MODULE 9

Designing and Planning Phase

(Appropriate Research Design and Population)

Module Description
A research design ensures that the evidence obtained effectively address the
research problem as unambiguously as possible. It allows researchers to hone in on
research methods that are suitable for the subject matter and assures the success of the
study. An impactful research design usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases
trust in the accuracy of collected data.
The module provides the various concepts related to the use of appropriate design
in research. It also presents the different methods in the selection of subjects of the study.

Learning Outcome
1. Determine the appropriate research design.
2. Develop sampling plan.

Module Content
1. Determine the Appropriate Research Design
Essential Elements of the Research Methodology:
A. Research Design. A very important aspect of research methodology which
describes the research mode (whether it is qualitative or quantitative research
or if the researcher will use a specific type, e.g. descriptive, survey, historical,
case study or experimental).
B. Research Locale. This discusses the place or setting of the study. It briefly
describes the place where the study is to be conducted.
C. Respondents of the Study. This describes the target population and the
sample frame that comprise the respondents of the study.
D. Instrument of the Study. This explains the specific type of research
instrument that will be used, such as questionnaire, checklist, questionnaire-
checklist, interview schedule, teacher-made test and the like.
E. Validation of and establishing reliability. Two of the characteristics of a
good instrument, validity and reliability, should be established before the
research instrument is utilized. IT has to pass the tests for validity and
reliability.
F. Statistical Treatment. One of the many ways of establishing the objectivity
of the findings of the research is subjecting the data to different but
appropriate statistical formulas and processes.
G. Notes in Chapter III. Published or unpublished materials that are used as
references in the chapter must be mentioned to give due credit to avoid the
unethical practice of plagiarism. For uniformity purposes, the chapter starts
with an introductory paragraph.

RESEARCH DESIGNS
1. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative research is the traditional method which refers to a general
set of orderly disciplined procedures to acquire information. It utilizes
deductive reasoning to generate predictions that are tested in the real world.
By “systematic”, it means that the researcher progresses logically through a
series of steps, according to a pre-specified plan of action. Quantitative
researcher gathers empirical evidence –evidence that is rooted in objective
reality and gathered directly or indirectly through the senses. Checking for the
presence or absence of skin inflammation, determining the anxiety level of a
patient and measuring the weight of the newborn infant are all examples of
empirical observations.
The degree to which research findings can be generalized to individuals
other than those who participated in the study (referred to as generality of the
research) is a widely-used criterion for assessing the quality of quantitative
studies. It is based on the concepts of manipulation and control of phenomena
and the verification of results validating empirical data. In a quantitative study,
therefore, the researcher is concerned with the use of numbers and statistical
analyses.
Quantitative research designs are classified as either experimental or
non-experimental. (Please refer to table 1).

Experimental Designs Non-experimental Designs

True Experimental Design
• Pretest-posttest Control
Design
• Posttest Only Control Group
• Solomon Four Group
Quasi-experimental Designs
• Non-equivalent Group
Designs
• Time Series
Action Studies
Comparative Studies
Correlational Studies
Developmental Studies
Evaluation Studies
Meta- analysis
Methodological Studies
Needs Assessment Studies
Secondary Analysis Studies
 Pre-experimental Designs Survey Studies
• One-shot case study
• One group Pretest-Posttest

