AETHER AND MATTER

HonDon:

C. J. CLAY AND _SONS,

^{CAMBEIDGE UNIVEESITY} PEESS WAREHOUSE,

AVE MARIA LANE.

ffilnsjjoh) ^: 50, WELLINGTON STREET.

_ILcipug: F. A. BROCKHAUS.

#efa _gork: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

16ombng: E SEYMOUR HALE.

^/ AETHEK AND MATTEE

A DEVELOPMENT OF THE DYNAMICAL _RELATIONS OF THE AETHER _TO MATERIAL _SYSTEMS

ON THE BASIS OF THE

ATOMIC CONSTITUTION _{OF MATTEE}

INCLUDING A DISCUSSION OF THE _{INFLUENCE OF THE}

EAETH'S MOTION ON _{OPTICAL PHENOMENA}

BEING AN ADAMS PRIZE ESSAY IN THE UNIVERSITY OP CAMBRIDGE

BY

JOSEPH LAKMOR, _M.A., F.RS.

FELLOW OF ST JOHN'S _{COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE}

CAMBRIDGE

AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

1900

_{[All Rights} reserved]

us

Cambridge :

PRINTED _{BY J. AND C. F. CLAY,}

AT THE UNIVERSITY _PRESS.

PREFACE

_Aedificium autem _hujus universi structura _sua, intellectui humano _contem-

planti, ^instar labyrinthi ^{est. — F. Bacon}

^The following Essay ^was originally ^undertaken _mainly ^{as a}

contribution towards the _systematic theoretical _{development of the standpoint} which considers _{electricity, as well as matter, to be constituted} on an atomic basis.

^This is, ^as regards ^its general idea, ^{no recent} hypothesis. Within ten _years of the _publication of the _{fundamental dis-}

coveries of _Volta, in the _{year 1800,} which first _{revealed the}

existence of _permanent electric _currents, Sir _{Humphry Davy}

had been led to maintain the _proposition that _{"chemical and}

electrical attractions were _{produced by} the same _{causes, acting}

in the one case on _particles and in the other on _{masses*," as}

the outcome of the researches on _{electro-chemistry} which _are

recorded in his earlier _{Bakerian Lectures :} and a _{little later the}

foundation for a _{complete system} of _chemistry was _{sought by}

Berzelius in a distinction _{between electro-positive} and _electro-

_negative atoms. _Although it _would be of course _wrong to read

back our _precise modern _knowledge into the _{general views}

^{which a} survey ^{of the facts} impressed ^on Davy's mind, ^— just ^as

it would be erroneous to consider his more _widely known views

on _{the nature of heat as an}

_anticipation of modern

exact

^thermal theory ^— _yet ^his _striking pronouncements ^{show how}

^* See Appendix D, infra, p. ^317.

_vi

PREFACE

_rapidly the times ^became _ripe ^{for the} quantitative ^electro-

^chemical investigations ^{of his successor} Faraday. ^Since

_Faraday's ^{work on} electrolysis ^the

^notion

^of

^the

^atomic

_{constitution of electrification,} in its electro-chemical _aspect,

^{has never been} entirely ^absent:

^{it has been insisted on} by

Maxwell ^{and more} particularly by ^{von Helmholtz : it was}

most natural _manner, to the ideas of the

_{adapted, in the}

^Weberian electrodynamics, ^{which treated of} moving ^electric _particles: ^{but it is} only recently ^that any ^{efforts have been}

made towards the _development of the ^Maxwellian aether-theory

on that basis.

_{The form under which the} atomic electric _theory is intro-

^{duced in this} _Essay, originally presented ^{itself — as it} happened

^— in a _quite different connexion, in the course of an _inquiry

_{into the competence} of the aether devised _by Mac _Cullagh to

^{serve for electrical} purposes ^{as well as} optical ^ones.

