Specification Point 4.

1:
Know that a hydrocarbon is a compound of hydrogen and carbon only
Hydrocarbons
Crude oil: A mixture of hydrocarbons.

Hydrocarbon: Compound that contains only hydrogen and carbon atoms

Specification Point 4.2:
Understand how to represent organic molecules using empirical formulae, molecular formulae, general formulae, structural
formulae and displayed formulae

Representing Organic Molecules

Definitions

Example: Ethane (C2H6)

Specification Point 4.3:
Know what is meant by the terms homologous series, functional group and isomerism
Homologous Series, Functional Group & Isomerism
Homologous series: A series of organic compounds that has similar features:
Same general formula
Same functional group
Similar chemical reactions
Physical properties show graduations
Each member differs in molecular formula from the next by CH2
Functional group: A group of atoms bonded in a specific arrangement that controls the property of the homologous series:
Isomerism: Compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structural formulae

Specification Point 4.4:

Understand how to name compounds relevant to this specification using the rules of International union of pure and
applied chemistry (IUPAC) nomenclature
Naming Compounds
The first part of the name comes from the number of carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon, the second part comes from the
functional group present
Example

Further rules

When there is more than one carbon a functional group can be located it is important to distinguish which carbon the
functional group is on. Each carbon is numbered and these numbers are used to describe where the functional group is
When 2 functional groups are present di- is used as a prefix to the second part of the name
Branching also needs to be considered, the carbon atoms with the branches are described by their number
When the location of functional groups and branches needs to be described the functional group takes precedence so the
functional group has the lowest number
Examples
Specification Point 4.5:
Understand how to write the possible structural and displayed formulae of an organic molecule given its molecular formula
Displayed & Structured Formulae
Displayed formula:

A graphic representation that shows the symbols for each atom in a compound, with straight lines joining them to
represent the covalent bonds.

Example: Ethene (C2 H4)

From the molecular formula, we know that ethene has 2 carbon atoms and 4 hydrogen atoms:

Carbon atoms will be joined by a double bond as each carbon atom needs 4 bonds in total

Structural Formula:
A condensed representation that shows the symbols for each atom in a compound, with straight lines joining them to
represent the covalent bonds.

Example: Ethene

This displayed formula of ethene can be split up into sections and written as a formula:

Classifying Reactions of Organic Compounds

Substitution: A reaction where one atom is swapped with another atom
Example: Methane reacts with bromine under ultraviolet light
Methane + Bromine → Bromomethane + Hydrogen Bromide

CH4 + Br2 → CH3Br + HBr

Addition: A reaction in which one molecule combines with another to form a larger molecule with no other products
Example: Bromine will react with ethene and the bromine molecule will react and add across the double bond of the ethene
Ethene + Bromine → Dibromoethane

C2H4 + Br2 → C2H4Br2

Combustion: This is the scientific term for burning. In a combustion reaction, a substance reacts with oxygen to form
carbon dioxide (or carbon monoxide if incomplete combustion) and water.
Example: Alkenes burn when heated in air of oxygen
If there is an unlimited supply of air / oxygen, the products are carbon dioxide and water:
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O

This is termed complete combustion

If there is a limited supply of air / oxygen, the products are carbon monoxide and water:
CH4 + ½O2 → CO + 2H2O

This is termed incomplete combustion

Specification Point 4.7:
Know that crude oil is a mixture of Hydrocarbons
Crude Oil
Crude oil: A mixture of hydrocarbons.

Thick, sticky, black liquid that is found under porous rock (under the ground and under the sea).
Crude oil under the sea

If any fraction from crude oil is burned, then carbon dioxide and water is produced – this shows that crude oil is a complex
mixture of hydrocarbons:

Specification Point 4.8:

Describe how the industrial process of fractional distillation separates crude oil into fractions
Specification Point 4.9:
Know the names and uses of the main fractions obtained from crude oil: refinery gases, gasoline, kerosene, diesel, fuel oil
and bitumen
Fractional Distillation
Fractional distillation: To separate two or more liquids that are miscible with one another

Industrial process of fractional distillation:

The process of fractional distillation to separate crude oil in a fractionating column

Explanation:

Fractional distillation is carried out in a fractionating column.

