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Philippe COULANGEON
ABSTRACT
In sociological study of artistic tastes, the behavior of the upper classes is usually char-
acterized by a penchant for “highbrow” arts and simultaneous rejection of popular arts and
the products of mass culture. However, the trends brought to light by analysis of cultural
practices survey data do not entirely confirm this representation. What distinguishes upper
ocally confirm the relevance of the eclecticism model, though that model appears more an
extension of the cultural legitimacy model than a refutation of it. Second, the preference
typology constructed through analysis of the data, and distribution of individuals by social
factors among five music-listener profiles defined on the basis of that typology, forefront
the importance of generation differences and uneven distribution of cultural capital and
musical competence.
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(2) The present text is a reworked version for making the 1997 data available to me, and
of a paper given in Brisbane at the Fifteenth Ionela Roharik for her ongoing technical assis-
Congress of the International Sociological tance and helpful suggestions. All imperfec-
Association. Special thanks to Louis-André tions are, of course, the sole responsibility of
Vallet for his valuable advice and remarks; also the author.
to Olivier Donnat and Irène Fournier Mearelli
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Philippe Coulangeon
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Peterson and Kern, 1996), which in turn works to break down the barrier
between highbrow and lowbrow art, while in music the same effect was being
produced by the fact that the scope of art-subsidizing had been broadened to
include jazz.
This transformation of upper-class cultural attitudes, interpreted generally
as a pulling back of the boundaries between social groups drawn by differenti-
ation in esthetic preferences and cultural practices, has offered a foothold to
“postmodernity” theses holding that industrial production of symbolic
commodities and the arrival of the leisure society was gradually undermining
the cultural elites’ monopoly over esthetic norm production and value scales,
to the benefit of coexistence of plural judgment scales, i.e., a “democratic
invasion” of the art world (Michaud, 1997) that calls into question the
unifying model of cultural legitimacy at the core of Bourdieu’s notion of
symbolic domination (Featherstone, 1995). But it is not certain that this blur-
ring of the boundaries between learned and popular arts is enough to invali-
date the cultural legitimacy model.
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Philippe Coulangeon
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not allow for multiple responses and therefore cannot be used to test the
“omnivore/univore” hypothesis. It is by no means obvious how to estimate
taste with responses on practice, however, when practice is subjected to
constraints independent of taste, namely related to age or geographic location
(Hugues and Peterson, 1983). While this argument, cited by Peterson and
Simkus (1992) to explain their choice of an approach in terms of taste rather
than practice, makes sense with regard to genres of concerts attended, it is less
persuasive for listening to recorded music, where constraints of this sort may
reasonably be assumed to be much less strong. Furthermore, the matter of
grasping “latent” tastes, i.e., independent of actual practices, seems compli-
cated by sensitivity to legitimation effects induced by the survey question-
naire –Hugues and Peterson’s argument can be turned back on itself. Unless
we hypothesize a nomenclature of tastes in music that is perfectly neutral
socially and culturally, it is likely that what is measured in measuring genres
of music most often listened to is much closer to individuals’ real preferences
than what is measured in questioning respondents abstractly on their tastes;
the risk in the second case is especially high since individuals are likely to
“valorize” their responses in accordance with the implicit hierarchy of
(6) The category “songs, pop,” which and/or a political message], is not fully satis-
offers respondents citing it the possibility of fying because it combines and confuses “genre”
specifying whether they listen above all to and “period” sorts of logic, moving respondent
songs dating from before WWII, from the to position himself in generational terms. The
1960s, the 1970s, the 1980s or 1990s, or same procedure, with the same limitation, was
“chansons à texte” [lyrics with poetic ambitions used for “rock.”