^{It was}

found, _reasoning entirely ^{from abstract} principles, ^{that the} only

_{possible way} of _representing electrification, ⁱⁿ an ^elastic aether,

_{was as} a _system of discrete or isolated electric _charges, consti-

_{tuting singular points involving} intrinsic strain in the _structure

_{of the medium^} If the _propagation of disturbances in the

_aether, with their ascertained _{optical properties,} is

_{to be}

_explained dynamically ^at all, ^{that is} by ^{the interaction of}

inertia and _motion, the elastic reaction of this _medium

_to

displacement ^{is almost} restricted, ^{as Mac} Cullagh showed, ^{to be}

effectively (even ^{if not} fundamentally*) ^a _purely ^rotational

_{one ;} an essential confirmation of this _{rotational character of}

^its elasticity ^here presents ^{itself in the fact that in a medium}

^* It is not _superfluous to _repeat here that the _object of _{a gyrostatic model of}

the rotational aether _{is not to represent its actual structure, but to help us to}

realize that the scheme of mathematical relations which _defines its _{activity is a}

_{legitimate conception.} Matter _may be and _likely is a structure in _{the aether,} but _certainly aether is not a structure made of matter. This _{introduction of a}

_suprasensual aethereal _medium, which is not the same as _{matter, may of}

course be described as _{leaving reality} behind us _{: and} so in

_{fact may every}

result of _thought be described _which is _{more than a record or comparison of}

sensations.

PREFACE

_Vil

_{thus constituted} the structure of an atomic _{electric charge}

^{can be} directly specified, ^{so far at} any ^{rate as is} required ^for

_{a knowledge} of its interaction with other electric _{charges at}

_{sensible distance,} whereas the absence of _{any conception of}

what constitutes electrification had _previously been _commonly

_regarded as the fundamental obstacle to the electrical _develop-

ment of _{aether-theory.}

^{when carried} through up ^{to its} logical extent, ^{involves the}

_explanation of the atomic character of _{matter itself: matter}

must be constituted of isolated _portions each of which is of

The order of ideas _{thus indicated,}

necessity ^a permanent ^{nucleus or} singularity ^{in and} _belonging

^{to the} aether, ^{of some such} type ^{as is} represented ^for example

_by a minute _{vortex ring} in _perfect fluid or a _centre of _permanent

strain in a _rotationally elastic medium.

It is thus natural to

infer that the ultimate atom of _electricity is one _aspect of _the

_entity which constitutes _the ultimate atom of _matter, a _con-

clusion which _{(foreshadowed} as _above in _{set terms by Davy) is}

almost demonstrated _{by Faraday's} electro-chemical law _ex-

_pressing an exact numerical connexion between them. _The

_question must of course remain _open as _{to whether other forms}

of _activity besides this electrical one can _{be recognized in the}

constitution of the atom of _matter: as _{yet nothing seems to}

have been found in the ascertained _types of _{general physical}

and chemical _phenomena which _{demands a further amplification,}

so that _any advance in that direction would at _{present be}

^{For it is to be borne in mind}

premature ^{if not} gratuitous.

^{that the} proper ^{aim of an atomic} theory ^{is not to} _attempt ^the impossible ^{task of} _reducing ^{once for all the whole} _complex ^of

_{physical activity} to _rule, but is rather to _improve and connect

_accepted ^{methods of} explanation ^{of the various main} _regular

_types of interaction that _{have been brought to light in this}

field of _knowledge.

It is incumbent on _us to _recognize an

aethereal substratum to _{matter, in so far as this proves con-}

ducive to _simplicity and _{logical consistency} in our scheme of

_{physical relations,} and _helpful towards the _discovery of hitherto

_Vlll

PREFACE

unnoticed _ones; but it would be a breach of scientific method

^to complicate ^its properties by any hypothesis, ^{as distinct from}

logical development, beyond ^{what is} required ^{for this} purpose.

It _may therefore be held _that, in so far as theories of the

_{ultimate connexion of different physical agencies} are allowed to

^be legitimate ^at all, they ^should develope along ^{the lines of a}

_purely electric aether until critics of such a _simple scheme are

^{able to} point ^{to a definite} group ^of phenomena ^that require ^the

_{assumption of a new set of properties} and that moreover can be

^{reduced to} logical ^order thereby ^{: a} charge ^of incompleteness

without indication of a better _way, is not effective criticism in

_questions ^{of this} kind, because, owing ^{to the} imperfection ^{of our} _perceptions and _the limited _range of our intellectual _operations,

_finality can never be _attained. It _appears to be not without _value, as _{regards clearness} and

definiteness of _view, that the _{conception of an elastic aethereal}

medium that had been _originally evolved from consideration of

purely optical phenomena, ^is capable ^{of direct natural} _develop-

ment so as to _pass into line with _{the much wider and more}

^recent electrodynaniic _theory ^{which was constructed} _by ^Maxwell

on the basis of _purely electrical _phenomena, — _{in fact largely as}

^the dynamical representation ^and _development ^of _Faraday's

idea of a _varying electrotonic _state in _{space, determined by the}

_changing lines of force.

