materials depends upon the

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

THE AVERAGE METAL RECOVERIES AND THE

- The average metal recoveries

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

In order to systemize the analysis of the environmental

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

Variations in the grade in the workability of an ore body, may

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

grade of the ore up to the production of a salable concentrate, the

As already pointed out MC stands for the mass of produced

A very illustrating example of recovery, grade, mass

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

- The Production Steps

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

The utilized average metal recoveries figures from ore to

Figure 1. The production steps

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

PE = is the product in metal originated from the extracting step,

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

Bulk "in situ" ore Concentrate

Figure 2. Income/outcome of the extracting step.

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

B.2 Mineral Processing tailings, rooms for gains pending on

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

Figure 3. Income/outcome of the processing step.

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

0,57375X Metal Bards Rods

Figure 4. Income/outcome of the fabrication step.

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

- Identifiable environmental impacts and prospects in the

0,57375X Metallic Product

Figure 5. Income/outcome of the manufacturing step.

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

- Identifiable environmental impacts and prospects in the

ROLE OF THE RESEARCH ENGINEER OR SCIENTIST

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

Let's raise some major points in each of the income/outcome

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

Table 3. The processing step overall energy efficiences for

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

It is worthy point out, however, that those average figures

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

Table 5. Comparison between the impacts of the effluents in each

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

Table 6. Major environmental impacts for selected mineral

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

In the near past mining might be considered as being built up

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

have helped the stakeholders to choose the relevant areas of their

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

Technology and output per Man Studies, USBM, Report E-

Roberto Villas Bôas and Christian Beinhoff, Editors

Conard, B.R. (1992) The Role of Hydrometallurgy in Achieving