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Experimental research is concerned primarily with cause and effect
relationships, wherein all experimental studies involve manipulation or control
of the independent variables (causes) and measurement of the dependent
variables (effects). This utilizes the principle of research known as method of
difference. This means that the effect of a single variable applied to the
situation can be assessed and the difference likewise determined.
In experimental research there are variables that are not part of the study
focus but are believed to influence study outcomes. These are called
intervening or extraneous variables. These variables are part of the study
limitations. These intervening variables are labeled threats to internal and
external validity.
• Internal Validity – the degree to which changes in the independent
variable can be attributed to the independent variable.
Threats to internal validity:
a. Selection bias – results when the subjects or respondents
are not randomly selected.
b. Maturation – happens when the experiment is conducted
across a longer period of time during which most of the
subjects undergo physical, emotional and or
psychological changes.
c. History – happens during the conduct of the study when
unusual affects the result of the experiment.
d. Instrumentation change – the instrument used in
gathering the data must not be changed or replaced
during the conduct of the study. It must also be the
instrument used in all of the subjects.
e. Mortality – one or more subjects die or drop or transfer
f. Testing – threat may occur in studies wherein a pretest is
given or where subjects have knowledge on baseline
data.
• External Validity – the degree to which the changes in the
dependent variable can be attributed to the extraneous variables.
Threats to external validity:
a. Experimenter effect – results when the characteristics of
the researcher affect the behavior of the subjects or
respondents.
b. Hawthorne effect – occurs when the respondents or
subjects respond artificially to the treatment because
 they know they are being observed as part of research
study.
c. Measurement effect – also called reactive effects of the
pretest, as part of this occurs when subjects have been
sensitized to the treatment by taking the pretest. This
sensitization may affect the posttest results.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
A. True experimental designs. A design is considered a true experiment
if the following criteria are present: the researcher manipulates the
experimental variables; there must be at least one experimental and
one comparison or control group; and subjects are randomly assigned,
either to the comparison or experimental group. The control group is a
group that does not receive the treatment.
1. Pretest-posted controlled group design
- Subjects are randomly assigned to groups
- A pretest is given to both groups
- The experimental group receives the treatment while the
control group does not.
- A posttest is given to both groups
2. Posttest-only controlled group design
- Subjects are randomly assigned to groups
- The experimental group receives the treatment while the
control group does not receive the treatment
- A posttest is given to both groups
3. Solomon four-group design. Considered the most prestigious
experimental design. It minimizes threats to internal and external
validity.
- Subjects are randomly assigned to one or four groups
- Two of the groups (experimental group 1 and control group 1)
are pretested
- The other two groups (experimental group 2 and control group
2) receive routine or no treatment
- A posttest is given to all four groups

B. Quasi-experimental design. A design in which there is either no

control group or in which subjects are not randomly assigned to groups.
1. Non-equivalent controlled group design – similar to the pretest -
posttest control group design except that there is no random
assignment of subjects to the experimental and control groups.
2. Time-series design – the researcher periodically observes or
measures the subjects.
3. Pre-experimental design. Considered very weak, as the researcher
has little control over the research.
 TYPES OF NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
1. Survey Studies. The investigations are conducted through self-report.
Surveys generally ask respondents to report on their attitudes, opinions,
perceptions or behaviors.
2. According to Time Orientation
a. Retrospective - the dependent variable is identified in the present and an
attempt is made to identify the independent variable that occurred in the
past.
b. Cross-sectional - data are collected at a single point in time. The design
requires the subjects who are at different points in the process of moving
through an experience.
c. Longitudinal – unlike in the cross-sectional survey, the researcher collects
data from the same people at different times.
3. Purpose or objective
a. Descriptive - This is utilized for the purpose of accurately portraying a
population that was chosen because of some specific characteristics. It is
also used to determine the extent or direction of attitudes and behaviors.
b. Comparative – This is used to compare and contrast representative
samples from two or more groups of subjects in relation to certain
designated variables that occur in normal conditions. The results obtained
from these analyses are frequently not generalized to a population.
c. Correlational – This design is used to investigate the direction and
magnitude of relationships among variables in a particular population.
Likewise, it is also designed to study the changes in one characteristic or
phenomenon which corresponds to the changes in another or with another.
d. Evaluative – This design involves making judgment of worth or value. It
allows the researcher to delineate, obtain and provide information that is
useful for judging decision alternatives when conducting a program or
service.

2. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research or the naturalistic method of inquiry of research, deals
with the issue of human complexity by exploring it directly. In this type, the
emphasis is on the complexity of humans, their ability to shape and create their
own experience and the idea that truth is a composite of reality. Naturalistic
investigations place heavy emphasis on understanding human experience as it
is lived, usually through the careful collection and analysis of data that are
narrative and subjective.
Qualitative research focuses on gaining insights on and an understanding
of an individual’s perception of events. It is concerned with in-depth
descriptions of people or events and the individual’s interpretation of events
and circumstances is of importance. Data are collected through such methods
as unstructured interviews and participant observation. The task of the
researcher is to synthesize the patterns and themes in the data rather than
focusing on the testing of hypotheses. The qualitative researcher is not limited
by existing theories but rather must be open to new ideas and new theories.
Lastly, the researcher does not have to be concerned with numbers and
complicated statistical analyses.

