Undergraduate Physics

Electrostatics

By Subham Karmakar
January 15, 2021
CONTENTS Electrostatics

Contents
1 Three Experimental Facts 1
1.1 Existence of electric charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Coulomb’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Principle of Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Charge Distributions 3
2.1 Discrete charge distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Continuous Linear charge distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Continuous Surface charge distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4 Continuous Volume charge distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3 Divergence of Electric Field 6

4 Integral form of Gauss’s Law 9

4.1 Finding Electric field due to cylindrically symmetric charge distribution. . . . . . 10
4.1.1 Cylindrical polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.1.2 Cylindrical symmetric charge distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2 Finding electric field due to planar symmetric charge distribution. . . . . . . . . 13

5 Curl of electric field 13

6 Potential Energy 16
6.1 Potential energy of two-point charge distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6.2 Potential energy of three-point charge distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.3 Potential energy of Discrete charge distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.4 Potential due to continuous charge distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

7 Multi-pole Expansion 20
7.1 Monopoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7.2 Dipoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7.2.1 Potential at any (r, θ) polar coordinate due to a dipole. . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.2.2 Electric field at any (r, θ) polar coordinate due to a dipole. . . . . . . . . 23
7.3 Quadruple Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

8 Conductors 24
8.1 Properties of conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
8.2 Electric field across a conducting surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
8.2.1 Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
8.2.2 Electric field just outside the surface of a conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

9 Poisson’s Equation 27

10 Laplace Equation 28
10.1 Solutions of Laplace equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

11 Uniqueness theorem 28
11.1 First uniqueness theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
11.2 Second uniqueness theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
11.3 Method of Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

1
12 Dielectrics 31
12.1 Non-polar Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
12.2 Polar Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
12.3 Dielectric polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

13 Electric field due to an uniformly polarized dielectric 33

14 Linear Dielectric 33

15 Displacement field 34
 Electrostatics

1 Three Experimental Facts

The whole theory of electrostatics is based on three very simple facts, that can only be verified
experimentally.

1.1 Existence of electric charge

There are two kinds of charge, of exactly opposite natures (in terms of electrical properties).
In our convention, we say one is positive and the other is negative, in the sense that if both of
them are present in equal amounts in a system, we will say that the system is electrically
neutral.

1.2 Coulomb’s Law

In 18th century, Mr.Coulomb did some experiments with some charged materials and he claimed
that electrostatic force between two charged particles is directly proportional to the
product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the
charges and the direction of the force is along the line joining the two point charges.
Note that the charges should be point charges, and by point charges I intend to
mean its dimensions are negligible "w.r.t to the distance between them".
So for two point charges, q1 and q2

q1 q2
F ∝
r2

where F is the magnitude of the electrostatic force and r is the distance between the charges.
Hence,

q1 q2
F =k (1)
r2

In vector form, if the position vector of q1 is r~1 and that of q2 is r~2 ,

q1 q2
F~ = k 3 ~r (2)
|~r|

where, ~r = r~1 ∼ r~2

Contradiction of Coulomb’s Law with special theory of relativity

Initially it seems that, okay! so here we keep two charged materials and we separate them such
that the distance is very large compared to the linear dimensions of the charges, then we can
say that both of them applies equal and opposite force as given in eq.(2). Now the question
arises that, does both the charges exert forces instantaneously?
If so, then it directly implies that the information of the presence of another charge is
send to the other charge, obviously with speed > c, which can’t be true because the universal
speed limit is c. Now how to fix this problem.
This led to the development of a very interesting concept, the theory of fields.
We will now say that, a charge exerts force on another charge in a two-step process.

1
1.3 Principle of Superposition Electrostatics

a) First, the charge creates something called electric field. This electric field now spreads out
in all directions with speed = c.
b) Second, this electric field applies force to tge other charge. If the position vector of the other
~ r), then force exerted on the charge is
charge q is ~r and electric field at that ~r is E(~

~ = q E(~
F ~ r) (3)

In some texts, the electric field is defined as

~
~ =F
E (4)
q

which seems mathematically correct, but if we follow the process how the concept of electric
field is introduced, eq.(4) sounds bit weird. Eq.(4) tells that there already exists a force
between the charges (with no specification of time mentioned) and hence at the position of
the other charge q we define something called electric field, which implies that the defining
electric field was useless.
On the other hand, eq.(3) tells that there exists something called electric field which spreads
out from a charge which speed c to the location of the other charge and then applies force on
it, which sounds reasonable. So eq.(4) is a wrong way of defining the electric field.
Here I want to emphasize that the electric field E ~ (which essentially is a vector field), is
a real physical quantity like charges. Before the discovery of special theory of relativity,
it was believed that electric and magnetic fields are ”stresses and strains” of something called
ether, which they thought filled up the whole space and like sound (vibrations of material
medium) they tried to figure a model to explain the propagation of electromagnetic wave as
vibrations of ether. However, the theory of ether was rejected by Albert Einstein .

Expression for Electric Field:

From eq.(2) and eq.(3) we get the expression of electric field due to source charge q 1 as
~ = k q ~r
E (5)
|~r|3

where, ~r is the position vector of field point considering q at the origin.

1
In MKS system of units, k = .
4π0
In CGS units, Mr. Coulomb defined the units of charges in esu, such that he could define k=1,
and he did so.

1.3 Principle of Superposition

It’s our luck that electrostatic field (electric field due to charges at rest) follows the principle
of superposition, which gave rise to some simple process of evaluation of electric field due to a
distribution of source charges at rest.
For electric field at some field point due some distribution of source charges it states that field
at a point due a source charge, is not effected by the presence of any other charges.
So, for evaluating the net electric field at a point, we can simply do vector addition of all the
electric field vectors due to individual charges, at the field point.
1
Warning: q in eq.(5) is different from the q in eq.(3) and eq.(4). In eq.(5) q is the
source charge, while that in eq.(3) and (4) is the other charge at field point.

2
 Electrostatics

2 Charge Distributions
2.1 Discrete charge distribution
Discrete charge distribution is one where we can count charges individually, like 1,2,3,4,. . . ,N.
So consider such distribution having N charges, and consider a reference frame having x, y and z
coordinate axes. Let r~i be the position vector of ith charge qi and our field point P has position
vector ~r. So the displacement vector from ith charge to the P is ~r − r~i .
Electric field at P due to ith charge is

~i = k qi
E (~r − r~i ) (6)
|~r − r~i |3

By principle of superposition we get the net electric field at P as

N
~ r) = k
X qi
E(~ (~r − r~i ) (7)
|~r − r~i |3
i=1

In the following charge distribution we will use the same idea, as the form of electric field in
eq.(7) remains the same in all the other cases.

2.2 Continuous Linear charge distribution

Here the charge distribution is such that any small element2 of the wire has charge. If the width
of such wire is very less compared to the distance from the field point, then this charge
distribution can be considered as linear charge distribution.
We define linear charge density as,

dq 0
λ(r~0 ) = (8)
dl0

Note that λ is a function of r~0 .

λ(r~0 )dl0
∴ ~ =k
dE (~r − r~0 )
|~r − r~0 |3

~ is the electric field at P due to elementary charge dq 0 = λ(r~0 )dl0 . Hence, E(~
where dE ~ r) is the
line integral of the above expression.

λ(r~0 )dl0 (~r − r~0 )

Z
∴ ~ r) = k
E(~ (9)
L |~r − r~0 |3

2
By any small element I don’t mean the dimensions of nanometre order or less than that,
atleast micrometre or higher.

3
2.3 Continuous Surface charge distribution Electrostatics

2.3 Continuous Surface charge distribution

If the width of such sheet is very less compared to its distance from the field point then we can
say that this is a surface charge distribution.
We define surface charge density as,
dq 0
σ(r~0 ) = (10)
da0
Note that σ is a function of r~0 .

σ(r~0 )da0
∴ ~ =k
dE (~r − r~0 )
|~r − r~0 |3

~ is the electric field at P due to elementary charge dq 0 = σ(r~0 )da0 . Hence, E(~
where dE ~ r) is the
surface integral of the above expression.

σ(r~0 )da0 (~r − r~0 )

Z
∴ ~ r) = k
E(~ (11)
S |~r − r~0 |3

2.4 Continuous Volume charge distribution

We define volume charge density as,
dq 0
ρ(r~0 ) = (12)
dτ 0
Note that ρ is a function of r~0 .

ρ(r~0 )dτ 0
∴ ~ =k
dE (~r − r~0 )
|~r − r~0 |3

~ is the electric field at P due to elementary charge dq 0 = ρ(r~0 )dτ 0 . Hence, E(~
where dE ~ r) is the
volume integral of the above expression.

