Welding International Welding International 755

Vol. 22, No. 11, November 2008, 755–761

Selected from Journal of the Japan Welding Society 76 (7) 513–519

Recent progress and future trends for shipbuilding steel

S. Imai
Nippon Steel Corporation

With recent increases in global population and increases
in the global economic level, with rises in the living
standards in the population in BRIC and other non-
OECD countries, there has been a rapid increase in the
transportation of goods by sea. There has also been a
marked increase in the demand for merchant vessels
and, at the end of 2006, there was total of 700 million
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1.3 Development of the TMCP technology
TMCP is a technology developed in Japan in the late
1970s. TMCP plant was installed in all main Japanese
steel mills in the 1980s, to provide a complete system
for the provision of TMCP steel 3.
The TMCP (thermomechanically controlled process)

GT of shipping globally and this is expected to reach a
billion tonnes in the near future.
A ship is a large welded structure assembled by
welding a large quantity of steel. There have therefore
been efforts by shipbuilders to improve the efficiency
of welding in their yards and steel makers will continue
to respond to these demands in the future.
On the other hand, with increasing awareness of
safety and environmental concerns around shipping,
the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) and
others have tightened the regulations for shipping and
this has also involved increasingly stringent demands
on the steel used.
In this article, I shall give a brief account of the
progress made in ship steel up to this point and try to
forecast what further developments will be made.
1. Methods of improving welding efficiency
1.1 Introduction
Effective means of improving welding efficiency include
reducing plate thickness by increasing strength, omitting
pre-heating and after-heating, and increasing welding
heat input. Ship steel has been developed and improved
to adapt to these requirements. In this article, I shall
describe the progress in steel for ship construction that
has underpinned these improvements.
technology, which is a combination of controlled rolling
followed by accelerated cooling, requires highly precise
temperature control. Shipbuilding not only requires
consistent flatness but also control of residual stress in
order to inhibit distortion after longitudinal cutting and
other processes. To achieve this, both the steel plate
shape before accelerated cooling and consistent cooling
during the accelerated cooling are essential elements.
These requirements were taken into consideration by
fitting a hot leveller at the rear surface to ensure the
shape of the steel plate before water cooling, and a
water flow control system using compression rollers to
ensure consistent cooling. Not only is the temperature
of the top and bottom of the plate made consistent, edge
masking and front tail masking are also used to prevent
temperature differences in the plate width and rolling
directions 4. TMCP steel has been used for ships for
more than twenty years and there are reports of second-
generation TMCP plant being installed5, 6, and these may
be regarded as an improvement built on the base of the
technology initially introduced.

1.2 Proportion of HT use

Ship steel is not mild steel but Higher Tensile Strength

Steel (HT) with a yield strength of at least 32 kgf/mm 2.
Figure 1.1 shows the changes in the proportion of this
HT steel used in Japan. It is clear that the development
of TMCP steel led to a rapid increase in the proportion
of HT steel used 1, 2. It can be supposed that the use of HT
steel increased rapidly because TMCP-type HT steel has
workability and weldability similar to mild steel. Figure 1.1 Changes in HT ratios.