In the fractionating column, it is hot at the bottom and cool at the top.
Crude oil will enter the fractionating column and will be heated so vapours will rise and evaporate.
Vapours of hydrocarbons with very high boiling points will immediately turn into liquid and are tapped off at the bottom of
the column.
Vapours of hydrocarbons with low boiling points will rise up the column and condense at the top to be tapped off.
The different fractions will condense at different heights according to their boiling points and will be tapped off as liquids.
All the fraction are mixtures of different kinds of hydrocarbon.
To conclude the smaller hydrocarbons are collected at the top of the fractionating column as gases. The bigger
hydrocarbons are collected at the lower sections of the fractionating column.

Specification Point 4.10:

Know the trend in colour, boiling point and viscosity of the main fractions
Trends of Crude Oil Fractions
Viscosity: Viscosity refers to the ease of flow of a liquid. High viscosity liquids are thick and flow less easily. If the number
of carbon atoms increases, the attraction between the hydrocarbon molecules increases, which results in the liquid
becoming more viscous – this is because of the increasing length of the hydrocarbon chains. The liquid flows less easily
with the increasing molecular mass.

Colour: As carbon chain length increases, liquid colour gets darker, as it becomes thicker and more viscous.

Melting point/boiling point: As the molecules get larger, the intermolecular attraction becomes greater, so more energy in
the form of heat is needed to separate the molecules. With increasing molecular size there is an increase in boiling point.

Volatility: Volatility refers to the tendency of a substance to vaporise. As their molecular size increases, hydrocarbon
liquids become less volatile
Specification Point 4.11:
Know that a fuel is a substance that, when burned, releases heat energy
Fuel
Fuel: Substance which when burned, releases heat energy

This heat can be transferred into electricity, which we use in our daily lives
Examples:

Specification Point 4.12:

Know the possible products of complete and incomplete combustion of Hydrocarbons with Oxygen and air
Products of Combustion
Complete combustion: Occurs when there is an unlimited supply of air so that elements in the fuel react fully with oxygen.

Complete combustion of hydrocarbons:

During the complete combustion of hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide and water will be produced:

Carbon will oxidise to form carbon dioxide

Hydrogen will oxidise to water
Equation:

Hydrocarbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water

Incomplete combustion: Occurs when there is a limited supply of air so that elements in the fuel do not fully react with
Oxygen
Incomplete combustion of Hydrocarbons:

During the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons, water will still be produced but instead of carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide (soot) will form

Equation:

Hydrocarbon + Oxygen → Carbon Monoxide + Water

Specification Point 4.13:

Understand why Carbon monoxide is poisonous, in terms of its effect on the capacity of blood to transport Oxygen
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide: A poisonous gas that is colourless and odourless, produced during incomplete combustion:

Hydrocarbon + Oxygen → Carbon monoxide + Water

Effect of Carbon monoxide on blood:

When carbon monoxide is produced by incomplete combustion, it is absorbed in the lungs and binds with the haemoglobin
in our red blood cells.
This reduces the capacity of the blood to carry oxygen.
Specification Point 4.14:
Know that, in car engines, the temperature reached is high enough to allow Nitrogen and Oxygen from air to react, forming
Oxides of Nitrogen
Formation of Oxides of Nitrogen in Car Engines
Formation of oxides of nitrogen in car engines:

When fuels are burned in car engines, high temperatures are reached which allows Nitrogen and Oxygen from the air to
combine to produce Nitrogen monoxide:
Nitrogen + Oxygen → Nitrogen Monoxide

N2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO (g)

When this Nitrogen monoxide is released from the engines of vehicles, it combines with Oxygen in the air to form Nitrogen
dioxide:
Nitrogen Monoxide + Oxygen → Nitrogen Dioxide

2NO (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)

Both Nitrogen monoxide and Nitrogen dioxide are produced in car engines as a result and is referred to as NOx

Specification Point 4.15:

Explain how the combustion of some impurities in Hydrocarbon fuels results in the formation of Sulfur dioxide
Combustion of Hydrocarbon Fuels
Hydrocarbon fuels: Impure Hydrocarbon fuels contain Sulfur compounds

Combustion of Hydrocarbon fuels:

During the combustion of Hydrocarbon fuels, impurities such as Sulfur compounds will be oxidised to produce sulfur
dioxide:
Sulfur + Oxygen → Sulfur Dioxide

S (g) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g)

Specification Point 4.16:
Understand how Sulfur dioxide and Oxides of Nitrogen oxides contribute to acid rain
Acid Rain
Acid rain: Rain that contains dissolved acidic gases such as sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. The pH value of normal
rain is slightly below 7. The pH value of acid rain is approximately 3.4.

