Biodynamic agriculture - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture

Biodynamic agriculture
Biodynamic agriculture is a form of alternative agriculture very similar to organic farming, but it
includes various esoteric concepts drawn from the ideas of Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925).[1][2] Initially
developed in 1924, it was the first of the organic agriculture movements.[3] It treats soil fertility, plant
growth, and livestock care as ecologically interrelated tasks,[4][5][6] emphasizing spiritual and
mystical perspectives.

Biodynamics has much in common with other organic approaches – it emphasizes the use of manures
and composts and excludes the use of synthetic (artificial) fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides on soil
and plants. Methods unique to the biodynamic approach include its treatment of animals, crops, and
soil as a single system, an emphasis from its beginnings on local production and distribution systems,
its use of traditional and development of new local breeds and varieties. Some methods use an
astrological sowing and planting calendar.[7] Biodynamic agriculture uses various herbal and mineral
additives for compost additives and field sprays; these are prepared using methods that are more akin
to sympathetic magic than agronomy, such as burying ground quartz stuffed into the horn of a cow,
which are said to harvest "cosmic forces in the soil".[8]

No difference in beneficial outcomes has been scientifically established between certified biodynamic
agricultural techniques and similar organic and integrated farming practices. Biodynamic agriculture
lacks strong scientific evidence for its efficacy and has been labeled a pseudoscience because of its
reliance upon esoteric knowledge and mystical beliefs.[9]

As of 2019, biodynamic techniques were used on 202,045 hectares in 55 countries. Germany accounts
for 41.8% of the global total;[10] the remainder average 1750 ha per country. Biodynamic methods of
cultivating grapevines have been taken up by several notable vineyards.[11] There are certification
agencies for biodynamic products, most of which are members of the international biodynamics
standards group Demeter International.

Contents
History
Origin of a theory
Geographic developments
Biodynamic method of farming
Biodynamic preparations
Field preparations
Compost preparations
Planting calendar
Seed production
Biodynamic certification
Effectiveness

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Reception
See also
References
Further reading
Bibliography
External links

History

Origin of a theory

Biodynamics was the first modern organic agriculture.[2][3][12] Its

development began in 1924 with a series of eight lectures on
agriculture given by philosopher Rudolf Steiner at Schloss
Koberwitz in Silesia, Germany (now Kobierzyce in Poland).[13][14]
These lectures, the first known presentation of organic
agriculture,[2] were held in response to a request by farmers who
noticed degraded soil conditions and a deterioration in the health
and quality of crops and livestock resulting from the use of
chemical fertilizers.[15] The 111 attendees, less than half of whom
were farmers, came from six countries, primarily Germany and
Poland.[2] The lectures were published in November 1924; the
first English translation appeared in 1928 as The Agriculture
Course.[16]

Steiner emphasized that the methods he proposed should be

tested experimentally. For this purpose, Steiner established a
research group, the "Agricultural Experimental Circle of
Anthroposophical Farmers and Gardeners of the General
Anthroposophical Society".[17] Between 1924 and 1939, this
Rudolf Steiner, occultist philosopher
research group attracted about 800 members from around the
and founder of "anthroposophic
world, including Europe, the Americas and Australasia.[17]
agriculture", later known as
Another group, the "Association for Research in "biodynamic".
Anthroposophical Agriculture" (Versuchsring
anthroposophischer Landwirte), directed by the German
agronomist Erhard Bartsch, was formed to test the effects of biodynamic methods on the life and
health of soil, plants and animals; the group published a monthly journal, Demeter.[18] Bartsch was
also instrumental in developing a sales organisation for biodynamic products, Demeter, which still
exists today. The Research Association was renamed the Imperial Association for Biodynamic
Agriculture (Reichsverband für biologisch-dynamische Wirtschaftsweise) in 1933. It was dissolved
by the National Socialist regime in 1941. In 1931 the association had 250 members in Germany, 109 in
Switzerland, 104 in other European countries and 24 outside Europe. The oldest biodynamic farms
are the Wurzerhof in Austria and Marienhöhe in Germany.[19]

