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Lecture Notes On Kinematics: Dr. Ing. Zdena Sant
Lecture Notes On Kinematics: Dr. Ing. Zdena Sant
1 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................4
2 KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE..............................................................................9
2.1 Velocity....................................................................................................................... 10
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3.3.2 The velocity ......................................................................................................... 32
3.3.3 The pole of motion............................................................................................... 33
3.3.4 Finding the acceleration ........................................................................................... 35
3.3.5 The instantenous centre of acceleration – the pole of acceleration........................ 37
4 SYSTEM OF BODIES........................................................................................... 48
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1 INTRODUCTION
Design and analysis are two vital tasks in engineering.
Design process means the synthesis during the proposal phase the size, shape, material
properties and arrangements of the parts are prescribed in order to fulfil the required task.
Analysis is a technique or rather set of tools allowing critical evaluation of existing or proposed
design in order to judge its suitability for the task.
Thus synthesis is a goal that can be reached via analysis.
Mechanical engineer deals with many different tasks that are in conjunction to diverse working
processes referred to as a technological process.
Technological processes involve transportation of material, generation and transformation of
energy, transportation of information. All these processes require mechanical motion, which is
carried out by machines.
To be able to create appropriate design of machine and mechanism the investigation of relation
between the geometry and motion of the parts of a machine/mechanism and the forces that cause
the motion has to be carried out. Thus the mechanics as a science is involved in the design process.
Mechanics represents the science that includes Statics, Dynamics, and Mechanics of Materials.
Statics provides analysis of stationary systems while Dynamics deals with systems that change
with time and as Euler suggested the investigation of motion of a rigid body may be separated into
two parts, the geometrical part and the mechanical part. Within the geometrical part Kinematics
the transference of the body from one position to the other is investigated without respect to the
causes of the motion. The change is represented by analytical formulae.
Thus Kinematics is a study of motion apart from the forces producing the motion that is
described by position, displacement, rotation, speed, velocity, and acceleration.
In Kinematics we assume that all bodies under the investigation are rigid bodies thus their
deformation is negligible, and does not play important role, and the only change that is considered
in this case is the change in the position.
Terminology that we use has a precise meaning as all the words we use to express ourselves
while communicating with each other. To make sure that we do understand the meaning we have a
thesaurus/glossary available. It is useful to clarify certain terms especially in areas where the
terminology is not very clear.
Structure represents the combination of rigid bodies connected together by joints with intention
to be rigid. Therefore the structure does not do work or transforms the motion. Structure can be
moved from place to place but it does not have an internal mobility (no relative motion between its
members).
Machines & Mechanisms – their purpose is to utilize relative internal motion in transmitting
power or transforming motion.
Machine – device used to alter, transmit, and direct forces to accomplish a specific objective.
Mechanism – the mechanical portion of a machine that has the function of transferring motion
and forces from power source to an output. Mechanism transmits motion from drive or input link
to the follower or the output link.
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Planar mechanism – each particle of the mechanism draws plane curves in space and all
curves lie in parallel planes. The motion is limited to two-dimensional space and behaviour of all
particles can be observed in true size and shape from a single direction. Therefore all motions can
be interpreted graphically. Most mechanisms today are planar mechanism so we focus on them.
Spherical mechanism – each link has a stationary point as the linkage moves and the stationary
points of all links lie at a common location. Thus each point draws a curve on the spherical surface
and all spherical surfaces are concentric.
Spatial mechanism – has no restriction on the relative motion of the particles. Each
mechanism containing kinematical screw pair is a spatial mechanism because the relative motion
of the screw pair is helical.
Last year we started to talk about the foundation of Mechanics – Statics and later on about the
transfer of the forces and their effect on the elements of the structure/machine. Our computation of
the forces was based on the Statics only and at the beginning we assumed that the forces exist on
the structure or are applied very slowly so they do not cause any dynamical effect on the structure.
This situation is far from real world since there is nothing stationary in the world. (Give me a fixed
point and I’ll turn the world. Archimedes 287 BC – 212 BC Greek mathematician, physicist )
Kinematics deals with the way things move. It is a study of the geometry of motion that
involves determination of position, displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration.
This investigation is done without consideration of force system acting on an actuator.
Actuator is a mechanical device for moving or controlling a mechanism or system.
Therefore the basic quantities in Kinematics are space and time as defined in Statics.
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Kinematics describes the motion of an object in the space considering the time dependency.
The motion is described by three kinematics quantities:
The position vector gives the position of a particular point in the space at the instant.
The time rate of change of the position vector describes the velocity of the point.
Acceleration – the time rate of change of the velocity
All quantities – position, velocity, and acceleration are vectors that can be characterized with
respect to:
Change of a scalar magnitude – uniform motion
Uniformly accelerated motion
Non-uniformly accelerated motion
Harmonic motion
The set of independent coordinates in the space describes the position of a body as a time-
function thus defines the motion of a body.
The number of independent coordinates corresponds to the degree of freedom of the object or
set of coupled bodies and it is expressed as the mobility of the object.
Mobility – the number of degrees of freedom possessed by the mechanism. The number of
independent coordinates (inputs) is required to precisely position all links of the mechanism with
respect to the reference frame/coordinate system.