ISSN 0950-7116 print/ ISSN 1754-2138 online

© 2008 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/09507110802550661
http://www.informaworld.com
 756 S. Imai
1.4 Characteristics of TMCP steel
Due to the process changes shown in Figure 1.2, TMCP
steel has a microstructure of extremely fine acicular
ferrite. This fine structure makes it possible to achieve
improvements in both strength and toughness. In
previous methods of producing thick plates, strength was
determined by the chemical components, represented as
Ceq (carbon equivalent). In TMCP technology, however,
the strength can be increased by controlled rolling
followed by accelerated cooling. As shown in Figure
1.3, it has become possible to produce steel with equal
strength but with low Ceq. Since welding properties of
steel usually deteriorate with Ceq increases, in previous
types of HT steel the maximum hardness increases during
low heat input welding, making preheating necessary.
However, this problem does not occur with TMCP-type
HT steel since it can be produced at low Ceq (Figure 1.4).
Thus TMCP-type HT makes it possible to have preheating-
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free welding processes whatever the level of strength
and toughness and this makes a major contribution to
welding efficiency in shipyards.
TMCP steel is also superior for ensuring HAZ (heat-
affected zone) toughness when large heat input welding
is performed. As shown in Figure 1.5, since TMCP
Figure 1.2. Change of microstructure during TMCP.
Figure 1.3. Relationship between strength and Ceq.
technology makes it possible to have a low Ceq, TMCP
steel has better HAZ toughness. Furthermore, as will
be described later, high heat input welding has come
into dramatically wider use due to the joint use of HAZ
toughness improving techniques.
Thus TMCP-type HT makes it possible to carry out
preheating-free and high heat input welding, which
makes a major contribution to improvements in welding
efficiency in shipyards.
1.5 HAZ toughness improvement technologies
For ship steel, not only the toughness of the basic metal
must be assured but also that of the weldments. In the
case of conventional steel, since the toughness of a
weld is at a temperature 20ºC higher than the required
temperature for the base metal, the weld toughness
requirement is 0ºC for Grade D steel and –20ºC for
Grade E steel. On the other hand, with low-temperature
specification materials such as those for steel used at
low-temperatures, the weld and base material will have
the same required temperature. Thus the Charpy value
required for LPG carrier low temperature steel is –60ºC
for both the base metal and the welds and for those of
the steel plate around the tanks of an LNG carrier it is
Figure 1.4. Effects of steel manufacturing process on pre-
heating temperature.
Figure 1.5. Relationship between large heat input HAZ
toughness and Ceq.
 Welding International
Figure 1.6. Changes in HAZ toughness improvement
techniques.
–40ºC for both the base metal and the welds, requiring
more stringent product designs.
Since the weld HAZ is exposed to temperatures
up to 1450ºC by heating during welding, there is a
tendency for the microstructure to become coarser and
toughness to deteriorate. Further, if the welding heat
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input is increased and/or the temperature required for
the toughness is reduced, this poses further difficulties
for the maintenance of HAZ toughness. By contrast,
with the prerequisite optimisation of component design
for TMCP, steel manufacturers have attempted a range
of methods of preventing the coarsening of the HAZ
microstructure including the application of TiN and
use of Ti-B steel. In recent years, in order to adapt to
the greater welding heat input required for steel plate
of greater thickness, they have developed steels using
titanium oxide and complex oxides which are stable at
high temperatures 8 (Figure 1.6).
2. Recent progress in ship steel
2.1 Enhanced safety and environmental issues
In the previous section the description was of ship steel
developed to cope with the requirements by the yards for
greater welding efficiency; in this section I shall describe
changes in the requirements for the newest ships and the
ways in which adaptations of ship steel have been made
to cope with these.
One example of major recent requirements is those
imposed by safety and environmental issues. There has
been an increasing concern with bulk carrier safety since
Figure 2.1. Microstructure of HIAREST steel.
757
a succession of accidents involving these vessels, and
with tanker corrosion and fatigue problems after several
incidents of crude oil spills. This has resulted in tighter
regulation by the International Maritime Organisation
(IMO) and constant changes in the requirements for
steel.
2.2 Brittle fracture inhibition
A range of safety measure is being established and
implemented by the IMO in respect of bulk carrier
safety and a study has been made of brittle fracture
inhibition with the aim of assuring safety. HIAREST steel
(high arrestability endowed steel) has been developed
for this 9,10. As shown in Figure 2.1, HIAREST steel,
which is manufactured using a special version of the
TMCP technologies, has a layer of an ultrafine granular
microstructure, approximately 1/6 of the thickness of the
plate, on both the front and back surfaces of the steel
plate. This surface layer with ultra-fine grains makes it
possible to inhibit the propagation of brittle cracking. As
shown in Figure 2.2, when this HIAREST steel is used
for important members of the hull (such as the sheer
strake, deck stringer and bilge), any brittle cracks that
may occur are inhibited and it is thus possible to prevent
brittle fractures of the hull. HIAREST steel has already
received notation from a number of ship classification
societies. It also has gained a good reputation amongst