Contribution of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen oxide to acid rain:

Sulfur dioxide will react with oxygen and dissolve in water droplets in clouds, forming dilute sulfuric acid which will cause
acid rain:
Sulfur Dioxide + Oxygen + Water → Sulfuric Acid
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 2H2SO4 (aq)

Nitrogen oxides will dissolve in water droplets in clouds, forming dilute Nitric acid and Nitrous acid, causing acid rain:
Nitrogen Dioxide + Water → Nitric Acid + Nitrous Acid

2NO2 (g) + H2O (l) → HNO2 (aq) + HNO3 (aq)

Specification Point 4.17:

Describe how long-chain alkanes are converted to alkenes and shorter-chain alkanes by catalytic cracking (using silica or
alumina as the catalyst and a temperature in the range of 600-700°c)
Catalytic Cracking
Long-chain hydrocarbons: large number of hydrocarbon molecules. More viscous and less flammable so less useful.

Short-chain hydrocarbons: small numbers of hydrocarbon molecules.

Cracking is simply splitting of larger molecules to simpler ones.

Industrial catalytic cracking site

Explanation:

Cracking allows large hydrocarbon molecules to be broken down into smaller, more useful hydrocarbon molecules.
Fractions containing large hydrocarbon molecules are heated at 600 – 700°c to vaporise them.
Vapours will then pass over a hot catalyst of silica or alumina
This process breaks covalent bonds in the molecules, causing thermal decomposition reactions.
As a result, cracking produces smaller alkanes and alkenes. The molecules are broken up in a random way which produce
a mixture of alkanes and alkenes.
Specification Point 4.18:
Explain why cracking is necessary, in terms of the balance between supply and demand for different fractions
Why Cracking is Necessary
Although there is use for each fraction after the fractional distillation of crude oil, the amount of longer chain hydrocarbons
produced is far greater than needed.

However, the amount of shorter chain hydrocarbons produced is far less than needed (e.g. gasoline fraction) and there is a
higher demand for shorter chain hydrocarbons. This is why cracking is necessary to increase the supply of shorter chain
hydrocarbons.
Short chain hydrocarbons burn well and flow well.
Cracking is used to produce petrol for cars.
Cracking also produces alkenes which are raw material in the plastic industry.
Cracking is used to produce hydrogen gas which is a raw material in manufacture of ammonia in Haber process.
Example: The Cracking of hexane (C6H14) to produce butane (C4H10) and ethene
C2H4):

C6H14 (g) → C4H10 (g) + C2H4 (g)

Ethene: The ethene can be used to make poly(ethene), a type of plastic.

Specification Point 4.19:

Know the general formula for alkanes
Alkanes General Formula
Alkanes: A homologous series of hydrocarbon compounds with only single carbon bonds

Equation:

n = number of carbon atoms CnH2n+2

Specification Point 4.20:
Explain why alkanes are classified as saturated hydrocarbons
Alkanes as Saturated Hydrocarbons
Alkanes: A homologous series of hydrocarbon compounds with only single carbon bonds that has the general formula
CnH2n+2

Classification of alkanes:

Alkanes are classified as saturated hydrocarbons as all the bonds in alkanes are single bonds

Specification Point 4.21:

Understand how to draw the structural and displayed formulae for alkanes with up to five carbon atoms in the molecule,
and to name the unbranched-chain isomers
Alkane Structures
Alkanes: a homologous series of hydrocarbon compounds with only single carbon bonds that has the general formula
CnH2n+2

Isomers: compounds that have the same molecular formula but different displayed formulae

Alkanes with up to five carbon atoms in molecule:

Specification Point 4.22:
Describe the reactions of alkanes with halogens in the presence of ultraviolet radiation, limited to mono-substitution
Reaction of Alkanes with Halogens
Alkanes: A homologous series of hydrocarbon compounds with only single carbon bonds that has the general formula
CnH2n+2

Substitution reaction of alkanes with halogens:

In a substitution reaction, one atom is swapped with another atom. Alkanes undergo a substitution reaction with halogens
under the presence of ultraviolet radiation.