In the _following discussions _{some care has been taken to}

trace the connexion with the historical course _{of physical ideas.}

While there has _been a _{steady gain in precision, the trend of}

^fundamental physical speculation ^has _always ^{been much the}

_same, and thus does not in its main _{features pass out of date :}

but _owing to the _rapid accumulation of new _{phenomena and}

the _{consequent necessity} of formal treatises _{digesting the state}

of actual _knowledge, there is less _and less _{opportunity to}

^become critically acquainted ^{with the} _points ^{of view of the}

_original discoverers in _{physical science, and the general lines of}

_thought in which the definite recorded _{advances are often only}

PREFACE

_IX

_incidents. The accumulation of _{experimental data, pointing}

_more or less _exactly to _physical relations of which no _sufficiently

_{precise theoretical} account has _yet been _{forthcoming, is doubt-}

_{less largely responsible} for the _prevalent doctrine that _theoretical

_development ^{is of value} only ^{as an} auxiliary ^to experiment, ^and

_{cannot be} trusted to effect _anything constructive from its _own resources _except of the kind that can be tested _by immediate

experimental ^{means. The mind will however not} readily give

_up the _attempt to _apprehend the exact formal character of the

latent connexions between different _{physical agencies} : and the

_history ^of discovery may ^{be held} perhaps ^to _supply ^the _{strongest reason} for _estimating effort towards clearness of _thought as of

^{not less} importance ^{in its own} sphere ^than exploration ^of _phenomena. ^{Thus for} example, ^the present ^{view of the atomic}

^{character of} electricity, ^{which is at} _{length coming} ^{within the} _scope of direct _experiment, has been in evidence _{with gradually}

_{increasing precision} ever since theoretical formulations _{were attempted} on this _subject : in fact if the considerations ex- _plained below _{(§ 46)} are _valid, it is the _only view that could _{logically be} entertained without _{involving either} a _reconstruc-

^{tion of the} accepted ^{basis of} physical representation ^{or else an}

admission of its _partial or _merely illustrative character.

may ^be _regarded ^{as a}

^{re-statement in} improved ^{form of} investigations already ^de-

velo _ped in a series of _memoirs, Phil. Trans. A _{1894-6-7. They}

^{Some of the} following chapters

^cover only ^a part ^{of the} survey ^{that was there} attempted, being

^concerned mainly ^{with the} systematic ^{construction of} _general

electric _theory on the basis of _{intrinsic atomic charges. Judging}

from some criticisms which _{that method has attracted, it would}

appear ^that misconception ^{has existed} owing ^to difficulty ⁱⁿ

attaining ^the point ^of view, ^{such as} _{may possibly} ^{arise from the}

circumstance that the fundamental _concept of _{the electron did}

^{not there} _present ^{itself at the} _beginning of the discussion, but

^{was introduced} subsequently ^{in an} appendix. ^In _estimating

^{the value of an} undertaking ^{of this} kind, ^{it should of course be}

X

PREFACE

_judged ^{as a connected} _argument. Single departments ^{of electric}

theory ^can be, ^and usually are, ^more concisely ^{formulated when} the _{nature of their connexion} with other _departments is not a

_question of immediate interest. Here the foundation is intended to be definite and _universal, thus _precluding the _adoption of an

_{independent standpoint} on _each branch of the _subject, to be _{developed as far as it will go,} with the _help if need be of

empirical ^modification irrespective ^{of the} requirements ^{of other}

_{branches : and the main question} to be determined is not

whether the _presentation is _entirely free from _flaw, but whether

and in what _respects it is an advance sufficient to merit further

attention with a view to its _improvement. The time has _fully

arrived _when, if theoretical _physics is not _{to remain content}

^with being merely ^a systematic ^{record of} phenomena, ^some

definite idea of the connexion between _{aether and matter is}

essential to _{progress ;} the discussions which follow are _largely

concerned with the _development of the _consequences of one

such _conception. It seems reasonable _to hold that the _utility

of such a discussion will not be _entirely removed should this

conception ^{turn out to be} practically incomplete, ^{or even} incoherent : for it is concerned with a _body of _{ideas relating to}

the ultimate _activity of molecules which is on a _{different plane}

from the indefinite notion of mutual forces to which _dynamical

molecular science has _mostly been _restricted.