In 1938, Ehrenfried Pfeiffer's text, Bio-Dynamic Farming and Gardening, was published in five

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languages – English, Dutch, Italian, French, and German; this became the standard work in the field
for several decades.[18] In July 1939, at the invitation of Walter James, 4th Baron Northbourne,
Pfeiffer travelled to the UK and presented the Betteshanger Summer School and Conference on
Biodynamic Farming at Northbourne's farm in Kent.[20] The conference has been described as the
'missing link' between biodynamic agriculture and organic farming because, in the year after
Betteshanger, Northbourne published his manifesto of organic farming, Look to the Land, in which he
coined the term 'organic farming' and praised the methods of Rudolf Steiner.[20] In the 1950s, Hans
Mueller was encouraged by Steiner's work to create the organic-biological farming method in
Switzerland; this later developed to become the largest certifier of organic products in Europe,
Bioland.[4]:5

Geographic developments

Today biodynamics is practiced in more than 50 countries worldwide and in a variety of

circumstances, ranging from temperate arable farming, viticulture in France, cotton production in
Egypt, to silkworm breeding in China.[21]:141 Demeter International is the primary certification agency
for farms and gardens using the methods. In 2020 Demeter International and the International
Biodynamic Association joined together to become the Biodynamic Federation - Demeter
International.

In the United States, biodynamic farming dates from 1926.[22] From 1926 through to 1938, 39
farmers and gardeners in USA pursued biodynamic practices.[22] The Biodynamic Farming &
Gardening Association was founded in 1938 as a New York state corporation.
In Great Britain, biodynamic farming dates from 1927.[23] In 1928 the Anthroposophical
Agricultural Foundation was founded in England;[18] this is now called the Biodynamic Agriculture
Association. In 1939, Britain's first biodynamic agriculture conference, the Betteshanger Summer
School and Conference on Biodynamic Agriculture, was held at Lord Northbourne's farm in Kent;
Ehrenfried Pfeiffer was the lead presenter.[20]
In Australia, the first biodynamic farmer was Ernesto Genoni[24] who in 1928 joined the
Experimental Circle of Anthroposophical Farmers and Gardeners, followed soon after by his
brother Emilio Genoni.[25] Ernesto Genoni's first biodynamic farm was at Dalmore, in Gippsland,
Victoria, in 1933.[26] The following year, Ileen Macpherson and Ernesto Genoni founded Demeter
Biological Farm at Dandenong, Victoria, in 1934 and it was farmed using biodynamic principles for
over two decades.[27] Bob Williams presented the first public lecture in Australia on biodynamic
agriculture on 26 June 1938 at the home of the architects Walter Burley Griffin and Marion
Mahony Griffin at Castlecrag, Sydney.[28] Since the 1950s research work has continued at the
Biodynamic Research Institute (BDRI)[29] in Powelltown, near Melbourne under the direction of
Alex Podolinsky.[30] In 1989 Biodynamic Agriculture Australia was established, as a not for profit
association.
In France the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) was formed in
1972 with five founding members, one of which was the Swedish Biodynamic Association.[31]
The University of Kassel had a Department of Biodynamic Agriculture from 2006 to March
2011.[32]
Emerson College (UK) was founded in 1962 and named after Ralph Waldo Emerson, American
poet and transcendentalist. Since then it has held courses inspired by the philosophy and
teachings of Rudolf Steiner, including on biodynamic agriculture.
In Canada, there are currently three biodynamic organizations, The Society for Biodynamic

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Farming and Gardening in Ontario, The Biodynamic Agricultural Society of British Columbia and
the Association de Biodynamie du Québec that are members of Demeter Canada.