ρ(r~0 )dτ 0 (~r − r~0 )

Z
∴ ~ r) = k
E(~ (13)
V |~r − r~0 |3

Every continuous charge, can be treated as volume charge distribution using Dirac Delta
function.

Dirac Delta function

We define a one-dimensional delta function in x-axis as

f (x) = δ(x − x0 )

Such that f (x0 ) → ∞ and f (x)|x6=x0 = 0 and,

Z b
δ(x − x0 )dx = 1
a

4
2.4 Continuous Volume charge distribution Electrostatics

if a < x0 < b

For example, consider a charge distribution on x-y plane σ(~r) = σ(x, y), we can write the vol-
ume charge density at (x0 , y 0 , 0) as

ρ(~r) = σ(x0 , y 0 )δ(z) (14)

Hence, the region above and below the x − y plane i.e at the points z 6= 0 , δ(z) = 0

∴
ρ(~r) = 0

At z = 0, we can write
Z
0
q = ρ(r~0 )dτ 0
V
Z Z Z
= σ(x0 , y 0 )δ(z)dx0 dy 0 dz 0
V
Z Z Z z2
0 0 0 0
= σ(x , y )dx dy δ(z)dz 0
S z1

Now there arises two cases,

a) if
z = z1 < z = 0 < z = z2

Z Z
0
q = σ(x0 , y 0 )dx0 dy 0 (15)
S

This is an obvious result which follows eq.(10).

b) if
z = 0 < z = z1 < z = z2
or
z = z1 < z = z2 < z = 0
then, q 0 = 0

Example 1: Consider a hemisphere of radius R is placed with its center at the origin and rim
in the x − y plane. The hemisphere is on the positive z−side, charge is distributed on its surface
with surface charge density σ = σ0 cos θ where θ is the angle between radius and the z−axis at
any given point on the surface. Evaluate the electric field at the origin.
We can solve this using various techniques, such as we can think of an elementary ring and
do the vector addition of the electric field vectors due to all those rings at the origin. We can
also use spherical polar coordinates to solve the problem.

5
 Electrostatics

Since r = R which is constant for every point on the surface of the hemisphere, at any point
(R, θ, φ) we can define the elementary area element
da0 =(Rdθ(R sin θφ)
da0 =R2 sin θdθdφ
where, φ goes from 0 to 2π and θ goes from 0 to π, to cover the whole surface of hemisphere.
From eq.(11) we get the required expression for electric field which is
σ(r~0 )da0 (~r − r~0 )
Z
~
E(~r) = k
S |~r − r~0 |3
~ = R sin θ cos φî + R sin θ sin φĵ + R cos θk̂ , we
According to the given condition, ~r = 0 and 3 r’
1
will using MKS units so k = . Let Ex , Ey , Ez be the components in respective axes, then
4π0
from the above expression we get
Z 2π Z π/2
σ0
Ex = − (sin2 θ cos θdθ) cos φdφ
4π0 0 0
Z π/2 Z 2π
σ0 2
=− (sin θ cos θdθ) cos φdφ
4π0 0 0
= 0
Similarly, for the y−component,
Z 2π Z π/2
σ0
Ey = − (sin2 θ cos θdθ) sin φdφ
4π0 0 0
Z π/2 Z 2π
σ0 2
=− (sin θ cos θdθ) sin φdφ
4π0 0 0
= 0
Similarly for z−component
Z 2π Z π/2
σ0
Ez = − (cos2 θ sin θdθ) dφ
4π0 0 0
Z π/2 Z 2π
σ0 2
=− (cos θ sin θdθ) dφ
4π0 0 0
π/2
σ0 cos3 θ 
=  · 2π
4π0 3 
0
σ0
=−
60

∴ ~ = − σ0 k̂
E
60

3 Divergence of Electric Field

Divergence is an operator defined in vector calculus, which operates on a vector field4 and
gives scalar field5 as an output. It is notated as ∇·
3~
r’ has to be broken into to Cartesian coordinates because we can integrate in that form
only. This is because r̂ depends on θ and φ which clearly varies here. But î doesn’t depends
on y or z− components and so on.
4
A vector field is what you will get if you associate each point in space with a vector
5
A Scalar field on other hand is what you will get if you associate each point in space with
some value

6
 Electrostatics

~ is
The fundamental definition of divergence of some vector field A
I
~
~ · da
A
∇·A~ = lim (16)
∆τ →0 ∆τ
Explanation: At some point P within the region of space (where the vector field is defined)
we consider a small volume ∆τ around it such that the point lies within the volume. Clearly,
there is a closed surface which encloses this volume, let its surface area be ∆S .
Again consider a small area element da at any point P 0 on that closed surface. We will
construct a normal6 on this area element, pointing outside the volume. Now we can define the
~ There is some vector at P 0 , say A
element as elementary area vector da. ~ (remember vector is at
~ ~
every point in the region) and we evaluate A · da for every point on the closed surface
and add them. Mathematically we write this process as
I
~
~ · da
A

~ through a closed surface.

which is popularly known as the net outward flux of the vector field A
So we divide that by the volume τ which is enclosed by this closed surface H and shrink that
~
~ · da
A
volume. As the volume shrinks to zero, the limiting value of the function is what we
∆τ
~
shall call the divergence of A.
A rough way to define divergence in short would be stating it as net outward flux per unit
~ in Cartesian coordinates
volume. Taking this a bit further, we can also write divergence of A
as

  
~ = ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇·A î + ĵ + k̂ · Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z

∴ ~ = ∂Ax + ∂Ay + ∂Az

∇·A (17)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Where Ax , Ay and Az 7 are x, y and z components of vector field A.~

There is a very interesting relation between a given charge distribution and the electric field
due to it. The relation states that,

~ r) = ρ(~r)
∇ · E(~ (18)
0

This is a very fundamental relation and it is called as Gauss’s Law. The importance of this law
lies in the fact that it states point-to-point relation between a charge distribution
and electric field due to it. In other words, if you know the volume charge density8 at
6
Since da is very small, we can consider that area to be a planar, although it could a part
of rugged surface.
7
Note that they aren’t the components of a single vector; since thy are components of
a vector fields, Ax , Ay and Az individually can be function of x, y, z i.e vector functions
themselves.
8
Note: Any kind of continuous charge distribution can be expressed as volume charge
distribution using dirac delta function, so the volume charge distribution is the most general
charge distribution.

7
 Electrostatics

any point, you can easily evaluate the net electric field9 at that point.

If ~ >0
∇·E

∴ ρ>0
I
~ >0
~ · da
E

Clearly, if divergence of the electric field at any point comes out to be positive, it implies that
the charge density at that point is positive. Also the net outward flux is positive, which again
implies that there some net positive charge inside the small volume around that point.

Similarly if ~ <0
∇·E

∴ ρ<0
I
~ <0
~ · da
E

In electrostatics, although the field line diagrams may mislead you as it seems that electric field
is moving as suggested by the arrows, but nothing such happens. The directions given by the
arrows intend to show the direction in which a free positive charge would move if allowed to do so.

If ~ =0
∇·E

∴ ρ=0
I
~ =0
~ · da
E

If divergence of electric field at some point is zero, then there should be no net charge at that
point, so no outward flux. Hence in a charge free region, ∇ · E~ is always zero; for example, free
space.
Example 2: The electric field in a region is
~ = k(xî + y ĵ + z k̂)
E

Find the charge density in the region.

Solution: Using eq.(17) we get

~ = ∂(kx) + ∂(ky) + ∂(kz)

∇·E
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 3k

~ = ρ
From eq.(18) we know ∇ · E
0

9
Please note that the electric field that you will evaluate by this process, will be the net
electric field due to whole charge distribution, so don’t get confused with the highlighted
text above.

8
 Electrostatics

∴ ρ = 30 k

So, the charge density is constant although the electric field is varying with distance from origin,
such that the magnitude of the electric field at a point is proportional to the distance of that
point from origin. Clearly, this is the distribution of a uniformly charged sphere.
ρ
Hence we get k = . So conversely we can say that if we a have a uniformly charged sphere
30
of charge density ρ, the electric field inside the sphere would be

~ = ρ (xî + y ĵ + z k̂)
E
30
In spherical polar coordinates,

~ = ρ ~r
E (19)
30

4 Integral form of Gauss’s Law

Earlier in eq.(18) we have seen the point-to-point differential form of Gauss’s Law, which
by using we can identify and calculate the charge distribution if we know the electric field.
Multiplying dτ on both sides of eq.(18), we get

~ 1
(∇ · E)dτ = ρdτ
0
Triple integrating both sides,

Z Z Z Z Z Z
~ 1
(∇ · E)dτ = ρdτ
V 0 V
Z Z Z
~ 1
⇒ (∇ · E)dτ = Qinside
V 0

According to Gauss’s Divergence Theorem,

Z Z Z Z Z
~
(∇ · E)dτ = E ~
~ · da
V S

Hence, we get Z Z
~ = 1 Qinside
~ · da
E
S 0

Since we evaluate surface integral on a closed surface we notate it as

I
E ~ = 1 Qinside
~ · da (20)
0

This is the integral form of Gauss’s Law.