For planar mechanism: i = 3(n − 1) − ∑ j DOF
For space mechanism: i = 6(n − 1) − ∑ j DOF
Kinematical diagram – is “stripped down” sketch of the mechanism (skeleton form where only
the dimensions that influence the motion of the mechanism are shown).
Particle – is a model body with very small/negligible physical dimensions compared to the
radius of its path curvature. The particle can have a mass associated with that does not play role in
kinematical analysis.
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How to find the degree of freedom?
To be able to evaluate DOF the kinematical diagram of the mechanism has to be created.
Diagrams should be drawn to scale proportional to the actual mechanism in the given position.
The convention is to number links starting with the reference frame as number one while the joints
should be lettered.
The adopted strategy should consist of identifying on the real set of bodies:
the frame, the actuator, and all the other links
all joints
any points of interest
and draw the kinematical diagram according to the convention.
Once we evaluated the mobility (degrees of freedom) we can identify the corresponding set of
independent coordinates (parameters) and start the kinematical analysis of the mechanism
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proceeding through the sub-task:
a) define the reference frame (basic space in which the motion will be described)
b) define the position of a point/particle with respect to the reference frame
c) describe the type of motion (constrained or unconstrained)
d) write the non-penetrating conditions
e) define the independent coordinates
f) find the velocity and acceleration
A 1 Foundation
1
6 2 Crate
3
5 3 Pulley
4 Pulley
4 5 Motor/Actuator
2
1 6 Link
Joint analysis:
A …. pin …. 2 dof
i = 3(6 − 1) − (5 ⋅ 2 + 3 ⋅1)
The kinematical analysis of the whole set of connected bodies can be done if we would be able
to describe the motion of each segment/body and then identify the kinematical quantities at the
point of interest in the required position or time.
Thus let’s start with the Kinematics of a Particle that is shown on the diagram as a point.
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2 KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE
The Distance represents the measure of the point instant position with respect to the origin.
Trajectory/path of the particular point is the loci of all instant positions of that point.
n …unit vector in the normal direction to the trajectory has positive orientation
towards the centre of the trajectory curvature
∆τ dτ
n = lim =
∆t → 0 ∆ϑ dϑ
taking into account the trajectory curvature radius R then
ds
ds = R.dϑ and dϑ =
R
dτ dτ
thus n = = R. . Substituting for τ we get
ds ds
R
d 2r d 2x d2y d 2z
n = R 2 = R 2 i + R 2 j+ R 2 k
ds ds ds ds
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d 2x d2y d 2z
where: R = cos α n ; R = cos β n ; R = cos γ n are the directional cosines of the
ds 2 ds 2 ds 2
normal to the trajectory, and
αn; βn; γn are the angles between axes x, y, z and the normal
In case of 3D motion the trajectory is a 3D curve thus third unit vector in bi-normal direction has
to be defined:
b … unit vector in the bi-normal direction to the trajectory is oriented in a way that
the positive direction of bi-normal vector forms together with normal and tangent
right oriented perpendicular system.
b = τ×n
2.1 VELOCITY
Is the time rate of change of the positional vector.
∆r
The average velocity of change is defined as v avr =
∆t
Our interest is to find an instant velocity, that represents the limit case of average velocity. The
time limit for computation of the instant velocity is approaching zero.
∆r dr
The instant velocity is define as: v = lim = = rɺ
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
What is the direction of the instant velocity?
A common sense or rather to say intuition suggests that the velocity has the tangent direction to
the trajectory. So let’s prove this statement mathematically:
∆r ∆ s ∆r ∆s dr ds
v = lim ⋅ = lim ⋅ lim = ⋅ = τ ⋅ sɺ = τ ⋅ v
∆t → 0 ∆t ∆s ∆t → 0 ∆s ∆t → 0 ∆t ds dt
∆s ds
since sɺ = lim = =v
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
= ( xi + yj + zk ) =
dr d dx dy dz
v= i+ j + k = v x i + vY j + v Z k
dt dt dt dt dt
where vx, vy, vz are components of the velocity in the direction of the axes of coordinate system.
The magnitude/modulus of velocity: v = v 2x + v 2y + v 2z
vx vy v
with directional cosines: cos α v = ; cos β v = ; cos γ v = z
v v v
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2.2 ACCELERATION
The acceleration of a change of position is the time rate of change of velocity.
To derive the expression for acceleration we need to draw velocity vector diagram so called
velocity hodograph.
Constructing hodograph
based on the knowledge of
path of a point and its
velocity in particular
position A and A1:
Let’s have arbitrary
point P through which both
velocities vA, and vA1 will
pass. The end points of their
vectors are creating the desired curve hodograph.