Example: Under ultraviolet (UV) radiation, methane reacts with bromine

This reaction is a substitution reaction because one of the hydrogen atoms from the methane is replaced by a bromine
atom

Methane + Bromine → Bromomethane + Hydrogen Bromide

CH4 Br2 CH3Br HBr

Specification Point 4.23:

Know that Alkenes contain the function group C=C
Alkenes: A homologous series of hydrocarbon compounds with carbon-carbon double bonds (C = C)

Function Group of Alkenes

All alkenes will contain a double carbon bond, which is shown as two lines between two of the carbon atoms. The presence
of this double bond allows alkenes to react in ways that alkanes cannot.
eg.
Specification Point 4.24:
Know the general formula for Alkenes
Alkenes General Formula
n = number of carbon atoms CnH2n

Specification Point 4.25:

Explain why alkenes are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons
Classification of Alkenes
Alkenes: A homologous series of hydrocarbon compounds with double carbon bonds that has the general formula CnH2n

Alkenes are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons as they contain a double covalent bond. See examples above.
Specification Point 4.26:
Understand how to draw the structural and displayed formulae for alkenes with up to four Carbon atoms in the molecule,
and name the unbranched-chain isomers
Formulae for Alkenes
Alkenes: A homologous series of hydrocarbon compounds with double Carbon bonds that has the general formula cnH2n

Isomers: Compounds that have the same molecular formula but different displayed formulae

Alkenes with up to four carbon atoms in molecule

Specification Point 4.27:
Describe the reactions of Alkenes with Bromine to produce Dibromoalkanes
Reactions of Alkenes with Bromine
Alkenes: A homologous series of hydrocarbon compounds with double carbon bonds that has the general formula CnH2n.

Reaction between Alkenes and Bromine:

The reaction between bromine and alkenes is an example of a type of reaction called an addition reaction. This reaction is
an addition reaction as the diatomic bromine atom has been added across the double bond of the ethene.

Example: Addition reaction of ethene and bromine

Ethene + Bromine → Dibromoethane

C2H4 Br2 C2H4Br2

Specification Point 4.28:

Describe how Bromine water can be used to distinguish between an Alkane and an Alkene
Alkanes: A homologous series of hydrocarbon compounds with only single carbon bonds that has the general formula
CnH2n+2

Alkenes: A homologous series of hydrocarbon compounds with double carbon bonds that has the general formula CnH2n

Use of Bromine Water to distinguish between Alkane & Alkene

The presence of the C=C double bond allows alkenes to react in ways that alkanes cannot. This allows us to tell alkenes
apart from alkanes using a simple chemical test:

The result of the test using bromine water with alkanes and alkenes

Explanation:

Bromine water is an orange solution of bromine.

When bromine water is shaken with an Alkane, it will remain as an orange solution as alkanes do not have double carbon
bonds (C=C).
But when bromine water is shaken with an alkene, the alkene will decolourise the bromine water and turn colourless as
alkenes do have double carbon bonds (C=C).
This reaction between alkenes and bromine is called an addition reaction.
Specification Point 4.29C (Paper 2C Only):
Know that alcohols contain the functional group -OH
Functional Group -OH
Alcohol: Family of organic (carbon-based) compounds that all contain the -OH group that is responsible for their chemical
properties and reactions.

Example:
 Specification Point 4.30C (Paper 2C Only):
Understand how to draw structural and displayed formulae for Methanol, Ethanol, Propanol (propan-1-ol only) and Butanol
(butan-1-ol only), and name each compound
Alcohol: Family of organic (carbon-based) compounds that all contain the -OH group that is responsible for their chemical
properties and reactions.

Structural and Displayed Formula for -OH group

The functional group in the alcohols is the hydroxyl group (-OH).