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Philippe Coulangeon
TABLE II. – Number of genres cited as music genres most often listened to by occupational status
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(7) The architecture of the questionnaire people, these are important means of listening
uses two successive questions to filter the to music. Still, respondents may reasonably be
question pertaining to music genres most often assumed to have implicitly included
listened to. The first of these concerns whether radio-listening practices in their response. In
recorded music is possessed in respondent’s any case, questions pertaining to radio listening
household; the second asks for a list of genres elsewhere in the questionnaire do not allow for
of music owned. Respondent is then invited to satisfactorily approaching distribution of
designate genres she listens to most frequently preferences since they do not use the same
on the basis of her response to the second genres nomenclature as the one for listening to
question. This question thus seems to narrow disks and cassettes. Moreover, there is no
the field of stated preferences to disks or reason to hypothesize a massive presence of
cassettes available within the household, exclusive radio listeners within the sample. In
excluding radio listening, for example, and fact, number of CD players owned and
practices external to the household, though frequency of radio listening seem very closely
among certain sub-populations, namely young correlated.
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Philippe Coulangeon
FIGURE I. – Space of musical tastes (I). Map of first two MCA factors
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Philippe Coulangeon
The other factors are also structured by the opposition between different
combinations of musical genres. The third factor fairly sharply distinguishes
between songs, well ahead of all other genres cited, and less frequently cited
genres with sharper esthetic profiles (namely hard rock and rap). The map of
factors 1 and 3 (Figure II) brings out “average taste” characteristics more
sharply; these may be defined not only by preferences oriented toward pop
but also measured eclecticism (one or two genres cited, i.e., the two most
frequent modalities [see Table II]).
Cultural legitimacy is more relevant for interpreting factor 4 (Figure III),
which explains 7.15% of total variance. This factor is clearly constructed on
an opposition between classical music, jazz, or opera listeners on the one
hand; listeners of such music genres as background music, film music, or rap
on the other. Moreover, the ambiguity in the genres nomenclature, namely
that it combines esthetically defined components with functionally defined
ones such as background or film music, points to social differentiation of
music uses, though this question is at the margins of taste stratification strictly
speaking. Music that is appreciated for itself stands in contrast here to accom-
paniment music (film, dance, and background music) but also to genres of
music in which discourse has priority over the musical component itself (as in
rap). It is of interest in this connection that jazz’s incorporation into the pole
of cultural legitimacy, as shown in preference positioning for this factor,
occurred only after jazz music was defunctionalized; its dance music dimen-
sion has virtually disappeared today. In other words, cultural legitimacy is
defined not only in relation to segmentation into music genres, but also use
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(8) Though music probably lends itself the 1920s and 30s by the mass culture indus-
more readily to use differentiation than the tries (pop phase), before gradually being
other arts given the diversity of means by rehabilitated and integrated after World War II
which it is diffused, certain analyses of taste into the world of highbrow music (fine arts
expression in the plastic arts mention the same phase). According to Peterson, this has been a
type of differentiation. See, among others, general, long-term process.
David Halle (1992) on the primacy of (10) It is interesting in this connection to
“decorative” motifs among abstract art lovers. relate the rock cultures’ role in elitizing
(9) African-American music, whose major counter-culture movements in the 1990s to
function initially was to affirm community jazz’s role in the 1960s. Since the late 1990s
identity (folk phase), was gradually taken up in Les Inrockuptibles [French rock magazine; title
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Philippe Coulangeon
This interpretation of the first four MCA factors decidedly points to eclec-
ticism as an additional dimension in the social stratification of taste, rather
than a cultural attitude in itself that could be independent of music genres
preferred –a conclusion very similar to Van Eijck’s in a study of data from a
1987 Dutch survey on participation in cultural activities: differences among
social groups are only significant if combinations of musical genres are taken
into account rather than overall preference eclecticism (Van Eijck, 2001). It is
by simultaneously taking into account this dimension, along with generation
and cultural legitimacy effects, that we can construct a typology of attitudes
toward recorded music.
The first profile, accounting for 20% of the sample, is organized around the
three genres of highbrow music in the broad sense, i.e., including jazz. The
first refers to the image of enlightened eclecticism, encountered primarily
among members of the upper classes, persons over 40, persons of high educa-
tional attainment, and persons with high income.