It helps simplifying the problem of finding electric field at a point due to some charge distribu-
tion, but it’s most efficient when we deal with some symmetric charge distributions.
We shall learn solving problems with this form, later in this section and we will also learn how
to efficiently determine the directions of electric field by some symmetry arguments at the field
points.

9
4.1 Finding Electric field due to cylindrically symmetric charge distribution. Electrostatics

4.1 Finding Electric field due to cylindrically symmetric charge distribution.

4.1.1 Cylindrical polar coordinates
Any point in Euclidean space, can be represented as (s, φ, z) in cylindrical polar coordinates.
Where s is the perpendicular distance of the point from z−axis, φ is the angle between the
plane containing s and z−axis, and x−axis, and z is simply the z−coordinate. Unit vectors10
in this coordinate system is represented as ŝ, φ̂, ẑ and their directions are as following:

i. ŝ : At any given point (s, φ, z) the direction of ŝ would be in the direction of increasing
s, keeping φ and z constant.

ii. φ̂ : At any given point (s, φ, z) the direction of φ̂ would be in the direction of increasing
φ, keeping φ and z constant i.e along the tangent to the plane containing s and z−axis.

iii. ẑ : At any point,ẑ is along the positively increasing z−coordinate.

The line elements in cylindrical coordinate can be written as follows

i. ds : At any given point (s, φ, z) we can write the line element as ds iff φ and z are kept
constant and s is increased to s + ds.

ii. sdφ : At any given point (s, φ, z) we can write the line element as sdφ iff s and z are kept
constant and angle φ is increased to φ + dφ.

iii. dz : At any given point (s, φ, z) we can write the line element as dz iff φ and s are kept
constant and z is increased to z + dz.
~ in cylindrical coordinates can be written as
The area elements da

i. (sdφ)(ds)ẑ : At any given point (s, φ, z) we can write the area element as (sdφ)(ds)ẑ iff
z is kept constant and obviously the area would be perpendicular to z−axis, and so its
direction is along ẑ. This generally represents the area element of the flat surfaces of
the cylinder.

ii. (sdφ)(dz)ŝ : At any given point (s, φ, z) we can write the area element as (sdφ)(dz)ŝ iff s
is kept constant and obviously the area will lie on the cylindrical surface of given radius s,
and so its direction is along ŝ. This generally represents the area element of the curved
surface of the cylinder.

iii. (ds)(dz)φ̂ : At any given point (s, φ, z) we can write the area element as (ds)(dz)φ̂ iff φ
is kept constant and obviously the area would be perpendicular to the plane containing
the radius of cylinder s and the z−axis, and so its direction is along φ̂. This generally
represents the area element of the the plane containing the radius of cylinder s
and the z−axis.

The volume element in cylindrical coordinate is written as

dv = (sdφ)(ds)(dz)

4.1.2 Cylindrical symmetric charge distribution

We can say a charge distribution ρ(~r) is cylindrically symmetric if,

ρ(~r) = ρ(s, φ, z) = ρ(s)

10
Although they are called so, but I really don’t believe they (except ẑ) should be called
unit vectors, since they don’t have any fixed directions, they should be called unit vector
field instead.

10
4.1 Finding Electric field due to cylindrically symmetric charge distribution. Electrostatics

i.e ρ should not depend on φ or z. So at a given distance from z−axis, the charge density is
constant.
Examples of Cylindrical symmetric charge distribution :

dq
1. A long11 straight wire of linear charge density λ(~r) = , is cylindrically symmetric,
dl
because if we construct our cylindrical coordinate system with the wire as z−axis, the
charge distribution doesn’t depends on z or φ. It only depends on s, such that if s 6=
0, ρ = 0 and at s = 0, ρ = λ(~r)δ(s).

2. A long cylindrical volume (let the radius of such cylinder is a) of constant charge density
ρ = ρ0 , if s < a and ρ = 0 if s > a. Here also the charge distribution doesn’t depends
on z or φ.

Example 3: The charge distribution in cylindrical polar coordinates is given as follows,

ρ = ks, s < a
= 0, s>a

Considering the length of the distribution to be large, find the electric field at any general point
(i) at a distance s < a
(ii) at a distance s > a

Solution: (i) For s < a, we construct a closed cylinder of radius s and height h such that
the field point P lies on the surface of this cylinder and is coaxial with the given cylindrical
distribution.
To determine the direction of the electric field at P , we will use the symmetry arguments to
find a unique direction, because net electric field at P can be in one unique direction
only. The electric field can’t be along ẑ direction because we have no such reason to state why
the electric field isn’t along another such equivalent direction, which is −ẑ, as long as
we are not at the ends of the distribution. At the field point, one will see the same charge
distribution while moving along ẑ as well as along −ẑ.
Similarly, electric field can’t be along φ̂ direction12 , because in this case, there are now infinite
such equivalent directions in the tangential plane to the cylindrical surface.
But along ŝ, the direction of the electric field is unique, because now we have some valid reason
for stating why the electric field could or could not be along −ŝ direction, and one standing
at the field point, would be able to make some difference between what he will see moving along
ŝ and −ŝ. So
H this should be the unique direction – radial.
To evaluate E· ~
~ da
R over theR closed Gaussian
R surface we have constructed, we divide the integral
into three parts, curved + upp−f lat + lwr−f lat .
For the curved surface, since the s is constant, the area element da ~ would be

~ = (sdφ)(dz)ŝ
da

Let the electric field be,

~ = E ŝ
E
where, E could be positive as well as negative.

∴ E ~ = Es dφ dz
~ · da
11
Again "long" doesn’t really means its infinite and so impossible to construct; we say that
wire "long" w.r.t to its distance from the field point.
12
Since the distribution is long, so the end effects can be neglected.

11
4.1 Finding Electric field due to cylindrically symmetric charge distribution. Electrostatics

Double integrating both sides,

Z Z Z h Z 2π
E ~ =
~ · da Es dφ dz
curved 0 0
= (2πsh) E
~ would be
For flat surfaces, since the z is constant, the area element da
~ = (sdφ)(ds)ẑ
da
∴ E ~ =0
~ · da

Double integrating both sides,

Z Z
~ =0
~ · da
E
f lat

Hence,
I Z Z Z Z
E ~ =
~ · da ~ +
~ · da
E ~
~ · da
E
curved f lat

=(2πsh)E + 0
I
∴ E ~ =(2πsh)E
~ · da

From eq.(19), we have I

~ = 1 Qinside
~ · da
E
0
and Z Z Z
Qinside = ρdτ
V

According to the given question, since we are at a point P, s < a; ρ = ks and the volume
element in cylindrical coordinate is
dv = (sdφ)(ds)(dz)
So,
Z h Z 2π Z s
Qinside =k s2 ds dφ dz
0 0 0

s3
=2πhk
3
Equating the results,
ks2
∴ E=
30
For an cylindrically symmetric charge distribution, the electric field at any point
inside the distribution which is s distance from the axis of distribution, is given by
2
~ = ks ŝ
E (21)
30
(ii) For field point outside distribution, i.e for s > a, we do the same process and the elecric
field would be
3
~ = k a ŝ
E (22)
30 s

12
4.2 Finding electric field due to planar symmetric charge distribution. Electrostatics

4.2 Finding electric field due to planar symmetric charge distribution.

If the charge density ρ, is uniform in a given plane z = f (x, y) and there is a change in ρ only
if z changes; i.e if we move on to another plane parallel to it, then we can say that the charge
distribution is planar symmetric.
In Cartesian coordinates, we write it as,

ρ(~r) = ρ(x, y, z) = ρ(z) (say)

In general, ρ has to be the function of any one coordinate.