COMMON TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

a. Phenomenological study. This examines human experiences (lived
experiences) through descriptions provided by subjects or
respondents. The goal is to describe the meaning that experiences hold
for each subject. In here, the researcher has to emphasize with the
experience of the subjects as if he is the one experiencing the
phenomenon.
b. Ethnographic study. This involves the collection and analysis of data
about cultural groups or minorities. In type of research, the researcher
frequently lives with the people and becomes a part of their culture.
Therein, he personally immerses and gets involved in the day-to-day
activities of the subjects. The rituals, ceremonies, norms, traditions
being undertaken in the setting will actually be experienced by the
researcher. He will more or less share the same feelings of the cultural
groups.
c. Historical study. This concerns the identification, location, evaluation
and synthesis of data from the past. This is not limited to locating the
facts in the past but also involves relating them to the present and to
the future. Data for historical research are usually found on documents
or in relics and artifacts. These documents may include a wide range of
printed materials. Relics and artifacts, such as equipment used by
nurses during WWW II are items of physical evidence. Historical data
can also be obtained through oral reports.
d. Case study. It is an in-depth examination of people or group of people
or an institution. Some of its purposes are to gain insights into a little-
known problem; provide background data for broader studies; and
explain socio-psychological and socio-cultural processes. A case study
also involves a comprehensive and extensive examination of a
particular individual, group or situation, over a period of time.

PHASES IN QUALITATIVE STUDY (Polit, 2006)

1. Orientation and overview. A qualitative researcher enters the
study not knowing what is not known. Therefore, the first phase is to
determine what is salient about the phenomenon or culture of interest.
2. Focused exploration. This involves a focused scrutiny and in-depth
exploration of the aspects of the phenomenon judged to be salient. The
 questions asked and the types of people invited are shaped based on
the outcome of the first phase.
3. Confirmation and closure. The researcher undertakes efforts to
prove that his findings are trustworthy, often going back and discussing
his understanding of it with study participants.

3. MIXED METHOD
The term “mixed methods” refers to an emergent methodology of research
that advances the systematic integration, or “mixing,” of quantitative and
qualitative data within a single investigation or sustained program of inquiry.
The basic premise of this methodology is that such integration permits a more
complete and synergistic utilization of data than do separate quantitative and
qualitative data collection and analysis.

Mixed methods research originated in the social sciences and has recently
expanded into the health and medical sciences including fields such as
nursing, family medicine, social work, mental health, pharmacy, allied health,
and others. In the last decade, its procedures have been developed and refined
to suit a wide variety of research questions (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2011).
These procedures include advancing rigor, offering alternative mixed methods
designs, specifying a shorthand notation system for describing the designs to
increase communication across fields, visualizing procedures through
diagrams, noting research questions that can particularly benefit from
integration, and developing rationales for conducting various forms of mixed
methods studies.

The core characteristics of a well-designed mixed methods research include

the following:

1. Collecting and analyzing both quantitative (closed-ended) and qualitative

(open-ended) data.
2. Using rigorous procedures in collecting and analyzing data appropriate to
each method’s tradition, such as ensuring the appropriate sample size for
quantitative and qualitative analysis.
3. Integrating the data during data collection, analysis, or discussion.
4. Using procedures that implement qualitative and quantitative
components either concurrently or sequentially, with the same sample or
with different samples.
5. Framing the procedures within philosophical/theoretical models of
research, such as within a social constructionist model that seeks to
understand multiple perspectives on a single issue—for example, what
patients, caregivers, clinicians, and practice staff would characterize as
“high quality treatment”

Uses of Mixed Methods Research Designs

1. Validate findings using quantitative and qualitative data sources.
2. Use qualitative data to explore quantitative findings.
3. Develop survey instruments.
 4. Use qualitative data to augment a quantitative outcomes study.
5. Involve community-based stakeholders.

Advantages of Mixed Method:

1. Compares quantitative and qualitative data.
2. Reflects participants’ point of view.
3. Fosters scholarly interaction.
4. Provides methodological flexibility.
5. Collects rich, comprehensive data.

2. Identifying the Population to be Studied

Respondent/s are individuals or a group/s of people the serve/s as the
source of information during data collection. The population is a complete set of
persons or objects that possess some common characteristics that are of interest
to the researcher. There are two groups of population: the target population and
the accessible population. The target population is composed of the entire group
of people or objects to which the researcher wishes to generalize the findings of
the study while the accessible population is the study population.