some ship owners and is being used in the construction
of a number of vessels.
On the other hand, there has been a marked increase
in the size of container ships, and it is surely only
going to be a very short time before a ship of more than
6,000 TEU is launched. Conventional EH40 is used in
the hatch side coamings etc. of these vessels and the
plate thickness of this is greater than 50mm, in extreme
cases up to 100 mm. It has been reported that it is not
possible to assure adequate arrestability for such thick
steel plate and once brittle cracking is initiated, it is
impossible to halt 11, 12. Figure 2.3 gives one example of
large fracture. Brittle cracking originating at the ends
of the steel plate cannot be halted even if there is a
longeron and will puncture the steel plate. Generally,
arrestation becomes poorer as a steel plate becomes
Figure 2.2. Examples of use of Notation in HIAREST
steels.
 758
Figure 2.3 Example of brittle fracture during large-scale
fracture test
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Figure 2.4 Relationship between Kc estimated values and
measured values.
thicker and, unless special measures are adopted, very
thick materials will have inadequate arrestation. A more
critical problem is that conventionally very high heat
input welding is used for thick plates and when there
is major difference in hardness between the weldment
and the base metal, there is obviously a decrease in the
brittle cracking inhibitory properties (Kc value) of the
weld. As shown in Figure 2.4, when the ratio between
the weld hardness and basic metal hardness is greater
than 1:2 the Kc value of the weld may decrease even if
the Charpy value of the weldment remains satisfactory13.
According to the ship classification regulations, brittle
cracking must not occur until faults which have been
enlarged by fatigue etc have reached a certain size but
when the weld hardness is not appropriately matched,
brittle cracking may occur when the fault is somewhat
smaller than this.
One proposed way of solving this problem is to use
EH47 steel, which has adequate arrestation. In a large
fracture test, as shown in Figure 2.5, this steel has been
proved to be capable of positive arresting of brittle
cracking initiated elsewhere. It is also possible to maintain
adequate weld Kc values if appropriate welding methods
and welding materials are used. EH47 steel is therefore
starting to be used in some very large container ships and
will no doubt be found in wider use from now on.
S. Imai
Figure 2.5 example of brittle cracking prevention by
YP47
Figure 2.6 Summary of internal corrosion in tanker oil
tank.
2.3 Improvement of corrosion resistance
The problem of corrosion inside tanker cargo tanks has
since 1997 as a matter of concern been discussed by
the Tanker Structure Co-operative Forum (TSCF) and
INTERTANKO and Japanese shipbuilders, and Japanese
ship-building yards and steel companies have started
substantive studies. This trend has been continued by the
project SR242, a study of corrosion in oil tankers from
April 1999 to March 2002 by the Japanese Shipbuilding
Research Association, and, with the participation of ship
owners and ship classification societies, has developed
into something like a national movement which has
yielded great results 14-16. As shown in Figure 2.6, the
problem of tanker cargo tank corrosion can be broadly
divided into corrosion of the entire inner surface of the
upper deck and pitting corrosion of the tank bottom,
the mechanisms of which have been identified. After
the SR242 study was completed, the Japanese steel
manufacturers began individually to develop corrosion-
resistant steel. One example of this is Nippon Steel’s
Green Protect-1 (NSGP-1), developed for use in cargo
tank bottoms 17-19. As shown in Figure 2.7, NSGP-1 has
much better anti-corrosion properties than previous
steels in this corrosive environment. NSGP-1 has already
been used in ships and is showing good results at dock
inspections after two and a half years (Figure 2.8).
Following on from the IMO making coating of ballast
 Welding International
Figure 2.7 Comparison of corrosion rates of NSGP-1 and
conventional steel
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Figure 2.8 Results of use of NSGP-1 in ships.
tanks compulsory there has been a European proposal that
the coating of cargo tanks should be subject to a similar
compulsion. By contrast, Japan has made an alternative
that corrosion resistant steel should be used in place of
coated steel. At a meeting of the Design and Equipment
Committee (DE50) held in March 2007, it was decided that
both proposals, for coated steel and corrosion-resistant
steel, would be discussed at the same time 20.
2.4 Fatigue strength improvement
As has been stated, use of HT steel has rapidly increased
with the development of TMCP, but there is the increasing
problem of fatigue crack damage in single-hull VLCC
vessels constructed in the latter 1980s. This problem
caused the problem of fatigue to be addressed more
thoroughly at the design stage and currently when HT
is used, highly precise structural analysis and fatigue
strength evaluation are also carried out.
On the other hand, steel manufacturers are also
addressing the problem of increasing steel fatigue
Clip Spring
Cooling Unit
Power source
and controller
Wave Pins
Transducer
guide
Ultrasound
Generator
Figure 2.9 Main features of UIT equipment.
759
Figure 2.10 Example of fatigue life improvement due to
UIT
resistance and are developing steels that delay the
development of fatigue cracking. All of these use the
fine structure control achieved by TMCP; in some
bentonite is dispersed in granular form in the ferrite, in
others ferrite and pearlite are dispersed as fine granules
and small grains and in others ferrite and martensite are
distributed as layers. However, although these have some
effect in delaying the development of fatigue cracking,