Example 4 : Consider an infinite slab of width d such that the z−axis is perpendicular to its
plane. Charge density within the slab is ρ0 and outside the slab charge density is zero. Find
the electric field at any arbitrary point (a) inside the slab (b) outside the slab.
Solution : (a) Consider a central plane and let’s say we have to find the electric field z distance
above this central plane. We construct a closed cylindrical surface such that the field point lies
on one of the flat surface of surface area ∆S (parallel to the central plane) and the other flat
surface is also z0 distance below the central plane. Applying Gauss’s law on this closed surface,
I Z Z Z Z Z Z
E ~ =
~ · da E ~ +
~ · da ~ +
~ · da
E ~
~ · da
E
S U p−F lat blw−F lat curved

By symmetry arguments we will find the direction of electric field at different points of this
curved surface. At the field point the direction of the electric field can’t be tangential to the
plane parallel to the boundary planes, since there are infinite such equivalent directions, while
the perpendicular direction to the plane is not equivalent since the point doesn’t lie on the
central plane (we can also claim that electric field at every points on the central plane has to be
zero). Since there are more positive charges below the field point, the direction of the electric
field would be away from the central plane. Let it be E0 k̂. Hence the above equation becomes

I Z Z
E ~ =E0 ẑ · ∆Sẑ + E0 (−ẑ) · ∆S(−ẑ) +
~ · da E(z)ẑ · (sdφdz)ŝ
S curved
= 2E0 ∆S + 0
2z0 ∆Sρ
= 2E0 ∆S =
0
Thus the electric field
~ ρz0
E(z) = ẑ
0

5 Curl of electric field

Curl like divergence, is an operator defined in vector calculus, which operates on a vector field
and gives vector field as an output. It is notated as ∇×
~ To define its curl as a whole vector field in itself, we will primarily
Consider a vector field, A.
define its components along the coordinate axes. For example we have to find its curl at any
arbitrary point P . To define the x−component of ∇× A ~ at P , we construct a closed loop around
the point P , such that its plane is perpendicular to the x−axis. We choose the direction of
circulation of the loop as if someone curls his/her four fingers of his/her right hand, the thumb
points in the positive direction of x−axis. Let the area of the loop be ∆~S = ∆S î.
I
  A ~
~ · dl
∇×A ~ · î = lim (23)
∆S→0 ∆S

13
 Electrostatics

I
where, A ~ is the line integral over the closed loop (also called as circulation of the vector
~ · dl
~ considered and dl
field A) ~ is the line element on the loop, whose direction is tangential to
the direction of circulation at each point on the loop. By this method, we can define other
components also, and with them we can define the curl of vector field at that point P .
From this fundamental definition of curl at a point, we can write another expression for curl at
a point in Cartesian coordinates as
 
 î ĵ k̂ 

~ = ∂ ∂ ∂ 

∇×A  ∂x ∂y ∂z  (24)
 
 Ax Ay Az 

Please don’t blindly follow the determinant rule, although its a determinant, but here it is not
∂
designed to work algebraically. Like we don’t really multiply with Ay , instead we take the
∂x
partial of Ay w.r.t x.
     
∴ ∇×A ~ = ∂Az − ∂Ay î + ∂Ax − ∂Az ĵ + ∂Ay − ∂Ax k̂
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
From equation (23), we can write
I  
A ~ = ∇×A
~ · dl ~ · î(∆S)
 
~ · (∆S î)
= ∇×A
 
~ · ∆~S
= ∇×A
  Z Z
~
= ∇×A · ~
da

~ is constant at every points on ∆S.

Since the area ∆S is very small, we will assume that ∇ × A
Z Z  
= ∇×A ~
~ · da (25)

Equation (25) is valid for all loops of any definite surface area ∆S i.e it is valid for bigger loops
also. This is known as Stoke’s theorem.
For a given charge distribution, we have the expression of electric field as given by the eq.(13).
Operating curl on it,
~ =0
∇×E (26)

For any kind of static charge distribution, the curl of electric field due to it is always zero. Hence
electric field is conservative field. As the electric field due to static charges (static since a long
time), is conservative, we can define a scalar field associated to the static charge
distribution.
From equation (25) we get
I
E ~ = 0
~ · dl (27)

~ on that loop is always zero. For example

~ · dl
That means for any closed loop, line integral of E

14
 Electrostatics

take a closed loop ACBDA,

I Z Z
E ~ =
~ · dl ~ +
~ · dl
E ~ =0
~ · dl
E
ACB BDA
Z Z
∴ E ~ =−
~ · dl ~
~ · dl
E
ACB BDA
Z Z
∴ E ~ =
~ · dl ~
~ · dl
E
ACB ADB

ZB
That means the line integral, E ~ is independent of path and it depends only on the end
~ · dl
A
points A and B. Hence there exists a scalar function V (x, y, z) such that the line integral
ZB
~ = VA − VB .
~ · dl
E
A
Assuming potential at infinite to be zero for a finite charge distribution, the potential at any
arbitrary point ~r due to point charge q placed at the origin is given by,
q
V (~r) = (28)
4π0 r
Extrapolating the above equation for continuous volume charge distribution,

ρ(r~0 )dτ
Z Z Z
V (~r) =  
τ 4π0 ~r − r~0 
 

The limit τ denotes the volume enclosing the charge distribution.

In Cartesian coordinates,
dV = − (Ex dx + Ey dy + Ez dz)

∴ dV(y,z) = −Ex dx
Since V is a multi-variable function,
∂V
Ex = −
∂x
Similarly,
∂V
Ey = −
∂y

and
∂V
Ez = −
∂z
Hence,  
~ =− ∂V ∂V ∂V
E î + ĵ + k̂
∂z ∂z ∂z
We notate this expression as
~ = −∇V
E (29)

15
 Electrostatics

6 Potential Energy
Consider a charge distribution ρ, and another point charge q (note that I haven’t mentioned
any instant of time so you should assume that this situation was at rest in the given orientation
since a long time) at some point P , let the electric field due to the charge distribution at P be
~ Then electrostatic force on q, due to the given static charge distribution is
E.
~ r) = q E(~
F(~ ~ r) (30)

~ is a vector function. Now if the point charge q is moved very slowly, such that at
Clearly, F
every instant, the external force is equal and opposite to the electrostatic force due to the given
charge distribution as given by the equation (22), i.e
~ ext (~r) = −F(~
F ~ r)

Then work done on q by F~ext (~r) in moving it from any arbitrary point A to another arbitrary
point B is given by, Z B
W = F ~
~ ext (~r) · dl
A

This work done on q allows it to gain energy13 in the form of potential energy. In other words,
this work done represents the change in potential energy of q.Hence, the change in potential
energy while going from point A to B is,
Z B
UB − UA = F ~
~ ext (~r) · dl
A
Z B
=− F(~ ~
~ r) · dl
A
Z B
=−q E(~ ~
~ r) · dl
A

=q(VB − VA )

Assuming potential at infinity to be zero, we get a general expression for potential energy at
any point as,

U (~r) = qV (~r) (31)

Obviously, its a scalar function. V in the equation represents the potential due to a given
charge distribution, so U is the potential energy of q only, because potential energy
of the distribution is not mentioned in the above equation.

6.1 Potential energy of two-point charge distribution

Consider two point charges, q1 and q2 . 14 q1 is kept fixed at the origin (for sake of simplicity)
and initially q2 is kept at A. Let the potential at A be VA = 0. q2 is moved slowly to B where
potential is VB .
∴ UB − UA = q2 VB
q1
Let the distance of B from origin is r, then VB =
4π0 r
13
Note that I didn’t mentioned "loss" of energy because if the work done is negative it
directly implies that it lost energy.
14
Note that q1 was brought from infinity (zero potential) to origin, when there was no charge
nearby origin so its potential energy was zero.

16
6.2 Potential energy of three-point charge distribution Electrostatics

∴ the expression for potential energy becomes,

q1 q2
U (~r) = (32)
4π0 |~r|

(Note that the eq(25) doesn’t depends on the choice of origin, ~r denotes the separation
between the charges, and the expression is valid only if choose potential at infinity
to be zero.) Hence if the separation between two point charges is |~r| then the potential energy
q1 q2
of the ”pair” is .
4π0 |~r|

6.2 Potential energy of three-point charge distribution

Consider two point charges q1 and q2 , fixed at ~r1 and ~r2 respectively and another charge q3
at ~r3 . We have to find the potential energy of this system. In the section (5.1) we solved the
problem from basics. Here we I will directly use the result from eq(23).
Let the potential due to the fixed distribution q1 +q2 at ~r3 be V3 .
∴ potential energy of q3 is
 
q3 q1 q2
U 0 = q3 V3 = +
4π0 |~r3 − ~r1 | |~r3 − ~r2 |

To get the potential energy of the full system, the potential energy of the distribution has to
added which we have already derived in section (5.1) as
q1 q2
U 00 =
4π0 |~r2 − ~r1 |

So,
 
0 100 q1 q3 q2 q3 q1 q2
U =U +U = + + (33)
4π0 |~r3 − ~r1 | |~r3 − ~r2 | |~r2 − ~r1 |

6.3 Potential energy of Discrete charge distribution

Suppose we have N -charge system and we have evaluate the potential energy of such system.
Following the process in the §(5.2) we get an interesting pattern that number of the terms
in addition is equal to the number of charges present in the system. Generalising
equation (33) for a system of N charges, the expression for the potential energy becomes
 
N N
1 X X qi qj
U=  (34)
2 4π0 |~ri − ~rj |
i=1 j=1
i6=j
 
N N
1 X X qj
=  qi  (35)
2 4π0 |~ri − ~rj |
i=1 j=1
i6=j

N
1X
= qi V i (36)
2
i=1

where, Vi is the potential at ~ri due to all the other charges.