Based on hodograph v A1 = v A + ∆v
∆v
The average acceleration is given as a avr =
∆t
The instant acceleration is given as the limit value of average acceleration for time
interval ∆t → 0
∆v dv
a = lim = = vɺ = ɺrɺ
∆t →0 ∆t dt
= (τ ⋅ v ) =
dv d dτ dv
The direction of acceleration can be found from a= v+τ
dt dt dt dt
dτ ds dv dτ ds dv dτ 2 dv
Thus a = dt ⋅ ds ⋅ v + τ dt = ds ⋅ dt ⋅ v + τ dt = ds ⋅ v + τ dt
dτ dτ n
Since the direction of the normal is given as n = R. ds then we can substitute =
ds ρ
where
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The direction of normal acceleration is always oriented to the center of instant curvature of the
trajectory. The tangent component of acceleration captures the change of magnitude of a velocity
while the normal component captures the change of direction of a velocity.
at
The resultant acceleration forms an angle β with normal direction: tan β =
an
Thus the acceleration expressed in the rectangular coordinate system would have form:
= ( v x i + v y j + vz k ) = a x i + a y j + a z k
dv d
a=
dt dt
d
a = ( xɺi + yɺj + zɺk ) = ɺɺ
xi + ɺɺ
yj + ɺɺ
zk
dt
and the magnitude of acceleration: a = a 2x + a 2y + a 2z
Orientation of the final acceleration is given by directional cosines:
a ay a
cos α a = x ; cos β a = ; cos γ a = z
a a a
and at the same time cos 2 α + cos 2 β + cos 2 γ = 1
Precise description of the motion of a particle is given by function capturing all kinematic
quantities f (r , v, a t , a n , t ) = 0
Uniform motion
dv
Mathematical description: a t = 0 thus a t = = 0 that implies v = const.
dt
dx
In case that the tangent takes the direction of axis x then v x = const. and equation v x =
dt
represents the simple differential
distance [m], velocity [m/s]
0 x0 30
the solution x = x0 + v x ⋅ t 20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
time [s]
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Uniformly accelerated/decelerated motion
Mathematical description: a t = const.
dv x
In case that the tangent takes the direction of axis x then a x = const. and ax = thus
dt
t v
a x ∫ dt = ∫ dv x leading to solution v x = v0 + a x t
0 v0
t x
∫ (v0 + a x t )dt = ∫ dx
dx
at the same time v x = therefore that gives the solution:
dt 0 x0
1
x = x0 + v0 t +
axt 2
2
The solution lead to an equation of trajectory of the point expressed as a function of time.
∫ (a0 ± kt )dt = ∫ dv x
dv x
Thus a x ≠ const. = therefore with solution
dt 0 v0
t x
1 dx 1 2
v x = v 0 + a 0 t ± kt 2 since v x =
2 dt
then ∫0 v0 + a0 t ± 2 kt dt = x∫ dx that gives the
0
1 1
trajectory equation x = x0 + v 0 t + a 0 t 2 ± kt 3
2 6
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Motion with other changes of kinematic quantities
In this case the acceleration is given as a function of other quantities a = f (r , v, t )
v = vx i + v y j + vzk =
d
(rx i + ry j + rz k ) (velocity)
dt
a = a x i + a y j + a z k = (v x i + v y j + v z k ) = 2 (rx i + ry j + rz k )
d d2
(acceleration)
dt dt
z1 z 2
or r1AT = [x1 y1 z1 ] and r2AT = [x 2 y2 z2 ]
To express the positional vector r2A in CS1the vector has to be transformed. This process is
called Orthogonal Transformation of Vector Quantities
r2A = x 2A i 2 + y 2A j 2 + z 2A k 2
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How do we interpret positional vector r2A in CS1?
The task is to project vector r2A into CS1.
Thus projecting vector r2A into the x1 direction:
( )
x1A = r2A ⋅ i 1 = x 2A i 2 + y 2A j 2 + z 2A k 2 ⋅ i 1
i1
where: cos α 1 = ⇒ i 1 = i 2 ⋅ cos α 1
i2
i
cosα 2 = 1 ⇒ i 1 = j 2 ⋅ cosα 2
j2
i
cosα 3 = 1 ⇒ i 1 = k 2 ⋅ cosα 3
k2
( )
y1A = r2A ⋅ j1 = x 2A i 2 + y 2A j 2 + z 2A k 2 ⋅ j1 = x 2A cos β 1 + y 2A cos β 2 + z 2A cos β 3
z1A = r2A ⋅ k 1 = (x A
i + y 2A j 2 + z 2A
2 2 k )⋅ k
2 1 = x 2A cos γ 1 + y 2A cos γ 2 + z 2A cos γ 3
Analogically transformation from CS1 into CS2 gives: r2A = C12 ⋅ r1A
where
cos α 1 cos β 1 cos γ 1
C12 = C 21 = cosα 2
T
cos β 2 cos γ 2
cosα 3 cos β 3 cos γ 3
and C 21 ⋅ C T21 = I
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π π
γ1 = γ2 = γ3 = 0
2; 2;
cos ϕ − sin ϕ 0
cos ϕ − sin ϕ
C 21 = sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 ≡
and sin ϕ cos ϕ
0 0 1
Once the positional vector is expressed in matrix form and the orthogonal transformation is
used then the velocity and acceleration can be expressed in the same form.
