16PH1101 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

UNIT - IV ACOUSTICS AND ULTRASONICS

PART-A
1. Define absorption Co-efficient of a material.

The absorption coefficient of a material is defined as the ratio of the sound energy
absorbed by the surface to that of the total sound energy incident on the surface.

Absorption Co-efficient = Sound energy absorbed by the surface

Total sound energy incident on the surface

2. State Weber –Fechner law

Loudness of the sound is defined as the degree of sensation produced on the ear.
The loudness varies from one observer to another.

L = Log I, L = K Log I This equation is known as Weber –Fechner

law.

3. What are the factors affecting the acoustic quality of a building?

❖ Reverberation time
❖ Focussing and Interference
❖ Echoes and Echelon effect
❖ Resonance
❖ Extraneous noise

4. Define reverberation and reverberation time.

The persistence of audible sound, even after the source has stopped to emit the
sound is called reverberation. The time during which the sound persists in the hall is
called as reverberation time.

5. What is meant by ultrasound and give its properties?

Ultrasound is a sound waves of frequency above the audible range(>20,000 HZ).This

sound waves cannot be heard by human ear.

Properties:

❖ Highly energetic
❖ Travel through longer distances

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❖ Reflected, Refracted and absorbed similar to ordinary sound waves.
❖ Produces heating effect.

6. Why not ultrasonics be produced by passing high frequency alternating current

through a loud speaker?

Ultrasonics cannot be produced by passing high frequency alternating current through

loudspeaker due to following reasons.

❖ Loud speaker coil cannot vibrate at such high frequency

❖ Inductance of the speaker coil becomes so high and practically no current flows
through it.

PART-B

1. Define Magnetostriction effect and explain how it can be applied for the
production of ultrasonics using magnetostriction oscillator.

Magnetostriction effect:

When a magnetic field is applied to a ferromagnetic rod ( iron or

nickel) , ( elongation or contraction ) there is change in dimension of the rod. This is
known as Magnetostriction effect.

Magnetostriction Oscillator:

Construction:

It consists of ferromagnetic rod clamped at the centre AB. A coil L1 is

wound on the end B of the rod & the coil L2 is wound on the end A of the rod. One end
of the coil L1 is connected to the collector (C) of the NPN transistor through
milliammeter and the other end is connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
Variable capacitor (C1) is connected across the coil L1. This circuit is known as tank

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circuit (L1C1) which determines the frequency of the oscillatory circuit. The frequency
of the oscillatory circuit can be tuned by adjusting the variable capacitor C 1 in the tank
circuit. The negative terminal of the battery is connected to the emitter (E) of the
transistor.

Working:

Initially the rod is permeantly magentised by passing direct current. When

the battery is switched on current is passed through the coil L1, due to the flow of current
in the coil L1 there will be change in the magnetization of the rod and hence there is a
change in length of the rod. Now the rod starts vibrating due to magnetosrtiction effect.
When a coil is wounded over the rod the emf will be induced in the coil. This is known
as Converse Magnetostriction effect. Due to this effect an emf is induced in the coil L2.
This emf is applied to the base of the transistor which act as a feedback current.So the
current in the transistor is build up and the vibrations of the rod is maintained. The
frequency of the circuit is adjusted by the variable capacitor and when this frequency is
equal to the frequency of the vibrating rod, resonance occurs.

At resonance , the rod vibrates longitudinally with larger amplitude producing ultrasonic
waves of high frequency along both ends of the rod.

Conditions for Resonance:

Frequency of the oscillatory circuit = Frequency of the vibrating rod

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1 1 E
=
2L 1C1 2l 
Where, ‘l’ is the length of the rod

‘E’ is the young’s modulus of the rod.

‘ρ’ is the density of the material of the rod.

Merits: It is mechanically verasatile

Cost is low

It can produce large acoustical power with high efficiency.

De merits: It can produce frequencies upto 3 MHZ

It is not possible to get constant single frequency because it depends on the

temperature and the degree of magnetization.

As the frequency is inversely proportional to the length of the rod , to increase the
frequency , the length of the rod should be decreased which is practically impossible.

2. Explain with neat sketch ,the constructionand production of ultrasonics using

Piezoelectric oscillator.

Principle:

Inverse piezoelectric effect is the principle of producing ultrasonic waves.

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Inverse piezoelectric effect: When an electric field is applied to the one pair of opposite
faces of the piezoelectric crystals, alternative mechanical deformation is produced on the
other pair of opposite faces of the crystal.