Specification Point 4.31C (Paper 2C Only):

Know that Ethanol can be oxidised by: burning in air or Oxygen (complete combustion), reaction with oxygen in the air to
form Ethanoic acid (microbial oxidation), heating with Potassium dichromate (vi) in dilute Sulfuric acid to form Ethanoic
acid
Ethanol: C2H5OH

Oxidation: The loss of electrons and gain in oxygen.

Oxidation of Ethanol
*complete combustion of ethanol:

Ethanol can be oxidised by the process of complete combustion as ethanol burns when heated in air or oxygen:

Ethanol + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water

C2H5OH 3O2 2CO2 3H2O

*microbial oxidation:

The microbial oxidation of ethanol occurs once a bottle of wine is opened.

This is caused by the bacteria in the air (acetobacter) using atmospheric oxygen from air to oxidise the ethanol in wine,
producing a weak solution of ethanoic acid (also known as acetic acid):
Ethanol + Oxygen → Ethanoic Acid + Water

C2H5OH 3O2 CH3COOH 3H2O

So once a bottle of wine has been opened, it can quickly turn into vinegar due to the large number of bacteria in the air.

*Heating with potassium dichromate (vi) in dilute Sulfuric acid:

Ethanol can be oxidised by heating it with an oxidising agent such as Potassium dichromate (vi) in dilute Sulphuric acid.
The alcohol is oxidized to a carboxylic acid.
If the oxidation occurs, then the orange solution containing the dichromate (vi) ions is reduced to a green solution
containing chromium (ii) ions:

Specification Point 4.32C (Paper 2C Only):

Know that ethanol can be manufactured by: reacting ethene with steam in the presence of a phosphoric acid catalyst at a
temperature of about 300°c and a pressure of about 60-70 atm, the fermentation of glucose, in the absence of air, at an
optimum temperature of about 30°c and using the enzymes in yeast
Ethanol:

Ethanol (C2H5OH) is the type of alcohol found in alcoholic drinks such as wine and beer. It is also used as fuel for cars.

Manufacture of Ethanol
Reacting ethene with steam (hydration):
A mixture of ethene and steam is passed over a hot catalyst of phosphoric acid at a temperature of 300°c and 60-70
atmospheres of pressure and is then condensed into a liquid for use:
Ethene + Water → Ethanol

C2H4 H2O C2H5OH

Equation showing the reaction that takes place between ethene and steam

Fermentation of glucose:
Sugar or starch is dissolved in water and yeast is added to be fermented at 30°C with the absence of oxygen for a few days.
Yeast contains zymase enzymes (biological catalysts) break down starch or sugar to glucose. The yeast respires
anaerobically using the glucose to form to ethanol and carbon dioxide:

Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide

C6H12O6 2C2H5OH 2CO2

Equation showing the fermentation of glucose by anaerobic respiration

Comparing methods
Specification Point 4.33C (Paper 2C Only):
Understand the reasons for fermentation, in the absence of air, and at an optimum temperature
Fermentation: a chemical process in which microorganisms such as yeast act on carbohydrates to produce ethanol and
carbon dioxide. Sugars and starch are examples of carbohydrates.

Conditions of Fermentation

Specification Point 4.34C (Paper 2C Only):

Know that Carboxylic acids contain the functional group -COOH
Carboxylic Acids
Carboxylic acids: A homologous series of organic compounds that all contain the same functional group –COOH.

Specification Point 4.35C (Paper 2C Only):

Understand how to draw structural and displayed formulae for unbranched-chain carboxylic acids with up to four carbon
atoms in the molecule, and name each compound
Structural and Displayed Formulae for Unbranched-Chain Carboxylic Acids
Carboxylic acids: A homologous series of organic compounds that all contain the same functional group –COOH.

Carboxylic acids with up to four carbon atoms in molecule

Carboxylic acids contain the carboxyl functional group (-COOH) and will always be at the end of the carbon chain

Carboxylic acids end in ‘ -OIC acid ‘.

Specification Point 4.36C (Paper 2C Only):
Describe the reactions of aqueous solutions of carboxylic acids with metals and metal carbonates
Carboxylic acids: A homologous series of organic compounds that all contain the same functional group –COOH.