they cannot prevent it and it is the initiation, rather than
the development, of fatigue cracking that is the dominant
factor in the fatigue life of actual ships.
Generally fatigue cracking tends to originate in
weldments and, as is generally known, the fatigue
strength of weldments does not necessarily increase when
the strength of the steel is increased. Countermeasures
intended to improve the fatigue strength of the weldment
include the removal of excess metal, grinding the weld toe
to improve their shape. Another metal-centred approach
is to use a low temperature modifiable weld material
with the intention of improving the fatigue strength of
the weldment by compressing it and generating residual
stress. Ultrasonic Impact Treatment (UIT), another new
technology, is also attracting attention. A simplified
drawing of the equipment is shown in Figure 2.9 21. 27
KHz ultrasonic waves are transducer-converted into
impact vibrations which strike the steel surface. It is thus
possible to make mechanical improvements to the fatigue
strength by weight effects on the surface microstructure
and the contribution of compression residual stress,
as well as improving the weld toe shape. Figure 2.10
shows the results of a fatigue test on a small sample
of a cruciform joint 22. It is clear that the fatigue life is
improved by UIT processing, compared with treatment
of the weldment with grinding.
Recently, classification regulations related to structural
standards for tankers and bulkers have become increasingly
standardised (as Common Structural Rules; CSR), with
the requirement that the vessel should have a life of 25
years in the North Atlantic, where sea conditions are the
most severe. It can thus be assumed that the requirements
for fatigue strength will become increasingly stringent
and it will become further necessary to conduct unified
studies incorporating ship design, welding and steel.
 760 S. Imai
3. Future developments
As the global population increase and the global economy
becomes larger, the increase in the living standards in
non-OECD countries such as the BRIC group and the
‘Next Eleven’, there will inevitably be increased demands
for resources and energy as well as increases in the
distribution of crops, food stuffs and products and, in
particular, a great increase in sea transportation.
In such circumstances, there will be further requirements
for attention to be paid to the safety and environmental
issues of sea transport. There will be some strengthening
and increased commonality of ship structure safety
regulations set by the IMO and others, optimisation
studies focused on life cycle cost, increased energy
savings through improving transportation efficiency, and
minimisation of the environmental load imposed by the
cycle from construction of the vessel (or, by extension,
from manufacture of the steel) to sea transportation.
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Below is a description of how these adaptations may
be attempted.
3.1 Adaptations to improve safety
The improvements in construction strength of tankers and
bulkers have been increasingly subject to CSR, principally
by IMO and IACS and it is expected that similar attention
will be paid to container ships and other types of vessels.
In the case of the CSR of tankers and bulkers, the studies
were mainly in terms of fatigue strength and corrosion
prevention thickness but, in the case of container ships, it
seems likely that studies will be mainly be on the danger
of brittle fractures in thick steel plates as in 2.2 above.
Currently the entire Japanese industry is engaged with
this problem and a committee has been established and
studies started towards establishing safety standards for
large container ships. It is expected that this will also
become the occasion for arrestation to be added to the
hull structure regulations as a necessary proposal.
Further, there are major reserves of natural gas,
an important source of energy, in the Arctic and it is
expected that there will be an increase in the number of
Artic-specification LNG tankers. Demand for the fracture
toughness necessary at even lower temperatures should
now be considered.
3.2 Studies of life cycle cost reduction
Two factors affect life cycle costs: the initial construction
costs and maintenance costs. There was previously a
tendency only to take initial construction costs into
account but greater emphasis has recently been placed
on the second. Fatigue and corrosion are problems for
maintenance. If major fatigue damage or corrosion-erosion
occurs during the scheduled life of the vessel, there is
a need for major maintenance work or replacement of
plates in dock, with the resulting major costs and also
loss of possible freight fees, with the resultant possibility
of major losses for the owner. It is therefore of the
greatest importance to manage fatigue and corrosion
appropriately.
Both corrosion-resistant steel and coatings for steel
may be considered as methods of preventing corrosion
and the relative merits of these should be compared from
the view point described above. Corrosion resistant steel
has already been described in part 2.3 above and, if it is
remembered that reasonably-priced corrosion-resistant
steel has already been developed and the standards
for steel coatings have become more stringent, it is
certain that corrosion-resistant steel is markedly more
advantageous in terms of life cycle costs. Accordingly it
will be important for the Japanese shipbuilding industry
as a whole to work towards the international recognition
of corrosion-resistant steel, and that the utility of the
anti-corrosion effectiveness of this should be given a
statutory basis within the IMO.
On the other hand, there have been various attempts to
cope with the problem of fatigue strength, as described
in 2.4 above. In particular, UIT should not end merely as
a possible replacement for grinding but its excellence in