Construction:

It consists of primary (L1 & L2) and secondary circuits (L3). A quartz crystal
is placed between the two parallel plates A and B. This is coupled to the oscillatory
circuit L1C1 throuth the secondary coil L3. A variable capacitor C1 is connected across
the L1 and one end of the capacitor is connected with base of the NPN transistor and the
other is connected with the emitter (E). And also connected to the negative terminal of
the battery. One end of the coil L2 is connected to the collector and the other is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery through the key K.

Working:

When the battery is switched on , the oscillatory circuit is said into the
1
vibrations of a frequency is given by ,
2L 1C1

The current is passed to the coil L1 and L2 and trasfered to the coil L3 due to transformer
action and is fed to the plated A & B. Due to the principle of Inverse piezoelectric effect
the crystal starts vibrating.The frequeny of the oscillatory is adjusted by the capacitor C1
and when this frequency is equal to the frequency of the vibrating crystal , resonance

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occurs.During this resonance piezoelectric crystal vibrates vigorously and ultrasonic
waves are produced.

Conditions for Resonance:

Frequency of the oscillatory circuit = Frequency of the vibrating rod

1 P E
=
2L 1C1 2l 

Where, ‘l’ is the length of the crystal

‘E’ is the young’s modulus of the crystal.

‘ρ’ is the density of the crystal.

‘p’ = 1,2, 3, …. Etc (for fundamental, first over tone, second over tone,
respectively)

Merits: Ultrasound of frequency 500MHZ can be generated.

The output frequency is independent of temperature and humidity.

It is more efficient than Magnetostriction Oscillator.

De Merits: This oscillator is costly.

Cutting and Shaping of the piezoelectric crystal is difficult..

3. Explain factors affecting acoustics of buildings and their remedies.

FACTORS AFFECTING ACOUSTICS OF BUILDING

The following are the factors that affect the acoustics of building:

1. Reverberation time
2. Loudness
3. Focusing and interference effects
4. Echo
5. Echelon effect

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6. Resonance
7. Noise
1. Reverberation time
If the reverberation time is too large within any of the hall that can generate the
overlapping of successive sounds which results in loss of clarity in hearing. If the
reverberation time is too small, the sound is inaudible because of insufficient
loudness. Such a hall is said to be dead for the speakers. Thus, it is very
important that the reverberation time for a hall should not too large to too short.
It should be a certain value and that particular value of the reverberation time is
called the optimum reverberation time.

The optimum reverberation time is not a constant for all types of building and it
varies from one building to another building. Some of the optimum reverberation
times are, for Speeches – 0.5 second, for music – 1 to 2 seconds and for theatres
– 1.1 to 1.5 seconds.

Remedies :
It is possible to control the reverberation time. The following are the
ways to achieve the optimum reverberation time.

1. By having the full capacity of audience in the auditorium.

2. Providing windows and ventilators.
3. By filling sound absorbing materials like wood, fibre, glass etc., inside the
auditorium and even at the back of chairs.
4. Using heavy curtains with folds.
5. The reverberation time can also be optimized by decorating the walls by
pictures and maps and
6. Covering the floors with carpets.

Loudness :

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Loudness is the degree of sensation produced on the ear, it varies from observer
to observer. But it is found that for a single observer the loudness varies from one place
to another in the same hall. This defect is caused due to the bad acoustical construction
of buildings. Sufficient loudness at every point in the hall is an important factor for
satisfactory hearing.

Remedies :

The loudness of sound reaching the audience may be increased by the following ways.

1. Loudspeakers should be placed at the places where we have low loudness.

2. The loudness can also be increased by making reflecting surfaces, whenever
necessary.
3. Loudness can be increased by constructing low ceilings and
4. The wall surface at speaker’s end should be given parabolic shape as shown in
figure. This ensures approximately uniform sound intensity in every part of the
hall or auditorium.

Focusing and interference effects :

In some places of hall, the sound will not be heard properly and the place is said to be
dead space, which is due to the presence of convex or concave surfaces in the hall as
shown in figure. Sometimes the sound waves will have interference pattern because of
ceiling surfaces, which will create maximum intensity of sound in some places and
minimum intensity of sound at other places and hence causing uneven distribution of
sound intensity in the hall.

Remedies :

These problems can be rectified by the following ways :

1. By avoiding curved surfaces or covering the curved surfaces by suitable

absorbents, the focusing can be avoided and

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2. By evenly polishing and decorating with absorbents the interferences effect can
be avoided.

Echoes :

An echo is heard when reflected wave reach the listener 1/7 second after direct sound
wave coming from source. The reflected sound arriving later produces echoes and
causes confusion. The reflected sound arriving earlier than this raises the loudness. If
there are extensive reflecting surfaces in the hall, the reflected and direct sound waves
from stationery wave system thus making the sound intensity distribution bad and
uneven.