17
6.4 Potential due to continuous charge distribution Electrostatics

6.4 Potential due to continuous charge distribution

Since volume charge density ρ is the most general type of charge distribution, generalising the
eq.(36) for continuous charge distribution we get
Z Z Z
1
U= ρ(~r0 )V (~r0 )dτ 0 (37)
2 τ

where, V (~r0 ) is potential due to ”whole” distribution at 15~r0 .

τ as suffix of the triple integral represents the volume enclosing the whole charge distri-
bution in general. Its not necessary that τ should be the volume of charge distribution, at such
points where ρ = 0 this expression contributes nothing to U , so it remains the same if those
volumes are ignored.
From eq.(18) we can write the eq.(37) as
Z Z Z
1  
~ r0 ) V (~r0 )dτ 0
U= 0 ∇ · E(~
2 τ
Z Z Z h
0  
~ r0 )V (~r0 ) − E(~
i
~ r0 ) · ∇V (~r0 ) dτ 0
= ∇ · E(~
2 τ
Z Z Z   
0 
0 0
 
 ~ 0 2
= ∇ · E(~r )V (~r ) + (E(~r ) dτ 0
~
2 τ
I Z Z Z  
0 ~ r0 )V (~r0 ) · da
~ +  ~ 0 2 0

= (E(~ (E(~r ) dτ
2 S τ
Hence we get another expression of potential energy, in terms of electric field and potential due
to the charge distribution as
I Z Z Z   
0 ~ ~  ~ 2 0
U= EV · da + E dτ (38)
2 S τ

where limit 16 S denotes the surface of the volume enclosing the charge distribution.
Example 5 : Find the electrostatic potential energy of a uniformly charged sphere of radius
R and having charge Q.
There are two methods to solve this problem, either we can use eq.(37) or by using eq.(38).
Q
According to the given question ρ(~r0 ) = ρ0 = 4 3 . Taking the center of the sphere as the
3 πR
origin, let the potential at any arbitrary point ~r inside the sphere be V (r = r0 ). The potential
Q
at the surface of such sphere is given by V (r = R) = . We also know that electric field
4π0 R
inside such sphere is
E~ = ρ~r
30
as discussed in Example 2.
Z r0
0 ~
~ · dl
V (r ) − V (R) = − E
R
Z r0
ρr
=− r̂ · (dr r̂ + rdθ θ̂ + r sin θdφ φ̂)
R 30
15
Note that any of the expression for potential energy discussed above doesn’t depends on the
choice of origin, because potential and charge density are themselves independent of origin.
16
Note that in eq.(38) I have ignored the arguments of ~E and V , as they may create
misconception or rather confusion for the reader, although its a general notation. While
dealing with the surface integral part, we find ~E and V only at points on the surface S, but
when we deal with the volume integral part we evaluate ~E at every points within the volume τ .

18
6.4 Potential due to continuous charge distribution Electrostatics

Since r̂, θ̂, φ̂ are mutually perpendicular,

Z r0
Q ρ
V (r0 ) − =− rdr
4π0 R R 30
R
ρ r2 
=
30 2 r0
ρ
= (R2 − r02 )
60

Q
∴ V (r0 ) = (3R2 − r02 )
8π0 R3

Using eq(37), with proper limits, we get

2π π R
3Q2
Z Z Z
1
U= 2 6
(3R2 − r02 )(r02 sin θdr0 dθdφ)
2 0 0 0 32π 0 R
Z R Z π Z 2π Z R Z π Z 2π
9Q2 02 0 3Q2 04 0
= r dr sin θdθ dφ − r dr sin θdθ dφ
64π 2 0 R4 0 0 0 64π 2 0 R4 0 0 0

3Q2
=
20π0 R
Alternative : We know the potential on the surface and electric field on the surface as well as
within the volume. But now we will consider a surface of radius 2R.

I Z Z Z   
0 ~ +
~ · da  ~ 2 0
U= EV E dτ
2 S τ

2π π 2π π R
Q2 ρ2 r2 2
Z Z Z Z Z
0
= r̂ · (4R2 sin θ dθ dφ)r̂ + (r sin θ dr dθ dφ)
2 0 0 128π 2 20 R3 0 0 0 920

2π π 2R
Q2
Z Z Z 
2
+ (r sin θ dr dθ dφ)
0 0 R 16π 2 20 r4

Q2 Q2 Q2 3Q2
= + + =
16π0 R 40π0 R 16π0 R 20π0 R

It should be comprehensible now that we can choose any surface to integrate, but its mandatory
that it should enclose the whole charge distribution.
Equation(37) suggests that the energy resides within the charge distribution whereas equation
(38) claims that energy is present within the electric field due to charge distribution. So there’s
a kind of contradiction. Actually in electrostatics, we cannot decide whether energy is present
within the charges or within the field, but as we will see later in electrodynamics, we have to
accept that energy is present within the fields. So in general we will say that energy resides
within the electric field.
If we choose the surface enclosing the distribution at infinity, the surface integral part of
eq.(38) tends to zero as I
~ · da
EV ~ ∼1
r
where r is the radius of curvature of the surface.

19
 Electrostatics

Therefore eq.(38) reduces to,

Z Z Z  
1  ~ 2
U = 0 E dτ (39)
2 τ

It follows from the equation,

1  ~ 2
dU = 0 E  dτ (40)
2
dU 1  ~ 2
⇒ = 0 E (41)
dτ 2


Clearly eq.(41) gives the energy density in an electric field.

7 Multi-pole Expansion
7.1 Monopoles
1
If the potentials at large distances due to a charge distribution vary in accordance to , such
r
charge distributions are called monopoles.
Monopole moment of such distribution is given
X
J= qi (42)
i

if the distribution is discrete else if the distribution is continuous but finite

Z Z Z
J= ρ dτ (43)
τ

7.2 Dipoles
1
If the potentials at large distances due to a charge distribution vary in accordance to 2 , such
r
charge distributions are called dipoles.
For example consider two point charges, +q and −q separated by d distance. We have to find
the potential at a distance r from any of the charges, say +q, along the line joining charges.
 
q 1 1
V = −
4π0 r r + d
 
q  1 −  1 

=
4π0  r d 
r 1+
r
"  #
d −1

q
= 1− 1+
4π0 r r

d d2
  
q
= 1 − 1 − + 2 − ...
4π0 r r r

d d2
 
q
= − 2 + ...
4π0 r r r

20
7.2 Dipoles Electrostatics

d
If r >> d, we can neglect the higher powers of ,
r
qd p
∴ V = = (44)
4π0 r2 4π0 r2
Dipole moment of a discrete charge distribution is given by
X
~p = qi~ri (45)
i

If the monopole moment of such distribution

P is zero, then the dipole moment doesn’t depend
on the choice of origin. But if i qi 6= 0, the dipole moment moment depends on the
choice of origin. But that kind of dipole wouldn’t be our matter of interest because since the
monopole moment is non-zero, potential will vary in accordance to 1r , so there seems no
significance of such dipole at far points.
Example 6 : Let σ = σ0 cos θ be the surface charge distribution on the sphere of radius R.
Verify whether its a dipole with total monopole moment zero.
Solution : The total charge on the sphere,
I
Q = σ0 cos θ da
Z 2π Z π
= σ0 R2 cos θ sin θ dθ dφ
0 0

=0

So total monopole moment is zero hence the dipole doesn’t depends on origin and it retains its
characteristics at large distances away from it.
I
~p = (σ da)~r
Z 2π Z π
2
=σ0 R cos θ sin θ dθ dφ(xî + y ĵ + z k̂)
0 0
Z 2π Z π
2
=σ0 R cos θ sin θ dθ dφ(R sin θ cos φî + R sin θ sin φĵ + R cos θk̂)
0 0
Z 2π Z π
∴ px = σ0 R3 cos θ sin2 θ dθ cos φ dφ = 0
0 0
Z 2π Z π
∴ py = σ0 R3 cos θ sin2 θ dθ sin φ dφ = 0
0 0
Z 2π Z π
∴ pz = σ0 R 3 cos2 θ sin θ dθ dφ
0 0
 3
0
cos θ
=σ0 R3 · (2π)
3 π
4
= πR3 σ0
3
The same situation arises when two spheres of uniform charge density +ρ0 and −ρ, are punched
together initially to form a neutral sphere and then their centres are pulled apart by a distance
d. In that case also the surface charge density is same as mentioned in the question and it can
be easily derived that σ0 = ρ0 d. For all the points outside the distribution the whole charge on
the sphere can be considered to be at there respective centres. Hence we again have a dipole of
4 4
charge Q = πR3 ρ0 with dipole moment ~p = πR3 ρ0 d n̂, where n̂ is unit vector directed from
3 3
the negetive center towards the positive center.