If the point A does not change its position with respect to origin CS2 then r2A=const. and
therefore rɺ2A = 0 and ɺrɺ2A = 0 thus giving a1A = C
ɺɺ ⋅ r A
21 2
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2.4 PARTICLE IN CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM - r , ϕ , z
2.4.1 The position vector
in CS2 r2A = ρ ⋅ i 2 + z ⋅ k 2
ρ
In matrix form r = 0 2
A
z
Thus r1 = C 21 ⋅ r2 and since
A A
cos ϕ − sin ϕ 0
C 21 = sin ϕ cos ϕ 0
0 0 1
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2.4.3 The acceleration
in vector form a 2A =
dv d
=
dt dt
( d
dt
)
ρɺ ⋅ i 2 + ρ ⋅ ɺi 2 + zɺ ⋅ k 2 = ( ρɺ ⋅ i 2 + ρ ⋅ ϕɺ ⋅ j2 + zɺ ⋅ k 2 )
a 2A = ρɺɺ ⋅ i 2 + ρɺ ⋅ ω ⋅ j2 + ρɺ ⋅ ω ⋅ j2 + ρ ⋅ α ⋅ j2 + ρ ⋅ ω ⋅ ɺj2 + ɺɺ
z ⋅k2
dj 2
where: = ω z × j 2 = −i 2 ⋅ ω
dt
Thus giving acceleration a 2A = ρɺɺ ⋅ i 2 + 2 ρɺ ⋅ ϕɺ ⋅ j2 + ρ ⋅ ϕɺɺ ⋅ j2 − ρ ⋅ ω 2i 2 + ɺɺ
z ⋅k2
a 2A = ( ρɺɺ − ρ ⋅ ϕɺ 2 )i 2 + ( ρ ⋅ ϕɺɺ + 2 ρɺ ⋅ ϕɺ ) j2 + ɺɺ
z ⋅k2
in matrix form:
a 2AT = ρɺɺ − ρ ⋅ ϕɺ 2 ρ ⋅ ϕɺɺ + 2 ρɺ ⋅ ϕɺ ɺɺ z
cos ϕ − sin ϕ 0 ρɺɺ − ρϕɺ
2
a1A = C 21a 2A = sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 ρϕɺɺ + 2 ρɺϕɺ
0 0 1 ɺzɺ
In this presentation we associated angle ϕ with angular vector coordinate ϕ = ϕ ⋅ k1 = ϕ ⋅ k 2
thus angular velocity ϕɺ = ϕɺ ⋅ k1 = ω ⋅ k1 = ω
and angular acceleration ϕɺɺ = ϕɺɺ ⋅ k1 = ωɺ ⋅ k1 = α
a 2A = ( ρɺɺ − ρ ⋅ ϕɺ 2 )i 2 + ( ρ ⋅ ϕɺɺ + 2 ρɺ ⋅ ϕɺ ) j2 + ɺɺ
z ⋅k2
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and acceleration in CS2: a 2 = − ρ ⋅ ϕɺ i 2 + ρ ⋅ ϕɺɺ ⋅ j2
A 2
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2.5.2 Curvilinear motion
In case of curvilinear motion r = r(s) and s = s(t)
and velocity is expressed as:
dr dr ds dr ds
v= = ⋅ = ⋅ = τ ⋅ sɺ
dt dt ds ds dt
Where τ 2 = 1 as well as τ ≠ const. since the unit vector
changes its direction
The acceleration is:
dv d 1
a= = ( τ ⋅ sɺ) = τ ⋅ ɺɺ
s + n ⋅ sɺ 2 = aτ + a n
dt dt ρ
In case that:
a) sɺ = const. then ɺsɺ = 0
1
therefore a = n sɺ 2 = a n and the point moves along the circular trajectory with uniform
ρ
velocity .
b) sɺ ≠ const . then ɺsɺ ≠ 0 and motion is non-uniformly accelerated or
sɺ 2
ɺsɺ = const . where a = τɺsɺ + n motion is uniformly accelerated
ρ
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Graphical interpretation of harmonic motion can be represented as the rectification of all
kinematical quantities in time
harmonic motion
distamce x [m]
x, v , a
instant vlocity v [m/s]
2.5 instant accel. [m/s^2]
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
0
4
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
tim e
ωT = 2π
2π 1
Where T represents the period T = [s] thus frequency f =
[Hz]
ω T
Amplitude of the motion can be expressed from x0 = A sin ϕ and v 0 = Aω cos ϕ
v 02 sin ϕ x0ω
A = x 02 + tan ϕ = =
ω 2 and cos ϕ v0
Thus the kinematical quantities can be expressed as function of rotating vector rx, rv, ra
Where |rx| = A;
|rv| = Aω;
|ra| = Aω2
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2.6.1 Composition of harmonic motions in the same direction
a) If ω1 = ω2 = … = ωn = ω then
x1 = A1 sin(ωt + ϕ 1 ) = A1e i (ωt +ϕ1 )
x 2 = A2 sin(ωt + ϕ 2 ) = A2 e i (ωt +ϕ 2 )
.
.
x n = An sin(ωt + ϕ n ) = An e i (ωt +ϕ n )
x = Av ei (ω ⋅t +ϕv )
substituting for t = 0 we get :
x = Av e iϕ v
from where we get the final amplitude and phase shift
n n
Av = (∑ A j cos ϕ j ) 2 + (∑ A j sin ϕ j ) 2
j =1 j =1
∑A j =1
j sin ϕ j
and ϕ v = n
∑A j =1
j cos ϕ j
xn = An sin(ω n ⋅ t + ϕ n ) = An ei (ωn ⋅t +ϕ n )
The final motion composed from harmonic motions with different angular frequencies is not a
harmonic motion, since the resulting amplitude is not constant.