Biodynamic method of farming

In common with other forms of organic agriculture, biodynamic agriculture uses management
practices that are intended to "restore, maintain and enhance ecological harmony".[33] Central
features include crop diversification, the avoidance of chemical soil treatments and off-farm inputs
generally, decentralized production and distribution, and the consideration of celestial and terrestrial
influences on biological organisms.[33][34] The Demeter Association recommends that "(a) minimum
of ten percent of the total farm acreage be set aside as a biodiversity preserve. That may include but is
not limited to forests, wetlands, riparian corridors, and intentionally planted insectaries. Diversity in
crop rotation and perennial planting is required: no annual crop can be planted in the same field for
more than two years in succession. Bare tillage year round is prohibited so land needs to maintain
adequate green cover."[35]

The Demeter Association also recommends that the individual design of the land "by the farmer, as
determined by site conditions, is one of the basic tenets of biodynamic agriculture. This principle
emphasizes that humans have a responsibility for the development of their ecological and social
environment which goes beyond economic aims and the principles of descriptive ecology."[21]:141–142
Crops, livestock, and farmer, and "the entire socioeconomic environment" form a unique interaction,
which biodynamic farming tries to "actively shape ...through a variety of management practices. The
prime objective is always to encourage healthy conditions for life": soil fertility, plant and animal
health, and product quality.[21]:141–142 "The farmer seeks to enhance and support the forces of nature
that lead to healthy crops, and rejects farm management practices that damage the environment, soil
plant, animal or human health....the farm is conceived of as an organism, a self-contained entity with
its own individuality,"[36]:148 holistically conceived and self-sustaining.[33] "Disease and insect control
are addressed through botanical species diversity, predator habitat, balanced crop nutrition, and
attention to light penetration and airflow. Weed control emphasizes prevention, including timing of
planting, mulching, and identifying and avoiding the spread of invasive weed species."[35]

Biodynamic agriculture differs from many forms of organic agriculture in its spiritual, mystical, and
astrological orientation. It shares a spiritual focus, as well as its view toward improving humanity,
with the "nature farming" movement in Japan.[4]:5 Important features include the use of livestock
manures to sustain plant growth (recycling of nutrients), maintenance and improvement of soil
quality, and the health and well-being of crops and animals.[15] Cover crops, green manures and crop
rotations are used extensively and the farms to foster the diversity of plant and animal life, and to
enhance the biological cycles and the biological activity of the soil.[33]

Biodynamic farms often have a cultural component and encourage local community, both through
developing local sales and through on-farm community building activities. Some biodynamic farms
use the Community Supported Agriculture model, which has connections with social threefolding.

Compared to non-organic agriculture, BD farming practices have been found to be more resilient to
environmental challenges, to foster a diverse biosphere, and to be more energy efficient, factors Eric
Lichtfouse describes being of increasing importance in the face of climate change, energy scarcity and
population growth.[37]

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Biodynamic preparations

In his "agricultural course" Steiner prescribed nine different preparations to aid fertilization, and
described how these were to be prepared. Steiner believed that these preparations mediated
terrestrial and cosmic forces into the soil.[38] The prepared substances are numbered 500 through
508, where the first two are used for preparing fields, and the other seven are used for making
compost. A long term trial (DOK experiment) evaluating the biodynamic farming system in
comparison with organic and conventional farming systems, found that both organic farming and
biodynamic farming resulted in enhanced soil properties, but had lower yields than conventional
farming. Regarding compost development beyond accelerating the initial phase of composting, some
positive effects have been noted:[11]

The field sprays contain substances that stimulate plant growth including cytokinins.
Some improvement in nutrient content of compost is evident from the ingredients included, but not
necessarily as a result of the practices and exact preparations as Steiner described them.[39]

Although the preparations have direct nutrient values, modern biodynamic practitioners believe their
benefit is to support the self-regulating capacities of the biota already present in the soil and
compost.[40] Critics of the practice have pointed out that no evidence or logic underlies the practices
themselves, which instead are dependent on magical thinking and debunked theories of Steiner
himself. There is no evidence that biodynamic practices have any benefit beyond the direct nutrients
they add as fertilizer,[39] which may itself be of smaller benefit than other traditionally organic or
commercial fertilizers.[41]

Field preparations

Field preparations, for stimulating humus formation:

500: A humus mixture prepared by filling a cow's horn with cow manure and burying it in the
ground (40–60 cm below the surface) in the autumn. It is left to decompose during the winter and
recovered for use as fertilizer the following spring.[42]
501: Crushed powdered quartz stuffed into a cow's horn and buried in the ground in springtime
and taken out in autumn. It can be mixed with 500 but is usually prepared on its own. The mixture
is sprayed under very low pressure over the crop during the wet season, as a supposed
antifungal.[43]

Compost preparations

The compost preparations Steiner recommended employ herbs which are frequently used in
alternative medical remedies. Many of the same herbs Steiner referenced are used in organic practices
to make foliar fertilizers, green manure, or in composting. The preparations Steiner discussed were:

502: Yarrow blossoms (Achillea millefolium) stuffed into the urinary bladders from red deer
(Cervus elaphus), placed in the sun during summer, buried in the ground during winter, and
retrieved in the spring.[44]
503: Chamomile blossoms (Matricaria recutita) stuffed into the small intestines of cattle, buried in
humus-rich earth in the autumn, and retrieved in the spring.[45]

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504: Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) plants in full bloom stuffed together underground surrounded
on all sides by peat for a year.[46]
505: Oak bark (Quercus robur) chopped in small pieces, placed inside the skull of a domesticated
animal, surrounded by peat, and buried in the ground in a place near rain runoff.[47]
506: Dandelion flowers (Taraxacum officinale) stuffed into the mesentery of a cow, buried in the
ground during winter, and retrieved in the spring.[48]
507: Valerian flowers (Valeriana officinalis) extracted into water.[49]
508: Horsetail (Equisetum).[50]

Planting calendar

The approach considers that there are lunar and astrological influences on soil and plant
development—for example, choosing to plant, cultivate or harvest various crops based on both the
phase of the moon and the zodiacal constellation the moon is passing through, and also depending on
whether the crop is the root, leaf, flower, or fruit of the plant.[51][52] This aspect of biodynamics has
been termed "astrological" and "pseudoscientific" in nature.[53][54][55]

Seed production

Biodynamic agriculture has focused on the open pollination of seeds (with farmers thereby generally
growing their own seed) and the development of locally adapted varieties.[56]

Biodynamic certification
The Demeter biodynamic certification system established in 1924 was the first certification and
labelling system for organic production.[4]:5 As of 2018, to receive certification as biodynamic, the
farm must meet the following standards: agronomic guidelines, greenhouse management, structural
components, livestock guidelines, and post-harvest handling and processing procedures.[57]

The term Biodynamic is a trademark held by the Demeter association of biodynamic farmers for the
purpose of maintaining production standards used both in farming and processing foodstuffs. The
trademark is intended to protect both the consumer and the producers of biodynamic produce.
Demeter International an organization of member countries; each country has its own Demeter
organization which is required to meet international production standards (but can also exceed
them). The original Demeter organization was founded in 1928; the U.S. Demeter Association was
formed in the 1980s and certified its first farm in 1982. In France, Biodyvin certifies biodynamic
wine.[58] In Egypt, SEKEM has created the Egyptian Biodynamic Association (EBDA), an association
that provides training for farmers to become certified.[59] As of 2006, more than 200 wineries
worldwide were certified as biodynamic; numerous other wineries employ biodynamic methods to a
greater or lesser extent.[60]

Effectiveness
Research into biodynamic farming has been complicated by the difficulty of isolating the distinctively
biodynamic aspects when conducting comparative trials.[3] Consequently, there is no strong body of

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material that provides evidence of any specific effect.[3]

Since biodynamic farming is a form of organic farming, it can be generally assumed to share its
characteristics, including "less stressed soils and thus diverse and highly interrelated soil
communities".[61]

A 2009/2011 review found that biodynamically cultivated fields:[61]

had lower absolute yields than conventional farms, but achieved better efficiency of production
relative to the amount of energy used;
had greater earthworm populations and biomass than conventional farms.