Considering the music genres most closely associated with it, the second
profile is situated at the opposite pole from highbrow music and is character-
ized by diversity of functional uses (background or mood, dance, folk, film)
and light opera. This profile is more difficult to interpret than the first in
terms of income, socio-occupational status, and educational level. However,
in terms of age it is characterized by sharp relevance for the over-60 group
and represents a relatively low proportion of the sample population (13%).
The third profile is sharply distinguished from the previous two in terms of
age. Here the under-25 dominate, and examination of the music genres it
comprises (rap, rock, hard rock, world music, international pop) confirms the
generational dimension, though the profile is hard to characterize in terms of
plays on the word incorruptible, translation of cultural press which is fairly comparable to
the English “untouchable” as in the title of the Jazz Magazine’s at the end of the 1960s.
cult police-detective TV series set during (11) Appendix A provides a detailed
Prohibition] has occupied a position in the characterization of the different attitude groups.
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Philippe Coulangeon
These two profiles are defined more than the others not only by genres
cited but by genres not cited. The omnivore/univore hypothesis therefore does
not seem to invalidate “by default” definition of esthetic orientations (Bryson,
1996), a kind of definition also central to the theoretical schema of distinc-
tion: a group’s taste is also its distaste for the tastes of other groups
(Bourdieu, 1979). (12) Secondly, these two profiles are more sharply character-
ized than the other three in terms of members’ occupational status, as indi-
cated by distribution of socio-occupational categories among groups
(Table III). Group IV is the most frequent situation for all categories with the
exception of managers, more than half of whom are in group I, and with the
less marked exception of retirees, most likely to be found in group V. Clerical
and manual workers are the only categories more than half present in
group IV (≥ 60%). Above and beyond eclecticism of stated tastes, preferring
highbrow music broadly defined therefore seems an upper-class attribute, just
as preferring pop music seems strongly to characterize the esthetic orientation
of lower-status classes.
df = 32
p <.0001
Source : Enquête sur les pratiques culturelles des Français, 1997, Ministère de la Culture, DEP
(12) Analyzing judgments expressed in rejection of those music genres most closely
response to a question on the 1993 General associated with the esthetic world of the most
Social Survey regarding a list of 18 music culturally impoverished fractions of the lower
genres covering all styles available on the classes; heavy metal is the emblematic illus-
music market, Bryson shows that elite esthetic tration.
tolerance goes together with pronounced
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(13) The multinomial logit model extends bility of each of the j positions of the dependent
logistic regression to include dependent variable y is contrasted to a reference position
variables that encompass more than two attributed the value of 1. This may be written
non-ordered positions. In the dichotomous logit Pr( y = j ) J K
model, probability of a dependent variable y as
Log = ∑ ∑ b jk x k
Pr( y = 1) j = 1 k = 0
a function of k independent variables x is
where bjk coefficients designate the parameters
written thus:
Pr( y = 1 ) Pr( y = 1 ) K estimated by the model. As indicated by the
Log
1 − Pr( = 1 ) = Log Pr( y = 0 ) = ∑ b k x k indexation, and in contrast to the dichotomous
y k =0 model, these parameters vary by position of the
where bk coefficients designate the parameters dependent variable y. For a detailed presen-
associated with each variable as estimated by tation, see Powers and Xie (2000, pp. 223-252).
the model, with x0 = 1 and b0x0 = constant. (14) As indicated, high school students
In the multinomial logit model, the proba- were excluded from the sample.
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The importance of the overall effect of age brought to light by the fit test
needs to be specified. To this end, we now look successively at two models.