2πn1 2πn2 ω n
In case that ω1 = and ω 2 = and at the same time the ratio 1 = 1 is a rational
T T ω 2 n2
number the resulting motion is said to be periodic motion.
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2.6.2 Composition of two perpendicular harmonic motions
The motion of two particles moving in two perpendicular directions is defined by
equations:
x = A1 sin(ω1t + ϕ 1 ) = A1e i (ω1t +ϕ1 ) and
y = A2 sin(ω 2 t + ϕ 2 ) = A2 e i (ω 2t +ϕ 2 )
Investigating mobility of the set of particles would define the number of independent
coordinates that in our case is i = 1
The path of a particle A is not identical with path of the particle B and the relation
between them has to be described based on the joints involved. Thus except of the no-
penetration condition the support at A has to be taken into consideration as well as the supports
for the pulleys and body B.
Having the basic condition of the inextensible length we can evaluate the relation
between velocities of the particle A and B as a time derivative of the l. Thus
0 = v A + 2 ⋅ vB
Then we can conclude that for motion of the particle A in positive direction (away from the datum
v
in the direction of sA) the particle B will move upwards with velocity vB = A .
2
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3 SOLID BODY MOTION
Position
Point A is the reference point attached to the body associated
with moving CS2 (x2, y2, z2). Position of a point B is given as
r1B = r1A + r1BA
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thus the position of the point B in CS1 is
x1B = x1A + x 2BA cos α 1 + y 2BA cos α 2 + z 2BA cos α 3
Transformation matrix C21 contains the cosines of all angles among axes of coordinate system.
Since all vectors remain parallel vectors the angles between particular axes are constant. Therefore
C 21 = const.
Velocity
In vector form the velocity of point B is given as:
dr B d
v 1B = 1 = (r1A + r1BA ) = v 1A + v 1BA = v 1A since the r1BA = const.
dt dt
Acceleration
In vector form the acceleration of point B is given as:
dv B d
a1B = 1 = ( v1A + v1BA ) = vɺ 1A = a1A since v1BA = 0
dt dt
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Any point on the line specified by points O1 and O2
can be described as
rO3 = rO1 + λrO2O1
and the velocity of point O3 is obtained by the first
derivative of its position, thus
rO3 = v O3 = 0
Conclusion: There are infinity of points, laying on
the line specified by points O1 and O2, which have a
zero velocity.
The loci of all points that have a zero velocity is
called the axis of rotation.
The angular velocity that describes the rate of change of angular coordinate is expressed as
∆ϕ
the average value of angular velocity: ω aver =
∆t
∆ϕ dϕ
The instant angular velocity is given as: lim = =ω thus ω = ϕɺ = e ϕ ϕɺ
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
In the same way we can express the angular acceleration.
∆ω
The average acceleration is given as : α aver = and
∆t
∆ω dω
Instant acceleration is lim = =α
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
thus ɺ = e ϕ ϕɺɺ
α=ω
If the solid body rotates around fixed axis then
all point of the body have the same angular velocity
and acceleration.
The orientation of the linear velocity is given by right hand rule: Grabbing the axis of
rotation with our right hand in a way that the thumb points in the direction of angular velocity
then fingers would show the direction of velocity of the particular point of a body.
If the position of the point B is expressed in matrix form
r1B = C 21 ⋅ r2B
then the velocity is the first derivative of position, thus
d
(C 21r2B ) = Cɺ 21r2B + C 21rɺ2B
v 1B = rɺ1B =
dt
Since the point B is attached to and rotates with CS2 then
r2B = const. and its first derivative is equal to zero.
The velocity of the point B is given as v 1B = rɺ1B = C
ɺ rB = Ω ⋅C ⋅rB
21 2 1 21 2
and simultaneously aB =
d
(ω × ρ ) = α × ρ + ω × v B
dt
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Since the point B moves on the circular path the acceleration will have two components
Tangential component
i j k
aτB = α × ρ = α × rB = α x α y α z = i (α y rz − α z ry ) + j(α z rx − α x rz ) + k (α x ry − α y rx )
rx ry rz
and normal acceleration
i j k
a = ω × vB = ωx
n
B ω y ω z = i (ω y v z − ω z v y ) + j(ω z v x − ω x v z ) + k (ω x v y − ω y v x )
vx vy vz
ρ
B x y z B
and or
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There could be two situations:
a) ω = const. ⇒ α = 0
v2
Thus a τ = 0 and a n = ρ ⋅ω 2 =
ρ
These characteristics represent uniform motion of the particle on the circle and the
acceleration that occurs is the normal acceleration.
b) ω ≠ const. ⇒ α ≠ 0
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Acceleration – the graphical solution
A tangential and normal components of acceleration has to be recorded
The normal component of acceleration:
v2
a n = ρ ⋅ω 2 = thus from Euclid’s law about the height in the triangle follows
ρ
the graphical construction of normal acceleration.