Reactions of aqueous carboxylic acids with metals and metal carbonates

Carboxylic acids are weak acids, so they can donate a hydrogen ion (H+) in acid-base reactions:

Metals
Carboxylic acids will react with metals to produce a salt and hydrogen gas:

Metal + Carboxylic Acid → Salt + Hydrogen

Example: Reaction of ethanoic acid and magnesium

Magnesium + Ethanoic Acid → Magnesium Acetate + Hydrogen

Mg 2CH3COOH Mg(CH3COO)2 H2

Metal Carbonates
Carboxylic acids will react with metal carbonates to produce a salt, water and carbon dioxide:

Metal Carbonate + Carboxylic Acid → Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide

Example: Reaction of ethanoic acid and sodium carbonate

Sodium Carbonate + Ethanoic Acid → Sodium Ethoxide + Water + Carbon Dioxide

Na2CO3 2CH3COOH 2CH3COONa H2O CO2

Specification Point 4.37C (Paper 2C Only):

Know that vinegar is an aqueous solution containing ethanoic acid
Vinegar
Vinegar: an aqueous solution containing ethanoic acid.
Formation of vinegar (Ethanoic acid):

The microbial oxidation of ethanol will produce a weak solution of vinegar (ethanoic acid).
This occurs when a bottle of wine is opened as bacteria in the air (acetobacter) will use atmospheric oxygen from air to
oxidise the ethanol in the wine.
Ethanol + Oxygen → Ethanoic Acid + Water

C2H5OH 3O2 CH3COOH 3H2O

Specification Point 4.38C (Paper 2C Only):

Know that esters contain the functional group -COO-
Esters
Esters: A group of organic compounds that all contain the same functional group -COO- with these common properties:

They are volatile (liquids that evaporate easily)

They have a distinctive odour (‘fruity’ smell)

Ester functional group (R indicates carbon chains)

Examples:

Specification Point 4.39C (Paper 2C Only):

Know that ethyl ethanoate is the ester produced when ethanol and ethanoic acid react in the presence of an acid catalyst
Formation of Ethyl Ethanoate
Carboxylic acids will react with alcohols in the presence of an acid catalyst to form esters.

Example: Ethanoic acid will react with ethanol in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid (catalyst) to form ethyl
ethanoate:

The formation of ethyl ethanoate:

Specification Point 4.40C (Paper 2C Only):
Understand how to write the structural and displayed formulae of ethyl ethanoate

Specification Point 4.41C (Paper 2C Only):

Understand how to write the structural and displayed formulae of an ester, given the name or formula of the alcohol and
carboxylic acid from which it is formed and vice versa
Structural and Displayed Formulae of Esters
An ester is made from an alcohol and carboxylic acid.

The first part of the name indicates the length of carbon chain of the alcohol, and it ends with the letters ‘- YL ‘
The second part of the name indicates the length of carbon chain of the carboxylic acid, and it ends with the letters ‘- OATE
‘.

The origin of each carbon chain in ester

 Specification Point 4.42C (Paper 2C Only):
Know that esters are volatile compounds with distinctive smells and are used as food colourings and in perfumes

Properties of Esters
These properties of esters make them useful for food colourings and perfumes:

Volatility: Esters are very volatile as they only have weak attractive forces between their particles so can evaporate easily
(readily change from a liquid to a gas).

Distinctive smell: Esters are chemicals with pleasant ‘fruity’ smells, e.g. pentyl butanoate smells of strawberries.

Specification Point 4.43C (Paper 2C Only):

Practical: Prepare a sample of an ester such as ethyl ethanoate
Method:

A mixture of ethanoic acid, ethanol and concentrated sulfuric acid is gently heated by either a water bath or an electric
heater (ethanol is flammable, so a Bunsen can’t be used!)
The ester is then distilled off as soon as it is formed and collected in a separate beaker by condensation.
As esters have low boiling points (they are volatile), they are the first to evaporate from the reaction mixture. Removing
them from the mixture by distillation prevents the reverse reaction from occurring.
Result:

The distillate can be smelt to check whether an ester has been produced.
Small quantities of ethanoic acid, sulfuric acid and ethanol can also be collected in the process.
To remove acidic impurities, sodium carbonate solution can be added, until the mixture stops fizzing (no more carbon
dioxide is evolved).
To remove ethanol, calcium chloride solution can be added.
Specification Point 4.44:
Know that an addition polymer is formed by joining up many small molecules called monomers
Monomer: The unit molecule from which a polymer is made
Addition Polymers
Formation of addition polymers:

Addition polymers are formed by the joining up of many small molecules called monomers.
Alkenes can act as monomers as they are unsaturated so the double bond can break and bond with other monomers.