The first corresponds to the saturated fit test model; the second adds two
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TABLE IVa. – Estimation of multinomial logit model parameters – probability of belonging to Groups I, II, III, and V (model without interaction effects)
Philippe Coulangeon
< 1,500 € nsp 0.056 n.s. 0.459 <.02 +3.1% 0.253 n.s. 0.395 <.01 +6.0%
Social origin upper class 0.080 n.s. 0.295 <.05 +1.9% -0.113 n.s. 0.573 <.001 +9.2%
lower-status
Musical competence trained in music -0.120 n.s. 0.401 n.s. 0.421 <.05 +7.1% 0.669 <.001 +11.1%
no training self-trained -0.113 n.s. 0.630 <.001 +4.6% 0.302 n.s. 0.573 <.001 +9.2%
- 2 Log L :
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TABLE IVb. – Estimation of multinomial logit model parameters – probability of belonging to Groups I, II, III, and V (model with interaction effects)
AgeXsocio-occupa- farmer 0.041 n.s. -0.085 n.s. 0.050 n.s. 0.050 n.s.
tional category.
clerical tradesperson, shopkeeper, -0.033 n.s. 0.015 n.s. -0.045 n.s. -0.018 n.s.
business owner
manager 0.045 n.s. 0.018 n.s. 0.054 n.s. -0.028 n.s.
mid-level occupation -0.046 n.s. 0.008 n.s. 0.015 n.s. -0.006 n.s.
manual worker -0.037 n.s. -0.044 <.05 -0.3% 0.004 n.s. 0.014 n.s.
student -0.190 n.s. -0.027 n.s. 0.089 n.s. 0.006 n.s.
retiree -0.015 n.s. -0.060 n.s. -0.049 <.01 -0.8% -0.061 <.01 -0.9%
other unoccupied -0.011 n.s. -0.020 n.s. -0.025 n.s. -0.042 <.01 -0.6%
Income > 1,500 € -0.526 <.001 -6.8% 0.018 n.s. 0.184 n.s. 0.561 <.001 +10.2%
< 1,500 € nsp 0.045 n.s. 0.443 <.02 +3.4% 0.247 n.s. 0.403 <.01 +7.0%
Social origin upper class 0.069 n.s. 0.293 n.s. -0.081 n.s. 0.587 <.001 +10.7%
lower-status
Musical competence trained in music -0.169 n.s. 0.434 <.05 +3.3% 0.455 <.05 +8.1% 0.740 <.001 +14.0%
no training self-trained -0.140 n.s. 0.635 <.001 +5.3% 0.306 n.s. 0.594 <.001 +10.8%
- 2 Log L :
Model without interactions: 9,757 (df: 64)
Model with interactions: 9,664 (df: 100)
diff. df: 36
P<0.001
Philippe Coulangeon
* Age used was centered beforehand to express overall effect regardless of presence of an interaction term.
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morphology.
In this connection, the interaction term ageXeducational attainment intro-
duced into the model presented in Table IVb suggests that effect of educa-
tional attainment changes over time. The significance of the parameter
associated with this interaction term for Group I indicates that the positive
influence of the variable becomes stronger with age, which also means,
conversely, that the specific effect of cultural capital on “highbrow” musical
preference orientation is attenuated for members of the young generations,
without there being reason to incriminate any kind of decline in the function
of the scholastic institution since in this area it has always been largely defi-
cient. It is likely, however, that mass education, by breaking with the social
and cultural homogeneity of secondary school enrolment, contributed to the
gradual weakening of the status assignation mechanism cited by Bourdieu,
though the effect of educational attainment cannot be reduced to this because
with age controlled for, it subsists above and beyond transformation of the
public school social structure.
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the second model (Table IVb). In other words, there is every indication that
the preference profile associated with this group involves first and foremost a
generational component. Secondarily, it can be observed that there is a prefer-
ence orientation opposition between the male component of the profile associ-
ated with Group III and the female component of the profile associated with
Group I (Table IVb).