The acceleration scale has to be calculated!!
s2 ⋅l2 l v2 s v2
Therefore a n = v v = s a ⋅ l an where l an = and sa =
sl ⋅ l ρ lρ sl
The tangential component of acceleration: α τ = α ⋅ ρ
The direction of tangential
component corresponds to the
direction of velocity hence further
analogy with velocity is obvious.
la a s
tan α aτ = τ = τ ⋅ l = α ⋅ k aτ
lρ ρ sa
where kaτ is a tangential
acceleration scale constant.
Since all points on the body
have the same angular acceleration
α we can conclude:
Sentence about tangential acceleration:
All arrowheads of tangential acceleration vectors, at the points on the rotating body, are at the
instant visible under the same angle αaτ from the fixed point of rotation (v=0).
τ
The total acceleration is given as a sum of its components a = a + a
n
aτ αρ α
tan β = n = 2 = 2 = k a
a ω ρ ω
where ka represents the scale constant of total acceleration.
Since α and ω are constant for all points on the body we conclude:
The total acceleration of the point on the rotating solid body makes an angle β from its normal
to the trajectory that remains constant for all points on the body.
l aτ α
And finally we can finalise based on the background: tan α a = =
l ρ − lan ma m − ω 2
l
−1
together with the angular kinematic quantities α, ω that are the same for all points of the body:
All arrowheads of total acceleration vectors of all points on the rotating body, are at the
instant visible under the same angle αa from the fixed point of rotation (v=0).
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3.3 UNIVERSAL PLANAR MOTION
If all points of a body move in planes parallel to the fixed (stationary) basic plane then we say
that the body moves in planar motion.
If the trajectories of all points that lay on the line perpendicular to that plane are planar curves
then the motion is a universal planar motion.
r BA = r B1 A1
, which
means that the vector changes its orientation but not its magnitude.
Therefore we can imagine the universal planar motion as a sequence of translation motion
followed by rotation that could be expressed in a short way as: GPM = TM + RM
Note: Both motion are happening in the same time and this approach is just imaginary.
or in matrix form:
x1B x1A cos ϕ − sin ϕ 0 x 2BA
B A sin ϕ
y1 = y1 + cos ϕ 0 y 2BA
z1B z1A 0 0 1 z 2BA
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3.3.2 The velocity
of a point B can be expressed:
in vector form: v 1B =
dt
(
d A
)
r1 + r1BA = v 1A + v 1BA
thus v 1B = v 1A + ω × r1BA
There is a rotation of the point B with respect to the point A thus we say that there is a
relative motion of the point B around point A.
Thus v 1BA = ω × r1BA
where ω represents the angular velocity of a relative motion with respect to the point A.
v BA v CA
The relative angular velocity is constant for all points of the body thus: ω = = = const.
BA C A
Then we can get the components of velocity:
v xB v xA 0 −ω 0 x BA
B A
v y = v y + ω 0 0 y BA
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1
Graphical solution:
The velocity of a point A is known, thus we need to find the velocity at the point B based on the
vector equation: v 1B = v 1A + ω × r1BA
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3.3.3 The pole of motion
If ω ≠ 0 then there exists just one point on the body that has zero velocity at the instant and
belongs to the moving body (or the plane attached to the moving body). This point is known as
the instantaneous centre of rotation or the pole of motion.
Thus 0 = ω × v 1A + ω × (ω × r1PA )
we get 0 = ω × v 1A + ( −ω 2 r1PA )
i1 j1 k1
r1
PA
=
ω × v 1A
ω2
=
ω × τv1A
ω2
1
= 20
ω
0
ω
1
[
ω = 2 i 1 (−ωv yA ) + j1 (ωv xA ) ]
v xA v yA 0
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Graphical solution:
Based on v 1PA = − v 1A and
v 1PB = − v 1B
The velocity vA is known and
velocity at the point B is
v 1B = v 1A + v 1BA
thus if we know the velocity we
know the direction of a normal to
the trajectory.
in matrix form
vxB 0 −ω 0 cos ϕ − sin ϕ 0 x BP
B
v y = ω 0 0 sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 y BP
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 2
v 1B = (v ) + (v )
B 2
1x
B 2
1y = (− ωy ) + (ωx )
BP 2
1
BP 2
1 =ω (y ) + (x )
BP 2
1
BP 2
1 = ωr1BP
v1B
ω=
Then the angular velocity is r1BP
From this result follows the interpretation for graphical solution:
v1B s ⋅l 1
ω= = v v = k v ⋅ tan α v tan α v = ω
r1BP
sl ⋅ l r BP kv
thus giving
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Conclusion:
All arrowheads of velocity vectors, for particular points of a rotating body, are visible from the
rotation (vP=0) under the same angle αv at the instant moment.
instantaneous centre of rotation
v 1B = v 1A + v 1BA
Where the acceleration of relative motion of a point B around point A will have two
components since the relative motion is the rotation with a fixed point at A.