21
7.2 Dipoles Electrostatics

7.2.1 Potential at any (r, θ) polar coordinate due to a dipole.

Consider any general discrete17 charge distribution such that
X
qi = 0
i

and X
qi~ri 6= 0
i

Let Vi denote the potential at any arbitrary point ~r then ,

qi
Vi =
4π0 |~r − ~ri |

where, ~r denotes the position vector of ith charge.

q
|~r − ~ri | = 2 r2 + ri2 + −2rri cos θi

where θi is the angle between ~r and ~ri

∴
qi
Vi = r
ri2 ri
4π0 r 1+ 2
− 2 cos θi
r r
Assuming ri << r,
qi
Vi = r
ri
4π0 r 1−2 cos θi
r

qi  ri − 1
2
= 1 − 2 cos θi
4π0 r r
qi  ri 
= 1 + cos θi
4π0 r r

Hence the potential due to whole distribution will be

X qi  ri 
V = 1 + cos θi
4π0 r r
i

1 X qi ri 
= qi + cos θi
4π0 r r
i
!
1 X qi ri
= 0+ cos θi
4π0 r r
i

1 X
= qi (~ri · r̂)
4π0 r2
i

1 X
= (qi ~ri ) · r̂
4π0 r2
i
17
Additional discussion for a continuous charge distribution is not necessary, because the
discrete charge distribution can be augmented to get the theory for continuous distribution,
which I think you can do it yourself.

22
7.3 Quadruple Distribution Electrostatics

Since r̂ is the unit vector from origin towards the field point, its a constant,
!
1 X
= qi ~ri · r̂
4π0 r2
i

~p · r̂ p cos θ
∴ V = 2
= (46)
4π0 r 4π0 r2

7.2.2 Electric field at any (r, θ) polar coordinate due to a dipole.

~ = − ∇V
E
  
∂ ∂ ∂ p cos θ
= − r̂ + θ̂ + φ̂
∂r r∂θ r sin θ∂φ 4π0 r2

~ = p
∴ E (2 cos θ r̂ + sin θ θ̂) (47)
4π0 r3

7.3 Quadruple Distribution

1
If the potentials at large distances due to a charge distribution vary in accordance to 3 , such
r
charge distributions are called quadruples.
For example consider three point charges, −q, −q and +2q, such that −q and −q are separated
by 2d distance and +2q is placed right at their center. Suppose we have to find potential at a
point r distance from one of the −q.
 
q 1 2 1
V = − − +
4π0 r r + d r + 2d
"  #
d −1 2d −1
  
q
= −1 + 2 1 + − 1+
4π0 r r r

d d2 2d 4d2
    
q
= −1 + 2 1 − + 2 − . . . − 1 − + 2 − ...
4π0 r r r r r

2d2 6d3
 
q
= − 2 + 3 + ...
4π0 r r r

2qd2
=−
4π0 r3
For discrete quadruple distributions,
X
qi = 0 (48)
i
X
qi~ri = 0 (49)
i

The quadruple moment18 is a second order tensor

 
Qxx Qxy Qxz
[Qij ] = Qyx Qyy Qyz 
Qzx Qzy Qzz
18
monopole moment of a charge distribution is a scalar quantity (tensor of rank zero), dipole
moment is a vector quantity (1st rank tensor), quadruple moment is 2nd rank tensor. All these
"moments" are the characteristics of a charge distribution.

23
 Electrostatics

Such that for discrete charge distribution,

X 
qk 3rki rkj − rk2 δij

Qij = (50)
k

where rki denotes the ith component of position vector of k th charge, similarly rkj denotes the
j th component of position vector of k th charge.
δij is called the Kronecker delta function such that

1, i = j
δij =
0, i 6= j

∴
X
Qxx = qk (3x2k − rk2 ) (51)
k
X
Qyy = qk (3yk2 − rk2 ) (52)
k
X
Qzz = qk (3zk2 − rk2 ) (53)
k

X
Qxy = Qyx = qk (3xk yk ) (54)
k
X
Qxz = Qzx = qk (3xk zk ) (55)
k
X
Qzy = Qyz = qk (3zk yk ) (56)
k

For continuous charge distribution,

Z Z Z
qk 3rki rkj − rk2 δij
 
Qij = (57)
τ

Potential due to such charge distribution at any point ~r is also a second order tensor, defined
as
1 XX
Vij = 3
Qij r̂i · r̂j (58)
8π0 r
i j

Note that Qij represents a component of quadruple moment. Also Vij is a component
of potential tensor.
The example of the quadruple distribution that we have taken earlier in this section, if you try
to find its potential in the same fashion using eq.(58), you will find that as,

−4qd2
 
0 0
V = 0 2qd2 0 
0 0 2qd2

8 Conductors
Conductors is a category of materials, in which there are large number of free electrons. Of
course they have large numbers of bound electrons also, in fact the number of bound electrons
is way larger than the number of free electron but that isn’t the speciality of conductors. This
attribute gives it some interesting properties.

24
8.1 Properties of conductors Electrostatics

8.1 Properties of conductors

1. Charge density inside a solid conductor is zero. This is because in electrostatic situation,
electric field inside the conductor has to be zero.

2. Cavity inside a conductor : Even if the conductor has a cavity, with no charge inside
it, although charges could be present outside the conductor, there should be no charge
density on the surface of the cavity. There would be surface charge density on the surface
of conductor. Let it be σ.

3. Electric field due to the surface charge density σ or any other charge distribution outside
the conductor, is zero inside the conductor as well as inside the cavity.
To explain why there isn’t any electric field inside the cavity, we cannot use that statement
used in case of conductors - "there is a huge number of free electrons inside
the conductor, and if there would be an electric field inside the conductor,
those charges would be moving, destroying the electrostatic situation", be-
cause there are no free electron of conductor inside the cavity.
Consider two points A and B on the surface of the cavity inside a conductor. Let C be
ZB
any arbitrary point outside the cavity but inside the conductor, then line integral E ~
~ · dl
A
along the path ”ACB” is zero, because at every point on the path, electric field is zero.
ZB
Let D be any arbitrary point inside the cavity, then the line integral E ~ along the
~ · dl
A
path ADB has to be zero because this line integral doesn’t depends on the path, and since
there’s no charge inside the cavity the electric field can’t change its direction abruptly at
~ 6= 0, hence at each point on the path ADB, electric field
any point or else ∇· E
has to be zero. Since D was a general point, this leads to the conclusion
that electric field is zero at every point inside the cavity, if there’s no
charge inside the cavity.

4. If there are any charges inside the cavity, then an equal and opposite charge will be induced
over the surface of cavity, and they will produce zero electric field in the conductor as well
as outside the conductor.19 This surface charge density is invariant, irrespective of any
kind of charge distribution on or outside the surface of conductor. Similarly, the surface
charge distribution is also unique, irrespective of any charges present or absent inside the
cavity. This can be verified by Laplace equation’s solution which will be discussed
later.

8.2 Electric field across a conducting surface

8.2.1 Boundary conditions
Suppose there is an infinite plane conducting sheet parallel to y − z plane (say), such that î is
the unit vector along the normal of the plane. Consider two points A and B, on two sides of
the plane (A on the positive side of the plane, and B on the negative side), just outside the
~ 1 and at point B let it be E
surface. Let the electric field at A be E ~ 2 . Let the surface charge
density at the point P (whose neighbourhood points are A and B), be σ.
We construct a rectangular closed loop P QRS 20 over the cross-section of this plane, such that
19
That means if you keep a infinite conducting slab in between two charges, then the two
charges can never interact with each other.
20
the side P Q and RS are parallel to the plane, such that P Q is on the positive side and
RS on the negative side of the plane and we will consider them as lengths of the loop. The
direction of circulation of the loop is P QRSP .

25
8.2 Electric field across a conducting surface Electrostatics

the points A and B lies on it. Since those points are very close to the plane, the width of
that rectangle
I is negligible, and the length ∆l is also very small. Over this closed loop we will
evaluate ~ ~
E · dl.