WAYS OF DETERMINING THE STATISTIC OF THE SAMPLE (Size)

An important task of the researcher is to determine the acceptable sample
size. The larger the sample, the more reliable is the result of the study. Hence, it
is advisable to have a large enough sample, for it will yield reliable.

Factors to consider in determining the sample size

1. Homogeneity of the population. The higher the degree of homogeneity of
the population, the smaller the sample size that can be utilized.
2. Degree of precision desired by the researcher. The larger the sample size,
the higher is the precision or accuracy of results.
3. Type of sampling procedure. Probability sampling utilizes smaller sample
sizes than non-probability sampling.

Considerations in determining the sample size

1. Sample sizes as small as 30 are generally adequate to ensure that the
sampling distribution of the mean will approximate the normal curve (Shott,
1990)
2. When the total population is equal to or less than 100, this same number may
serve as the sample size. This is called universal sampling.
 3. Slovin’s formula is used to compute for sample size”

N= N______
1 + Ne 2

Where: n = sample size

N = population size
E = desired margin of error

4. The following are acceptable sizes for different types of research

Descriptive research = 10 – 20% may be required
Correlational research = 30 subjects or respondent
Comparative research = 15 subjects per group
Experimental Design = 15 – 30 subjects per group

KINDS OF SAMPLING (Beck, 2004)

1. Probability sampling. This is a type of sampling in which all the members of
the entire population are given a chance of being selected. This is also termed
as scientific sampling.
1.1. Simple random sampling. A method of choosing samples in which all
the members of the population are given an equal chance of being
selected. In is an unbiased way of selection, as samples are drawn by
chance. There are various ways of getting the samples through the
simple random sampling. These include the roulette wheel, the
fishbowl technique and the use of the table of random numbers.
1.2. Stratified random sampling. Stratified random sampling is a method of
sampling that involves the division of a population into smaller sub-groups
known as strata. In stratified random sampling, or stratification, the strata are
formed based on members' shared attributes or characteristics such as
income or educational attainment. Stratified random sampling is also called
proportional random sampling or quota random sampling (Hayes, 2020).
1.3. Cluster sampling. It is a probability sampling technique where
researchers divide the population into multiple groups (clusters) for
research. Researchers then select random groups with a simple random
or systematic random sampling technique for data collection and data
analysis. There are two ways to classify this sampling technique. The
first way is based on the number of stages followed to obtain the cluster
sample, and the second way is the representation of the groups in the
entire cluster. In most cases, sampling by clusters happens over
multiple stages. A stage is considered to be the step taken to get to the
desired sample. We can divide this technique into single-stage, two-
stage, and multiple stages.
1.4. Systematic Sampling. Systematic sampling is a type of probability
sampling method in which sample members from a larger population
 are selected according to a random starting point but with a fixed,
periodic interval. This interval, called the sampling interval, is
calculated by dividing the population size by the desired sample size.
2. Non-probability sampling. A process of selecting respondents in which not
all members of the entire population are given a chance of being selected as
samples. There are cases that a sample is given priority instead of other
members. This is also termed as non-scientific sampling.
2.1. Convenience sampling. It is also called accidental or incidental
sampling. Example. After you have already determined the size of the
sample from your population of student nurses, the student nurses who
are at the moment present during the research visit will be chosen as
respondents.
2.2. Quota sampling. This is somewhat similar to stratified sampling in
which the population is divided into homogenous strata and selecting
sample elements from each of the stratum. Example: the researcher
desires to have 50 male students, the first 50 male students who are
approached by the researcher would be asked to participate in the
survey in case.
2.3. Purposive sampling. It involves handpicking of subjects. This is also
called judgmental sampling. Example in a study about diabetic patients,
the researcher uses a list of diabetic hospital patients and chooses the
necessary number of respondents.

KEY POINTS:
• The essential elements of research methodology are: research
design, research locale, respondents of the study, instrument of the
study, validation of and establishing reliability and statistical
treatment.
• Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Method are the three types of
research designs.
• Experimental design is a quantitative research that is concerned
primarily with cause and effect relationships.
• There are various factors to consider in determining the sample
size. These are: homogeneity of the population, degree of precision
desired by the researcher and type of sampling procedure
• Probability sampling and nonprobability sampling are the two main
types of sampling. Probability sampling includes simple random
sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling and
systematic sampling. Nonprobability sampling includes
convenience sampling, quota sampling and purposive sampling.