Both factors were similar to the result in organically cultivated fields.

Reception
In a 2002 newspaper editorial, Peter Treue, agricultural researcher at the University of Kiel,
characterized biodynamics as pseudoscience and argued that similar or equal results can be obtained
using standard organic farming principles. He wrote that some biodynamic preparations more
resemble alchemy or magic akin to geomancy.[8]

In a 1994 analysis, Holger Kirchmann, a soil researcher with the Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences, concluded that Steiner's instructions were occult and dogmatic, and cannot contribute to the
development of alternative or sustainable agriculture. According to Kirchmann, many of Steiner's
statements are not provable because scientifically clear hypotheses cannot be made from his
descriptions. Kirchmann asserted that when methods of biodynamic agriculture were tested
scientifically, the results were unconvincing.[62] Further, in a 2004 overview of biodynamic
agriculture, Linda Chalker-Scott, a researcher at Washington State University, characterized
biodynamics as pseudoscience, writing that Steiner did not use scientific methods to formulate his
theory of biodynamics, and that the later addition of valid organic farming techniques has "muddled
the discussion" of Steiner's original idea. Based on the scant scientific testing of biodynamics,
Chalker-Scott concluded "no evidence exists" that homeopathic preparations improve the soil.[63]

In Michael Shermer's The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience, Dan Dugan says that the way
biodynamic preparations are supposed to be implemented are formulated solely on the basis of
Steiner's "own insight".[64] Skeptic Brian Dunning writes "the best way to think of 'biodynamic
agriculture' would be as a magic spell cast over an entire farm. Biodynamics sees an entire farm as a
single organism, with something that they call a life force."[65]

Florian Leiber, Nikolai Fuchs and Hartmut Spieß, researchers at the Goetheanum, have defended the
principles of biodynamics and suggested that critiques of biodynamic agriculture which deny it
scientific credibility are "not in keeping with the facts...as they take no notice of large areas of
biodynamic management and research". Biodynamic farmers are "charged with developing a
continuous dialogue between biodynamic science and the natural sciences sensu stricto", despite
important differences in paradigms, world views, and value systems.[21]:147

Philosopher of science Michael Ruse has written that followers of biodynamic agriculture rather enjoy
the scientific marginalisation that comes from its pseudoscientific basis, revelling both in its esoteric
aspects and the impression that they were in the vanguard of the wider anti-science sentiment that

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has grown in opposition to modern methods such as genetic modification.[9]

Steiners theory was similar to those of the agricultural scientist Richard Krzymowski, who was
teaching in Breslau since 1922.[66] The environmental scientist Frank M. Rauch mentioned in 1995,
concerning the reprint of a book from Raoul Heinrich Francé, another source probably used by
Steiner.[67]

See also
Agroecology
Alan Chadwick
Biointensive agriculture
Ehrenfried Pfeiffer
Permaculture
The Real Dirt on Farmer John – documentary on a conventional farm which converted to
biodynamic and community-supported agriculture
Wild farming

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Further reading
Biodynamic Agricultural Association (n.d.). "How does the Calendar work?" (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20070928221055/http://www.biodynamic.org.uk/FAQ.htm#calendar). Biodynamic
Frequently Asked Questions. The Biodynamic Agricultural Association (UK). Archived from the
original (http://www.biodynamic.org.uk/FAQ.htm#calendar) on 2007-09-28. Retrieved
2007-10-05.
Burkitt, L.L.; D R. Small; J.W. McDonald; W.J. Wales; M.L. Jenkin (2007a). "Comparing irrigated
biodynamic and conventionally managed dairy farms. 1. Soil and pasture properties".
Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture. 47 (5): 479–88. doi:10.1071/EA05196 (https://d
oi.org/10.1071%2FEA05196). OCLC 12490171 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12490171).
Burkitt, L.L.; W.J. Wales; J.W. McDonald; D R. Small; M.L. Jenkin (2007b). "Comparing irrigated
biodynamic and conventionally managed dairy farms. 2. Milk production and composition and
animal health". Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture. 47 (5): 489–94.
doi:10.1071/EA06085 (https://doi.org/10.1071%2FEA06085). OCLC 12490171 (https://www.w
orldcat.org/oclc/12490171).
Diver, Steve (1999). "Biodynamic Farming & Compost Preparation (ATTRA Publication #IP137)" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20110526054008/http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/biodynamic.html).