Thus a1BA = α × r1BA + ω × v 1BA in vector form. The acceleration in the matrix form is a
result of derivation:
r1B = r1A + r1BA = r1A + C 21 ⋅ r2BA
v 1B = v 1A + Ω1 ⋅ C 21 ⋅ r2BA
a1B = a1A + Ω ɺ ⋅ C ⋅ r BA + Ω ⋅ C
1 21 2 1
ɺ ⋅ r BA + Ω ⋅ C ⋅ rɺ BA
21 2 1 21 2
in case of solid body rɺ2 = 0 since the distance between points A and B does not change, thus
BA
0 −α z αy
where A 1 = α z 0 −αx represents the half symmetrical matrix of angular
− α y αx 0
acceleration
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Graphically
To find the acceleration we will use the leading equation
a1B = a1A + a1BA
The acceleration of a point A is
given and acceleration of the relative
motion of point B is described by two
components (tangential and normal) in
the respective directions to the path of
the point B.
The normal component of the
acceleration aBA is found from the known
velocity vBA (graphically by means of
Euclid triangle).
Thus at the instant moment the angle
β between the final acceleration of the
relative motion and the normal to the
path of relative motion is given by
a BA α
tan β = τBA = 2 = const.
an ω
Conclusion:
The final acceleration of the relative motion around point A makes an angle β with the
normal component of the acceleration that is constant for all points of the body moving with
relative motion.
In a similar way we can observe the tangential component of acceleration and the final
acceleration. Thus this angle is given by:
l a BA α ⋅ s l ⋅ s v2 l v2
tan α a = τ
= where l ρ = .
l ρ − l a BA s a ( s v2 − ω 2 sl2 ) lan
n
Since α and ω are constant in the given time interval for all points of the rigid body then even
the tanαa=const.
Conclusion:
The end points of tangent components of acceleration for all points on the body are seen
from the centre of rotation under the same angle αa at the instant moment.
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3.3.5 The instantenous centre of acceleration – the pole of acceleration
Similarly as for the pole of velocity P there is a pole of acceleration Q, the point that has zero
acceleration at the instant.
The acceleration for this pole Q is given by:
a1Q = a1A + a1QA
τ + a 1n
QA
shows that these two expressions are different, thus the two poles are different and we can
conclude:
The pole of acceleration is not identical with pole of velocity
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3.4 CENTRE OF THE TRAJECTORY CURVATURE
ω 2
ω×aA −α× vA
And for the pole associated with the moving plane v PH = v A +
ω2
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The task is to investigate the
velocity and acceleration of the
point or define the velocity and
acceleration of the whole body. The
points of the moving body are
drawing trajectories thus at the
instant each point of the body is
characterized by its normal to the
motion and the radius of its
trajectory.
While constructing the normal
component of acceleration
1
n sɺ 2 = a n
ρ
the centre of curvature of the
trajectory is needed to identify the
radius ρ.
To find the centre of curvature
we can use different methods.
ω r+s 1 1
=κ = sin ϑ ⇒ + sin ϑ = κ
vπ rs s r
which represents the Euler-Savary equation
used in analytical solution to find the centre of
curvature.
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b) Bobillier graphical method
The angle between the normal of a point and axis of collineation is the same as the angle
measured between the normal of the other point and tangent to loci of pole positions in opposite
direction.
2. The two pairs of conjugate points A,SA, and B, SB are known and the centre of
curvature of the trajectory of the point C has to be identified.
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3.5 COMBINED MOTION
The mechanism consisting of number of bodies undergo either planar or space motion that
could be described as a combination of the relative motion between bodies and the
driving/carrying motion of the actuator of the system with respect to the reference frame.
We can imagine
=
Final motion Relative motion Driving motion
31 32 21
This could be recorded by a symbolic equation 31 = 32 + 21
And kinematical quantities can be expressed for identified point B as
Thus B
v 31 = v 32
B
+ v 21
B
But
B
a 31 = a 32
B
+ a 21
B
+ a cor
B
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3.5.1 Kinematical quantities by means of combined motion
The final motion of a point B
symbolically:
31 = 32 + 21 as well as
31 = 34 + 41
The positional vector of a point B is: r1B = r1A + r1BA = r1A + (i 2 x 2BA + j 2 y 2BA )
ɺj = ω × j
2 21 2
Substituting and rearranging we receive the equation of final velocity at the point B expressed
in CS1 v 1B = v 1A + ω 21 × (i 2 x 2BA + j 2 y 2BA ) + i 2 v BA
x 2 + j2 v y 2
BA
where
Thus
+ ω 21 × (i 2vxBA
2 + j2v y 2 ) + i 2 a x 2 + j2 a y 2
BA BA BA
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Where the expression
B
a 21 = a1A + α 21 × (i 2 x2BA + j2 y2BA ) + ω 21 × [ω 21 × (i 2 x2BA + j2 y2BA )] represents the acceleration
of the driving motion at the point B
aCB = 2ω 21 × (i 2 vxBA
2 + j2v y 2 ) represents the Coriolis acceleration due to the driving angular
BA
Finally we can conclude that while expressing the final acceleration by means of combined
motion (driving and relative motion) of bodies a component called Coriolis acceleration has to be
introduced.
Coriolis acceleration expresses the change of direction of relative velocity due to rotational
driving motion and in the same time the change magnitude of driving velocity due to relative
motion at the reference point.