improving fatigue strength should be reflected in the ship
classification regulations, and ship owners, ship builders,
ship classification societies and steel manufacturers
should all participate in the drafting of these rules.
3.3 Improved transportation efficiency and energy
saving
With the rapid expansion of sea transport the demand for
improved transportation efficiency has increased and with
it the size of ships has grown. Even now container ships
more than 10,000 TEU in size are commonplace and more
and more contracts have been signed for vessels of more
than 12,000 TEU. Similarly many LNG carriers of more
than 2,000,000m 3 capacity are being built and a series
of ore carriers of more than 300,000 tonnes are being
built. On the other hand, the recent rise in oil prices has
meant even greater demand for energy savings.
Increased strength and a consequent decrease in hull
weight is an effective means of achieving such savings
and the trend towards increases in the proportion of HT
used and further improvements in YP will continue.
Controlling plate thickness within narrow margins is
also effective. Generally plate thickness is allowed to
vary within a certain range but when this variation is
large the thickness of the plate increases and the hull
weight grows heavier. To reduce hull weight, therefore,
it is vital to increase the precision of plate thickness.
And this high-precision plate thickness management is
one important item for successful energy saving.
3.4 Consistent reductions in environmental load
There are two aspects of consistent reductions in
environmental load. The first is a consistent reduction
of CO 2 through the entire process from manufacture of
the thick steel plate to the ship construction. This can be
achieved effectively by reducing the energy consumed
in manufacturing the steel plate and by improving the
efficiency of shipbuilding.
TMCP, which both saves on steel and processing,
is a thick steel plate manufacturing process that might
 Welding International
accurately be described as an evolution in energy
saving. TMCP has been introduced or re-introduced in a
succession of new steel mills in China and South Korea
and it is anticipated on the world scene TMCP-steel will
come into even more widespread use.
I have dealt with the various attempts to improve
shipbuilding efficiency in the second section of this
article and have noted that TMCP type HT has made a
major contribution to the adaptation to high heat input
welding and the omission of preheating from the process
of low heat input welding. In the future there will be
continuing efforts to improve the efficiency of ship
building, mainly targeted, it may be anticipated, on steel
bending and thermal strain correction. In the case of
improved efficiency for steel bending, effective means
will include the use of readily deformable steel plate,
steel plate with little residual stress and steel plate with
little variation in content. By contrast the efficiency of
thermal strain correction may be improved through the
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use of steel plate with little thermal deformation. However
this may be, these problems, which have yet to be fully
solved, may justly be described as extremely difficult and
not readily addressed through the development of steel
alone. To reach any solution, it will be necessary to make
an accurate study of the work performed at the shipyards
and then to develop steel plates suited to these operations
while optimising the operational conditions.
Another aspect is the reduction of the environmental
burden by not coating the steel. This can be achieved
through the use of corrosion-resistant steel. Thus if the
inside of the oil tank of a tanker which was previously
coated is replaced by corrosion-resistant steel, and the
coating therefore not applied, it is will be possible to
remove the coating process entirely, thus making a
contribution to the reduction of the environmental burden
imposed by the shipyard. And of course omission of the
coating process is also associated with improvement of
the efficiency of the ship building. Since coating also
imposes a separate environmental load during maintenance
in dock, the use of corrosion resistant steel plate makes
a further environmental contribution.
4. Conclusion
Ship steel has been improved in many ways from the
viewpoint of welding efficiency. The contribution
of TMCP-type HT has been particularly great in this
regard, since it makes pre-heating unnecessary, allows
the use of high heat input welding and also improves the
properties of the steel plate. This article has given short
descriptions of the TMCP technologies that underpin
these improvements, the characteristics of TCMP steel
and the technologies of improving HAZ toughness.
With the recent increase in concern about safety
and environmental issues, there have been increased
requirements for better control of brittle fracture
761
inhibition, improved resistance to corrosion and improved
failure strength. As I have briefly described, responses
to such demands have included high arrestation steel,
thick high-strength steel for container ships with good
fracture toughness, corrosion-resistant steel for tanker
oil tanks, high fatigue strength steel, and technologies
for improving fatigue strength.
In the future it can be anticipated that there will be
increasing demands for improved safety, reductions in
life cycle costs, energy savings and consistent reductions
in the environmental burden imposed all the way from
steel manufacture to ship manufacture and I have given
my view as to how these may be dealt with. As I have
also said, it is important that the ship building industry
should address issues of regulation as a united body.
Finally, I would be pleased if this article was of use
as a reference for future developments in steel and
welding.
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