*
**
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Philippe Coulangeon
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Philippe COULANGEON
Observatoire Sociologique de Changement
Sciences Po – CNRS
54, boulevard Raspail – 75006 Paris – France
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APPENDIX A. – Characterization of the five groups
Philippe Coulangeon
music
film 2.7 rap 9.8 folk music 7.6
hard-rock 7.9 opera 6.6
film 6.3
light opera 6.3
rap 4.7
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others 3.8
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150
contemporary 3.4
classical
children’s music 3.0
military music 2.8
illustrative variables
Occupational status Managers 12.8 Retirees 7.1 Students 9.3 Manual 10.0 Retirees 17,0
workers
Retirees 4.0 Manual 3.0 Clerical 8.7 Other 2.4
workers unoccupied
Mid-level occup 3.5 Mid-level 2.3
occup
Income >=4,500 € 8.7 1,500 to 2,000 € 4.6 < 1,000 € 10.0
3,000 to 4,500 € 8.1 1,250 to 1,500 € 2.7 1,000 to 1,250 € 3.0
2,000 to 3,000 € 3.6 Nd. 3.2
Educational attaintment bac 12.3 < bac 4.9 bac 6.1 < bac 3.2 < bac 11.5
Age 40-60 7.0 < 60 5.9 20-25 8.5 25-40 15.7 > 60 ans 22.7
> 60 3.0 40-60 5.6 < 20 7.6 20-25 7.2
25-40 5.5
Sex M 5.2
N= 819 518 333 1813 591
% 20 % 13 % 8% 45 % 15 %
Note: Test values are values which, when estimated, indicate to what degree a given group is characterized by a given variable. They express degree to which the average or observed fre-
quency of a variable within a given group may be attributed to chance. In this case, test value measures the gap between a variable’s relative frequency for a given group and its relative ove-
rall frequency calculated for the entire set of individuals. Variables for which the absolute value of test values is over 2 (meaning the gap between the two frequencies is significant at the
usual 5% level) are termed significant for characterization of that group. The higher the absolute value of the test value, the more representative of the group’s salient traits is the variable as-
sociated with it. Test values above 10 are in bold in the table. On the notion of test value see Alain Morineau, “Note sur la caractérisation statistique d’une classe et les valeurs-tests,” in Bulle-
tin technique du Centre de statistique et d’informatique appliquées 2, 1-2 (1984, pp. 20-27).
Philippe Coulangeon
PJ
Model 0: Log = bj0 + bj1 SEX + bj2 AGE + bj3 EDU.ATTAINMENT + bj4 SOCIO-OCCUP + bj5 INCOME
P1
+ bj6 ORIGIN + bj7 MUSICALCOMP.
PJ
Model 1 (without SEX): Log = bj0 + bj2 AGE + bj3 EDU.ATTAINMENT + bj4 SOCIO-OCCUP + bj5 INCOME
P1
+ bj6 ORIGIN + bj7 MUSICALCOMP.
PJ
Model 2 (without AGE): Log = bj0 + bj1 SEX + bj3 EDU.ATTAINMENT + bj4 SOCIO-OCCUP + bj5 INCOME
P1
+ bj6 ORIGIN + bj7 MUSICALCOMP.
Model 3 (without EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT):
P
Log J = bj0 + bj1 SEX + bj2 AGE + bj4 SOCIO-OCCUP + bj5 INCOME + bj6 ORIGIN + bj7 MUSICALCOMP.
P1
PJ
Model 4 (without SOCIO-OCCUP): Log = bj0 + bj1 SEX + bj2 AGE + bj3 EDU.ATTAINMENT + bj5 INCOME
P1
+ bj6 ORIGIN + bj7 MUSICALCOMP.
PJ
Model 5 (without INCOME): Log = bj0 + bj1 SEX + bj2 AGE + bj3 EDU.ATTAINMENT + bj4 SOCIO-OCCUP
P1
+ bj6 ORIGIN + bj7 MUSICALCOMP.
PJ
Model 6 (without ORIGIN): Log = bj0 + bj1 SEX + bj2 AGE + bj3 EDU.ATTAINMENT + bj4 SOCIO-OCCUP
P1
+ bj5 INCOME + bj7 MUSICALCOMP.
PJ
Model 7 (without MUSICAL COMP. – musical competence): Log = bj0 + bj1 SEX + bj2 AGE + bj3 EDU.ATTAINMENT
P1
+ bj4 SOCIO-OCCUP + bj5 INCOME + bj6 ORIGIN.
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