I ZQ ZR ZS ZP
E ~ =
~ · dl E ~ +
~ · dl ~ +
~ · dl
E ~ +
~ · dl
E ~
~ · dl
E
P Q R S

Since ∆l is small, we will not consider any variation of electric field on

I their respective sides. As
the widths are negligible, there isn’t any significant contribution to E ~ from this widths.
~ · dl

I
~ = E1t ∆l + 0 + 0 + E2t ∆l = 0
~ · dl
E

∴ E1t + E2t = 0

where, E1t and E2t are tangential components of E ~ 1 and E~ 2 to the surface.
Note that E1t is |E1 | cos θ1 (= E1 · ĵ) and E2t is |E2 | cos θ2 (= ~E2 · −ĵ), therefore E1t
~ ~ ~
and E2t can be positive or negative depending on the values of θ1 and θ2 . There-
fore, on both sides of the conducting surface the magnitude of the tangential components of
electric field are equal and continuous at the points just outside the surface.

|E1t | = |E2t | (59)

In general if t̂ be the unit vector tangential to the surface, then

   
~  ~
E1 · t̂ = E 2 · (−t̂) (60)


Now construct a closed cylinder with its flat surfaces ∆S parallel to the plane such that points
A and B lies on the flat surfaces. Since the points are very close to the surface, the length of
the cylinder is negligible. Since this is an eligible Gaussian surface, we can apply Gauss’s law
over this closed surface,
I Z Z Z Z Z Z
E ~ =
~ · da E ~ +
~ · da ~ +
~ · da
E E ~
~ · da
+f lat −f lat curved

Since ∆S is very small, we will neglect any variation of electric field over it, and since the curved
~ from this part.
~ · da
H
surface area is negligible there isn’t any significant contribution to E
I
~ = E1n ∆S + E2n ∆S + 0 = σ∆S
~ · da
E
0

where, E1n and E2n are normal components of E~ 1 and E

~ 2 to the surface.
Note that E1n = ~E1 · î and E2t = ~E2 · (−î), therefore E1t and E2t can be positive
21

or negative depending on the directions of ~E1 and ~E2 .

σ
E1n + E2n = (61)
0
In general if n̂ be the unit vector normal to the surface, then

E ~ 2 · (−n̂) = σ
~ 1 · n̂ + E (62)
0
Equation (60) and (62) are called the boundary conditions for electric field.
21
Remember the plane is taken parallel to y − zplane.

26
 Electrostatics

8.2.2 Electric field just outside the surface of a conductor

Consider a infinite conducting slab, the surface charge density σ is unique to make electric field
zero at every points inside it. We have to find the electric field just outside its surface. We can
use the boundary conditions to solve this problem. Using equation (59), we can say that the
tangential components of the electric field just outside the surface is zero because, the tangential
component of the electric field just inside or in fact electric field inside the slab is zero and it is
continuous, so the electric field can’t change abruptly. Hence the electric field just outside
the surface is along the normal to the surface. Using equation (61), the magnitude of
σ
the normal component of electric field just outside the conducting surface is .
0

~ r) = σ(~r) n̂
E(~ (63)
0
where, σ(~r) and n̂ are the charge density and normal at the point ~r on the surface. The electric
field just outside the conducting surface is given by eq.(56) is due to all the
charges on the conductor as well as outside the conductor (if any), because σ(~r)
adjusts itself in accordance with its surroundings.

9 Poisson’s Equation
~ = ρ
∇·E
0
ρ
⇒ ∇ · (−∇V ) =
0

ρ
⇒ ∇2 V = − (64)
0

where ∇2 is called the Laplacian operator. In Cartesian coordinates,

∂2V ∂2V ∂2V

∇2 V = + + (65)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
In spherical polar coordinates,

∂2V
   
2 1 ∂ 2 ∂V 1 ∂ ∂V 1
∇ V = 2 r + 2 sin θ + 2 2 (66)
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ2

In cylindrical polar coordinates,

1 ∂2V ∂2V
 
2 1 ∂ ∂V
∇ V = s + 2 + (67)
s ∂s ∂s s ∂φ2 ∂z 2

For example consider a uniformly charged sphere (ρ, R). Let the origin be at the center. Since
its a spherically symmetric charge distribution,
ρ
∇2 V = −
0
∂2V
   
1 ∂ 2 ∂V 1 ∂ ∂V 1 ρ
⇒ r + 2 sin θ + 2 2 =−
r2 ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ2 0
 
1 ∂ ∂V ρ
∴ 2
r2 =−
r ∂r ∂r 0

27
 Electrostatics

As V (r, θ, φ) = V (r), thus

 
1 d 2 dV ρ
r =−
r2 dr dr 0
Z
dV ρ
∴ r2 =− r2 dr
dr 0
dV ρr 1
∴ =− + C1
dr 30 r2
ρr2 C1
∴ V =− − + C2
60 r
We are evaluating the potential of the sphere and r = 0 lies inside the sphere, hence if C1 6= 0
then at the origin V → −∞. But the distribution is finite and hence potential due to it has to
finite. Since V cannot be infinity so C1 = 0.

ρr2
∴ V =− + C2
60
ρR2
V (R) = V0 = − + C2
60
ρ
∴ V − V0 = (R2 − r2 )
60
Thus for a uniformly charged sphere the potential at any point inside the distribution is given
by
ρ
V (r) = V (R) + (R2 − r2 ) (68)
60

10 Laplace Equation
In a charge free region,
∇2 V = 0 (69)
Clearly the region inside a conductor satisfies the Laplace equation.
In one dimension, the Laplace equation will be sufficient to determine the potential function
if the boundary conditions are known i.e in one dimension the solution would be V =
∂V ∂V
m1 x + m2 (if and are zero) for known values of m1 and m2 .
∂y ∂z

10.1 Solutions of Laplace equation

1. The solutions of Laplace equation do not have maxima or minima in the interior of the
region. They can only have extrema only at the boundaries.
2. The average of the function at the boundaries is equal to the value at the center. For
example if V (x, y, z) = V (z) then for any two values of z, z1 and z2 ,
 
V (z1 ) + V (z2 ) z1 + z2
=V
2 2

11 Uniqueness theorem
If the charge density ρ(~r) is given in a region and the potential V (~r) at all points on the
boundary surface of region is known, then potential at any point in the region V (~r) is uniquely
determined.

28
11.1 First uniqueness theorem Electrostatics

11.1 First uniqueness theorem

The solution to Laplace’s equation in some volume τ is uniquely determined if the potential
function is specified on the boundary surface S of that volume. We will prove this statement
by contradiction. Let V1 (~r) and V2 (~r) be the two possible functions. Assuming

∇2 V1 (~r) = 0
∇2 V2 (~r) = 0

V1S (~r) = V2S (~r) = VS (~r)

Let V3 (~r) = V1 (~r) − V2 (~r)

∴ ∇2 V3 (~r) = ∇2 V1 (~r) − ∇2 V2 (~r) = 0

Also,

∵ V1S (~r) = V2S (~r)

 
V3 (~r) = 0

Thus V3 has to be zero at every point inside the region. In other words since the surface S is the
only boundary here in this situation, V3 cannot have a positive or negative value in the region
enclosed by S because that would mean somewhere in the region V3 is maximum or minimum
which is not the characteristics of solution of Laplace equation.
Hence V1 (~r) = V2 (~r)
Suppose we have a volume τ in which ρ 6= 0, and the potential function V (~r) is specified for
the boundary surface S. Then V (~r) is uniquely determined for every point inside the volume.
We can prove this by the similar approach we had taken earlier. Let V1 and V2 be the two
possible function and there exists another function V3 = V1 − V2 . The potential at the surface
is specified thus
V1S = V2S = VS
That gives V3S = 0
From eq(64) we have
ρ
∇2 V1 = −
0
ρ
∇2 V 2 = −
0
∇2 V1 − ∇2 V2 = 0
∴ ∇2 (V1 − V2 ) = 0
∴ ∇2 V 3 = 0

Hence V3 has to be zero everywhere inside the volume which further means that V1 = V2 .