^{It is} recognized ^{of course that} every attempt ^at _improve-

ment in scientific _exposition must have a limited _{range, and}

that the chief critical interest will soon be _{transferred from}

what can be _{explained by any} new formulation to _{what it has}

Yet it has _{turned out,}

not shown itself _competent to include.

^{to take a famous} instance, ^{to be no} insuperable objection ^to

^{Dalton's chemical} development ^{of the atomic} _theory, ^{that he} could form no idea as to how his atoms held each _{other in}

combination : _{although in fact Wollaston, and to some extent}

_Davy, hesitated about _accepting the atoms while _holding to _the

^{laws of combination in definite and} multiple proportions ^that

PREFACE

XI

^were suggested by them, ^{because the} theory ^{did not} explain

_{how an atom is constituted.}

_{An instructive} illustration of the

_practical divergence ^{of view that can arise in this manner is}

afforded _by the difference ^of _opinion (cf. _Appendix ^D infra)

between ^{Newton and} _Huygens regarding ^the scope ^{of the law}

^of gravitation.

^The _general conception ^{of a kinetic molecular structure for}

_{matter invites} a reconstruction of the theoretical basis of ordin-

_ary mechanics itself. ^The _customary development ^{of abstract}

_{dynamics rests on the} foundation of forces _acting between

particles ^{so as to} satisfy ^{Newton's three laws of motion.}

^The

_{only meaning} ^{that can here be} assigned ^{to such a} particle ^{is an}

unchanging ^{element of mass whose volume is} large enough ^to

contain ^{a vast} assemblage ^{of molecules. Even in the hands of} _{Kirchhoff, who} is considered to have in his treatment _notably

broadened the _subject, the _dynamics of finite bodies is derived

_through the _principle of Least ^{Action from the} conception ^that

_{they are} constituted of _{particles acting} on each other in this

_way ; thus ^{in fact} _adhering ^to Lagrange's original procedure

developed ^{in the} year ^{1760. It}

^{seems not too much to} say, ⁱⁿ

_{the light of molecular science, that such} a constitution for a

^material _body ^is purely imaginary, ^{and even} meaningless ^when

_{applied to such subjects as stress and strain} in elastic matter.

^s _{The real foundation of general abstract} mechanics is either the _j

_principle ^{of Action in its} _general form, ^{assumed as a} descriptive

_analytical formulation of the course of _phenomena, or else the

_principle ^{of d'Alembert which is} analytically equivalent ^{to it*}

The latter is doubtless the _simpler basis when we are _dealing

_only with elements of mass in the _ordinary sense _; for it is

_{merely the statement that the irregular} or uncoordinated _part

of _the internal _motions and strains in a stable or _permanently

_existing element of mass has _nothing to do with the _changes of

_{configuration} of _that element considered as a whole _; and the

preparation ^{for its} application ^{consists in the} process ^of picking out and _{specifying the} coordinated _parts so far as is needed for

_Xll

PREFACE

^the problem ^{in hand. In} electrodynamic problems ^{however the}

individual electrons in the element of volume come into con-

_sideration, at _any rate as _regards their main division

into

_positive and _negative : and then the Action _principle, as _being

^{the more} universal, ^{must almost of} necessity ^be employed. ^If

further we _assume that _{the material} molecule is _wholly of

^aethereal constitution, ^this _general dynamical principle ^{of Action}

must itself be involved _{(cf. Appendix B)} as a direct _consequence

of whatever scheme of _properties is _assigned to the free _aether,

irrespective ^of special hypothesis ^{: so} that, _reasoning ^{back from}

^its truth, ^we may gain ^some general _knowledge ^{as to the nature}

^— ?> of the interactions exerted _by the ultimate material atoms

across the aether.