Analysing the equation expressing the Coriolis acceleration:
The Coriolis acceleration has non zero value aC ≠ 0 if:
1) ωdr ≠ 0 the driving motion exists in the form of rotation, GPM, spherical motion
or GSM
2) vrel ≠ 0 the relative motion between bodies exists
3) ωdr ┴ vrel the angle between angular and linear velocities is different from 0, and π
The direction and orientation of Coriolis acceleration is given by rotating the relative velocity in
the direction of the driving motion by an angle π/2.
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3.5.5 Finding the pole of motion by means of combined motion
Conclusion:
The pole of final motion, relative motion and driving motion lies on the same line.
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3.6 SPHERICAL MOTION OF A BODY
The points on the body have constant distance from the center O,
thus their trajectories are spherical curves, curves lying on spheres
with common center O.
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The total angular velocity in rectangular CS1 is recorded as ω = ω xi + ω y j + ω zk
d d de dω
The angular acceleration: α= ω = ( eω ⋅ ω ) = ω ω + eω
dt dt dt dt
where
deω
=ψɺ × eω = α1 represents the change of the direction of the angular velocity ω
dt
The direction of α1 is perpendicular to the plane containing ψɺ and e ω while the orientation is
given by the right hand rule.
dω
The second component of angular acceleration α 2 = eω lies on the natural axis of rotation
dt
Thus α = α1 + α 2 therefore the direction of the final angular acceleration does not
coincide with the direction of total angular velocity.
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3.7 UNIVERSAL SPACE MOTION OF A BODY
Definition:
The trajectories of points on the body moving with universal space motion are a universal
space curves. Thus the type of motion is referred to as universal space motion.
Similarly as we described universal planar motion, we can imagine that the body’s final motion
consists of body’s translation and spherical motion, while the translation and rotation are the
motions described with respect to reference point on the body.
a1M = a1A + Ω
ɺ C r MA + Ω C
1 21 2
ɺ MA = a A + A r MA + Ω 2 r MA
1 21r2 1 1 1 1 1
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4 SYSTEM OF BODIES
The strategy of evaluating kinematical quantities for a single body can be extended as
well for a system of bodies. As it was already mentioned the universal motion of a
particular body can be by described by means of combined motion based on the relative
and driving motion. Both motions, the driving and relative motion, could be of any type -
translation, rotation, and universal planar motion, etc.
Thus the kinematical quantities for a system of bodies can be expressed in the same way.
Prior to the description of the motion for a particular body it is useful if not necessary to
analyse the whole system, describe the kinematical pair between bodies, identify the
mobility of the system, identify the actuator of the system thus define the independent
coordinate, and finally define the type of motion of each body in the system.
M
represented in vector form by equation: v 31 = ω32 × r1M + ω 21 × r1M where M
v 31 = ω31 × r1M
Thus the final angular velocity is the sum of angular velocity of relative and driving motion.
The vector of final angular velocity coincides with the instantaneous axis of rotation.
d d
The total angular acceleration α 31 = ( ω31 ) = ( e31 ⋅ ω31 )
dt dt
Substituting for final angular velocity
d d d
α 31 = ( ω32 + ω 21 ) = ω32 + ω 21
dt dt dt
d d
Then the total angular acceleration is α 31 = e32 ⋅ ω32 + e21 ⋅ ω21
dt dt
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d de dω
Where (e32 ⋅ ω32 ) = 32 ω32 + e32 32 = ( ω 21 × e32 ) ω32 + e32α32 = ω 21 × ω32 + α32
dt dt dt
d dω
and (e 21 ⋅ ω21 ) = e21 21 = e21 ⋅ α 21 = α 21
dt dt
therefore the final acceleration is given as
α 31 = α 32 + α 21 + ω 21 × ω32
Thus the kinematics quantities for a particular point B can be expressed in vector form:
for position: r1B = r1A + r1BA
B
v 31 = v 32
B
+ v 21
B
for velocity
B
v 31 = ω32 × r1BA + ω 21 × r1B
for acceleration:
B
a31 = a32
B
+ a 21
B
+ acor
B
B
a31 ( ) ( ) (
= ω32 × ω32 × r1BA + α 32 × r1BA + ω 21 × ω 21 × r1B + α 21 × r1B + 2 ω 21 × v32
BA
)
or in matrix form
r1B = r1A + r1BA
for position: r1B = C21 ⋅ r2A + C21 ⋅ r2BA where r2BA = C32 ⋅ r3BA
r1B = C21 ⋅ r2A + C21 ⋅ C32 ⋅ r3BA
for velocity:
B
v 31 ( )
= Ω 21 C21 ⋅ r2A + C21 ⋅ C32 ⋅ r3BA + C21 ⋅ Ω32 ⋅ C32 ⋅ r3BA
for acceleration:
B
a31 (
= C21 ⋅ A32 + C21 ⋅ Ω32
2
) ( )( )
⋅ r2BA + A 21 + Ω221 ⋅ r1A + r1BA + 2 ⋅ Ω21 ⋅ C21 ⋅ Ω32 ⋅ C32 ⋅ r3BA
In both case the resulting motion is rotation with angular velocity ω31
Mechanical engineer faces problems related to simultaneous rotations around parallel axis in
number of applications such as the gearbox, planetary gearbox, etc.
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