Remedies :

Echoes can be avoided by covering walls and ceiling with suitable sound absorbing
materials.

Echelon effect :

Sound produced in front of regular structures like a set of railing or staircase in any
regular spacing of reflecting surfaces, may produce note due to regular repetition of
echoes of the original sound to the observer as shown in figure. This effect is called as
echelon effect.

Example: sound produced from equally spaced steps in a staircase at regular intervels
produces echelon effect.

Remedies :

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1. Covering the staircase with heavy carpets or proper sound absorbing materials to
avoid the reflection of sound.
2. Not providing structures like staircase or set of railings.

Resonance :

Resonance occurs, when a new sound note of frequency matches with standard audio
frequency. Sometimes the window – panel, sections of the wooden portion are thrown
into vibrations to produce new sounds, which results in interference between original
sound and created sound. This is called as resonance and this will create disturbance to
the audience.

Remedies :

1. By providing proper ventilation.

2. By adjusting the reverberation time to the optimum level.
3. Completely eliminated by air conditioning the halls.

Noise

Noise is an unwanted sound produced due to the heavy traffic outside the hall, which
leads to unpleasant effect on the ear. There are three types of noise.

1. Airborne noise
2. Structure borne noise
3. Inside noise

1. Airborne noise
The noise which reaches the hall through open windows, doors and ventilations
are called airborne noise. It produces some more in a dense population area.

Remedies :
1. By making the hall air conditioned, the noise may be eliminated.
2. By allotting proper places for doors and windows and
3. By using double doors and windows with separate frames and by placing
sound absorbing materials in between them.
2. Structure borne noise

The noise that reaches the hall through the structures of the building is called as
structure borne noise. These are produced due to machinery operation, movements of

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furnitures, foot step etc., These sound produce structure vibration giving rise to structure
borne noise.

Remedies :

1. By breaking the continuing of interposing layers by some acoustic insulators and

2. By producing carpets, resident, antivibration mounts etc.,

3. Inside noise

The noise that are produced inside the hall are known as inside noise. For example, the
sound produced ny machineries like typewriters etc., in some offices produces this type
of noise.

Remedies :

1. By placing machineries over absorbing materials or pads.

2. By covering the floor with carpet and
3. By fitting the engine on the floor with the layer of wood between them.

4.Explain the determination of velocity of ultrasonics using an acoustical grating.

Principle: When ultrasonic waves are passed through a liquid due to compression
and rarefaction, longitudinal stationary waves are formed. Under this condition, when
monochromatic light is passed through the liquid perpendicular to stationary waves, the
liquid behaves as a diffraction grating; such a grating is known as acoustic grating.

Construction: Consider a glass vessel containing a liquid. A piezoelectric crystal which

is connected to an oscillatory circuit is placed at the top of the glass vessel. A
monochromatic light (sodium lamp) source is used to pass the light through the liquid. A
collimator consisting of two lenses L1 and L2 is used to focus the light on the glass

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vessel. Telescope used to view the diffraction pattern.

Working:

The piezoelectric crystal is kept at rest position and monochromatic light is passed
through the glass vessel containing the liquid. Single image (or) spot is viewed through
the telescope, which shows that there is no diffraction.

Now, the piezoelectric crystal is set into vibration, at resonance ultrasounds

are produced and is passed through the liquid, these waves get reflected by the walls of
the glass vessel and stationary wave pattern with node and antinode are produced in the
liquid. Thus the liquid behaves as acoustic grating. When monochromatic light is passed
through the liquid (acoustic grating) the light gets diffracted.

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A diffraction pattern consists of central spot and first order image on either side is
viewed through the telescope. The condition for diffraction pattern is,

2d sin  = n  ---------------(1)

Where, d- distance between two successive nodes (or) antinodes.

 - Angle of diffraction

n - Order of the spectrum

 - Wavelength of the monochromatic source of light

If  u is wavelength of ultrasonics, then

 u =2d ---------------(2)

So ,equation (1) becomes  u sin  = n 

n
u = ------------(3)
sin 

But

Velocity of ultrasonics = frequency of ultrasound x wavelength of ultrasound

v = fu  u --------------(4)

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Here Frequency of ultrasound = Frequency of oscillatory circuit, so fu is the frequency
of the ultrasound.

Substitute (3) in (4)

𝑓𝑢 𝑛 𝜆
v=
sinθ
Thus the velocity (or) wavelength of the ultrasonics can be determined using
acoustical grating.

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