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Biodynamic agriculture - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture

ATTRA - National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. Archived from the original (htt
p://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/biodynamic.html) on 2011-05-26. Retrieved 2007-10-05.
Harwood, Richard R. (1990). "A History of Sustainable Agriculture". In Clive A. Edwards; Rattan Lal;
Patrick Madden; Robert H. Miller; Gar House (eds.). Sustainable Agricultural Systems.
Ankeny, IA: Soil and Water Conservation Society. pp. 3–19. ISBN 978-0-935734-21-8.
OCLC 20933949 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/20933949).
Koepf, Herbert (2009). Research in Biodynamic Agriculture: Methods and Results. Biodynamic Farm
and Gardening Association. ISBN 978-0-938250-34-0.
Kristiansen, Paul (2006). "Overview of organic agriculture" (http://www.publish.csiro.au/samples/Orga
nicAgSample.pdf) (PDF). In Paul Kristiansen; Acram Taji; John Reganold (eds.). Organic
Agriculture: A Global Perspective (online sample reprint ed.). Collingwood, VIC: CSIRO
Publishing. pp. 1–23. ISBN 978-0-643-09090-3. OCLC 71801183 (https://www.worldcat.org/ocl
c/71801183).
Mäder, Paul; Andreas Fließbach; David Dubois; Lucie Gunst; Padruot Fried; Urs Niggli (2002). "Soil
fertility and biodiversity in organic farming" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071025082521/htt
p://www.fibl.org/english/research/soil-sciences/dok/index.php). Science. 296 (5573): 1694–97.
Bibcode:2002Sci...296.1694M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Sci...296.1694M).
doi:10.1126/science.1071148 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1071148). OCLC 1644869
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1644869). PMID 12040197 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12
040197). S2CID 7635563 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7635563). Archived from
the original (http://www.fibl.org/english/research/soil-sciences/dok/index.php) (Summary) on
October 25, 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-11.
Martinez, A.W. (1952-05-31). "The City With Golden Garbage" (http://rotheraine.com/golden_garbag
e.html) (Reprint). Collier's Weekly. Springfield, OH: Crowell-Collier. OCLC 8755061 (https://ww
w.worldcat.org/oclc/8755061). Retrieved 2007-10-05.
McKanan, Dan (2017). "Anthroposophy and the History and Future of Environmentalism". Eco-
Alchemy: Anthroposophy and the History and Future of Environmentalism. Berkeley:
University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520290051. JSTOR 10.1525/j.ctt1vjqqzd (https://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1vjqqzd). Introduction (https://content.ucpress.edu/chapters/131
61.intro.pdf)
Nastati, Enzo (2010). "Commentary on Dr Rudolf Steiner's Agriculture Course" (http://www.moodie.bi
z/enzobooks.html). MM Publications.
Eskenazi, Joe (2010). "Voodoo on the Vine" (http://www.sfweekly.com/dining/voodoo-on-the-vine/).
SF Weekly.
Pfeiffer, Ehrenfried (2006) [1938]. Soil Fertility, Renewal and Preservation: Bio-Dynamic Farming and
Gardening. Delhi, India: Asiatic Publishing House. ISBN 978-81-87067-73-3.
Schilthuis, Willy (2003). Biodynamic Agriculture. Floris Books. ISBN 978-0-86315-397-6.

Bibliography
Proctor, Peter (1997). Grasp the Nettle: Making Biodynamic Farming & Gardening Work. With
Gillian Cole. Random House.

External links
Biodynamics Section (https://www.rsarchive.org/Biodynamics/) at the Rudolf Steiner Archive, An
Online Library

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