Its _significance would then _consist, not in

any directly ^{ultimate character such as it was} originally sup- _{posed to possess, but} in _{its being} a derived _analytical formulation

sufficiently comprehensive ^{to cover} by ^{itself the domain of}

mechanical

_science, as

well

as

_(in

a

minor

_degree) in its

_aptitude for _analytical transformation to suit whatever _aspect

_{of the phenomena is under discussion,} after the manner illus-

^{trated for} _example by ^the analysis ^of Chapter ^VI _infra. ^{In the course of such an abstract} development ^{of the} dynamics ^of

_{mechanical systems} from the Action _principle, the idea of force

_{would be} introduced _through the coefficients in the _completed

_{variation of the Action,} to which it is _necessary for _{purposes of}

_physical discussions and _comparisons to _give a _name, that _name

_{which is in} fact _suggested from our sensation of muscular _effort.

_{It is possible} that these considerations are insisted on in various

_{connexions to an} extent that will be tedious* : but _{they are at}

^* At one time ^{it was} customary ^to appeal to absolute dynamical principles

_{relating to forces, as} the fixed _unchanging datum _{of physical} science.

The

_interest in fundamental discussions _regarding the mode of formulation of _{dynamics has} however revived in recent _{years, mainly through} the _writings of _{James Thomson,} and of Hertz and _Boltzmann, and of the school of _physicists

_{which advocates,} restriction to a _{purely descriptive} science of _energetics.

The

_{conception of the subject} that is _propounded here is different from the _points of

view of these writers; ^{while it aims at} denning ^{the domain} (including ^{all that}

of _steady or very slowly varying _states) ^{within which the} simpler principles ^of

PREFACE

_Xlll

_any rate not more _prominent than the _cognate fundamental

^{discussions on} convergency ^and functionality ^{have become in}

_pure mathematical _analysis. A field in which _{these two types}

^of approximation ^{towards ideal exact} procedure ^have _something

_{in common} is sketched in the _analysis of _{Appendix A: it is}

^now _recognized that, ^{in a} strictly rigorous presentation ^{of the}

_theory ^of gravitational ^{and other} agencies, ^{it is} _necessary ^to

_{inquire (at} considerable _length) how far a _pote ntial is a _{function that can legitimately} be differentiated at a _{point inside the}

attracting ^{mass : it is here} explained, among ^other _things, ^that

_in a _{physical problem} the _potential about which these mathe-

_matical discussions arise is not the _potential

of the actual

_{molecular distribution} of matter but that of an ideal _smoothed-

_{out or continuous distribution,} in fact a mechanical* _{repre- sentation} which _{is, only} in certain definite _{respects, equivalent}

Refinements of this kind are no doubt _foreign to an

_to

_it.

_empirical formulation of mathematical _physics, where the aim _{is merely} a _{concise expression} of the facts of observation _{; but}

^{it seems not} unlikely ^{that in the final} theory ^{of the transition}

from molecular to mechanical _{dynamics they} will be of funda-

^mental import. _{The main general principle} in this _domain, which is con-

_{sidered in some aspects} more at _length in the memoirs _above

_{referred to','} is _that the mechanical and the molecular _properties

of a material _system, which is not _undergoing constitutive

_change, are _independent of each other and not _mutually in- _{volved :' so that} the mechanical interactions of a _system can

^be developed independently ^{of a} knowledge ^{of its molecular}

^{constitution.} v ^This _principle may ^{even be} sufficiently deep-

^{seated to have a} bearing ^{on the solution of the} philosophical _question of ultimate mechanical determinism.'

energetics can _supply ^an adequate ^{clue to the course of} physical ^{and chemical}

change.

^* _{Throughout this Essay} the term mechanical is used in antithesis to mole-

cular : _mechanics is the _dynamics of matter in _bulk, in contrast with molecular dynamics.

L.

C

_xiv

PREFACE

No _apology ^{is offered for what} may possibly ^{be considered}

_as the non-mathematical character of a considerable _portion of

^{the book. The} _physical hypothesis ^{has been} kept intentionally

^{in the}

foreground, ^and algebraic ^{results have been where}

_possible ^{translated into their} descriptive equivalents.

^This

_{synthetic course,} while more _flexible, doubtless makes the ex-

_position ^{more difficult to} follow, ^and apparently ^{less exact, than}

_would be a mathematical _development from a _system of initial

_hypotheses, in which attention would be demanded for _the

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