11.2 Second uniqueness theorem

In the volume τ surrounded by conductors and containing a specified charge density ρ, the
electric field is uniquely determined if the total charge on each conductor is given.
To understand the above statement, we consider the following situation where we have any
no. of conductors, with specified surface charge densities. The charge density ρ of the region
outside the conductors is also given. We have boundaries of this region which are the surfaces of
the conductors and one at infinity. Since the distribution is finite we choose V (∞) = 0. We also

29
11.3 Method of Images Electrostatics

know that conducting surfaces are equipotential surfaces, hence potential at each point on the
conducting surfaces are uniquely determined, let that be V0 . Then by first uniqueness theorem,
we can say that potential function V (~r) at each point in the region is uniquely determined.
From eq(29) we have
~ = −∇V
E
following which we can easily state that the electric field in that region is also unique. If we
move a bit ahead to check over the charge distribution on the surface of the conductor, we can
again prove that the charge distribution on the surface of a conductor is also unique.
Considering the points just outside the surface of the conductors, the electric field is given by,
~ = σ
|E|
0
∴ ~
σ = 0 |E|
~ is uniquely determined, the surface charge density is also uniquely determined.
Since |E|

11.3 Method of Images

This method is just a mere application of second uniqueness theorem. Suppose there is some
charge distribution ρ. To generalise the situation you can consider continuous volume charge
distribution also. Locate the equipotential surfaces, let the potential be V1 , V2 , . . . on those
surfaces, and fit in solid conductors such that its surface coincides with the already determined
equipotential surfaces. Note that we should not disturb the distribution outside the equipo-
tential surfaces throughout the process, and consider for a while that somehow we have pulled
out all the charges inside the equipotential surfaces.22 Since the charge distribution is finite
the potential at infinity is zero, then the potential function is unique in the region because the
potential on the surface of the conductors is known, say V10 , V20 , . . . . Hence the electric field
is also unique. Note that this potential function will be different from the former situation as
the charge distribution is different. We will put charges on the surface of the conductors such
that a time comes when V1 = V10 , V2 = V20 , . . .. To evaluate the amount of charge poured on the
conductors we shall consider one conductor and then we can repeat the process.
Suppose
Z Z volume
Z of any one conductor be τ1 . Then charge which used to be there must be
q= ρ dτ Applying Gauss’s law over that equipotential surface,
τ1
I
~ = q
~ · da
E
0
In the second situation let the charge given to the conductor be Q, and since the electric field
remains unchanged, I
~ = Q
~ · da
E
0
Z Z Z
Thus we have Q = ρ dτ
τ1
The charge on the surface of the conductor has to be same as that was inside its surface.
To sum up, for a given charge distribution due to which there are some equipotential surfaces in
the region, the electric field at any point outside those surfaces is unique and remains unaltered
irrespective of presence of conductors filling up the equipotential surfaces and having the same
charge which used to in that volume.
Actually we deal with problems on charged conductors in just the reverse way as discussed
earlier in this section. The only hard work is find the appropriate charge distribution within
the volume of the conductor.
22
Strictly speaking, you actually don’t need to take out all those charges and the situation
will remain unaltered which you will learn very soon.

30
 Electrostatics

12 Dielectrics
Actually there isn’t any difference between insulator and a dielectric. We call that material
insulator when we deal with its conducting properties and we call it a dielectric when are
interested with its polarization phenomena when it is exposed to an external electric field.

12.1 Non-polar Dielectrics

If the center of positive charges coincide with the center of negative charges in a molecule, then
net dipole moment ~pnet = 0 we say it is a non-polar molecule. Hydrogen(H2 ), nitrogen(N2 ),
oxygen, methane(CH4 ) etc. are non-polar molecules. So any volume of that material has net
zero dipole moment and we say it a non-polar dielectric.

12.2 Polar Dielectrics

When no external electric field is applied, if the center of positive charges doesn’t coincide with
the center of negative charges in a molecule, then net dipole moment ~pnet 6= 0 we say it is
a polar molecule. Water, ammonia(NH3 ), HCl etc. Although each molecule has a permanent
dipole moment, any sufficiently large volume of those materials will have net zero dipole moment
because of the randomly oriented large numbers of dipoles.

12.3 Dielectric polarization

When a non-polar dielectric is exposed in an external electric field E ~ 0 , the negative charge cloud
is shifted in the direction opposite to the direction of the electric field and the positive charge
center is also pulled slightly 23 in the direction of electric field. Therefore the two centres are
separated and the molecule gets distorted and is said to be polarised as a tiny dipole moment is
imparted to each molecule. A immediate question arises in mind that why electric field doesn’t
rips apart the molecule? Obviously if the electric field is strong enough then it could, but why
it has to be that strong? The answer lies within the heart of the question, its your task to figure
it out.
A dielectric with polar molecules also develops a net non-dipole moment but not in the former
fashion. In such material there already exists permanent dipoles, the external electric field
only aligns them in its own direction, all the dipoles are not completely aligned though due to
thermal agitation, but overall it ensures a net dipole moment in direction of external electric
field.
Consider a tiny volume dτ of any kind of dielectric. Let the net dipole moment in that volume
be d~p. We define the polarization vector field as

~ r) = d~p
P(~ (70)
dτ
Consider a non-polar material, such that initially the dipole moment of any small volume
(obviously not of nanometre order or less than that) is zero.
After electric field is applied along positive z direction, let the separation between the positive
and negative centres be s.
Then the dipole moment of one molecule would be
~p0 = qs k̂
where, q represents the total amount positive or negative charge of the molecule.
If there are N molecules per unit volume, in an infinitesimal small volume dτ , no. of molecules
would be N dτ , thus net dipole moment in this volume would be
d~p = N qs dτ k̂
23
positive charges are relatively heavier than the negative charges, hence the shift is small
in comparison to that of the negative charges.

31
12.3 Dielectric polarization Electrostatics

∴ ~ r) = d~p = N qs k̂
P(~
dτ
We can define another vector, ~s, aka ”shift vector” which will be directed from positive center
towards the negative center, because the negative center shifts relatively larger than the positive
center. Thus
~ = −N q~s
P

Bound surface charge density

Suppose again you have a non-polar material which is subjected to a uniform electric field. Let
the shifting of the negative center be s. Consider a small area ∆S at any point on the surface
of the material, and construct a cylinder of length s. To be more general, let the angle between
~s and ∆~S be θ. Charges appearing within this volume would be

Q = qN s∆S cos θ
= P ∆S cos θ
=P~ · ∆~S
~ · ∆S n̂
=P

Since s is very small, this charge Q is fairly the charge on the cosidered surface of the material.
Thus
Q ~ · n̂
σb = =P (71)
∆S

Bound volume charge density

Consider a volume ∆τ within the material. Suppose all the negative charge clouds are shifted
by s. Again consider a small area d~a at any point on the surface of ∆τ and construct a cylinder
over the area and length s. All the charges within this cylinder will be shifted into the volume
∆τ . Then charges entering the volume ∆τ through this area would be

dQ = − qsN da cos θ
= − P da cos θ
=−P ~ · d~a

Hence total charge entering the volume

I
∆Q = − ~ · d~a
P
∆A
Z Z Z
= ~ dτ
(−∇ · P)
∆τ
Z Z Z
= ρb dτ
∆τ

Therefore
Z Z Z
~ dτ = 0
(ρb + ∇ · P) (72)
∆τ

~ = 0 is valid at every
Since eq(72) is valid for any volume ∆τ within the material, ρb + ∇ · P
points within the material. That gives the bound volume charge density
~
ρb = −∇ · P (73)

32
 Electrostatics

13 Electric field due to an uniformly polarized dielectric

For an uniformly polarised spherical dielectric the polarization is
~ r) = P0 k̂
P(~
~ r) = 0 ∴ ρb = 0
Thus ∇ · P(~
Also σb = P0 (~k · ~n) = P0 cos θ
Hence,
~ in = − P0
E
30

14 Linear Dielectric

~ = 0 χe E
P ~ (74)

where χe denotes electric susceptibility.

Example 7: The polarization field in a region is given by

P
 ~ =0 r<a
r
−a
P
 ~ = ke r̂ r>a
r2
in spherical coordinates. Find the bound charge in the region r < 2a.
Solution : Charge on the surface r = a
~ · n̂
σb = P
=−P ~ · r̂
er/a
=−k
r2

e−r/a
∴ σb |r=a = −k
ea2
q1 = σb · (4πa2 )
4kπ
=−
e

~
ρb = − ∇ · P
" #
e−r/a
= − ∇ · k 2 r̂
r
!
1 ∂ −r/a
2 ke
= 2 r
r ∂r r2
1 ke−r/a
= [∵ r 6= 0]
r2 a
Z Z Z
q2 = ρb (r2 dr sin θ dθ dφ)
τ

33
 Electrostatics

Z2a Zπ Z2π
ke−r/a 2
= r dr sin θ dθ dφ
ar2
a 0 0
Z2a
k
= · 4π e−r/a dr
a
a
 
1 1
= 4kπ −
e e2

15 Displacement field
At any point the displacement vector is defined as
~ = 0 E
D ~ +P
~ (75)

~ + P,
Actually it is defined in the process of evaluating the divergence of 0 E ~ which is equal to
ρf (free charge density). Thus using Gauss’s divergence theorem,
I
~ · d~a = qf
D

where qf denotes the total enclosed free charge.

If the dielectric is linear
~ =0 E
D ~ +P~
~ (1 + χe )
=0 E
~ = E
=0 K E ~

where K is called dielectric constant and  is the permittivity of the dielectric. Dielectric
constant depends on the frequency of the electric field.

34