The formation of poly(chloroethene) from the joining of many chloroethene monomers

There are two types of polymers:

Natural Polymers.
e.g.: starch, carbohydrate, fat, protein etc.
Synthetic polymers (Man-made polymers).
e.g.: polythene, polypropene, polychloroethene (PVC), polystyrene, nylon, terylene.
Specification Point 4.45:
Understand how to draw the repeat unit of an addition polymer, including Poly(ethene), Poly(propene), Poly(chloroethene)
and Poly(tetrafluoroethene)
Drawing Repeating Units
Polymer molecules are very large compared with most other molecules, so repeat units are used when displaying the
formula:

Change the double bond in the monomer to a single bond in the repeat unit.
Add a bond to each end of the repeat unit.

The concept of drawing a repeat unit of a monomer

Repeat units of addition polymers:

Specification Point 4.46:
Understand how to deduce the structure of a monomer from the repeat unit of an addition polymer and vice versa
Deducing Structure of a Monomer from a Repeat Unit
To deduce the structure of a monomer from a repeat unit of an addition polymer, you just need to reverse the process of
drawing a repeat monomer described in Specification Point 4.45:

Identify the repeating unit.

Change the single bond in the repeat unit to a double bond in the monomer.
Remove the bond from each end of the repeat unit.
How to deduce the structure of a monomer from a repeat unit

Example: Deducing the structure of chloroethene from a repeat unit of Poly(chloroethene)

The monomer from the repeat unit of an addition polymer

Specification Point 4.47:
Explain problems in the disposal of addition polymers, including: Their inertness and inability to biodegrade, the
production of toxic gases when they are burned
Addition Polymers
Formed by the joining up of many small molecules called monomers. Addition polymers are unreactive so don’t easily
biodegrade.

Problems with the disposal of addition polymers:

The disposal of polymers in landfills

Landfills:
Waste polymers are disposed of in landfill sites but this takes up valuable land as addition polymers are non-biodegradable
so micro-organisms such as decomposers cannot break them down.
This causes sites to quickly fill up
Incineration:

Polymers release a lot of heat energy when they burn and produces carbon dioxide which is a greenhouse gas that
contributes to climate change.
If incinerated by incomplete combustion, carbon monoxide will be produced which is a toxic gas that reduces the capacity
of the blood to carry oxygen.
Recycling:

Polymers can be recycled but different polymers must be separated from each other.
This process is difficult and expensive.

Specification Point 4.49C (Paper 2C Only):

Understand how to write the structural and displayed formula of a polyester, showing the repeat unit, given the formulae of
the monomers from which it is formed including the reaction of Ethanedioic acid and Ethanediol
Condensation Polymerisation
Polyester: A condensation polymer formed by the reaction between a dicarboxylic acid with a dialcohol. Both monomers
must have two functional groups.

Condensation polymerisation: A reaction in which two different types of monomer join together to produce a polymer and
expel a small molecule such as water.

Example:
The condensation polymerisation between terephthalic acid and ethane -1,2 diol

Polyester Structural & Displayed Formula

The basic structure of a polyester, the box represents any group of atoms

Equation:

Equation of condensation polymerisation of dicarboxylic acid and dialcohol to form a polyester

Reaction of Ethanedioic acid & 1,2-Ethanediol

Specification Point 4.50C (Paper 2C Only):
Know that some polyesters, known as Biopolyesters, are biodegradable
Biodegradable Biopolyesters

The biodegradation of a bottle made of biopolyesters

Biopolyesters are a specific type of polymer that is able to biodegrade naturally in the environment after their intended
purpose.
The polymers are synthetically made, consisting of ester, amide and ether functional groups which gives them the
characteristic of being biodegradable.