TP10 Fundamentals of Power System Modeling v2018-11-12 43rd ANC (FCLeynes)

FUNDAMENTALS OF
POWER SYSTEM MODELING

FORTUNATO C. LEYNES
M BA, P EE, I I EE Fellow , AP EC Engineer
ASEAN Chartered P rof. Engineer
Asst. P rofessor, Departm ent of Electrical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering, UN I VER SI TY OF STO. TOM AS
43rd ANNUAL NATIONAL CONVENTION

INSTITUTE OF INTEGRATED ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS OF THE PHILS., INC.
SMX CONVENTION CENTER
NOVEMBER 16, 2018 1
OUTLINE OF PRESENTATION
MODELS AND SIMULATIONS
POWER SYSTEM MODELING – SHORT
HISTORY
POWER SYSTEM SIMULATION
PER UNIT CALCULATIONS
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES
SEQUENCE NETWORKS
2
WHAT IS A MODEL?
o A MODEL OF A SYSTEM IS ANYTHING AN
“EXPERIMENT” CAN BE APPLIED IN ORDER TO
ANSWER QUESTIONS ABOUT THE SYSTEM;
o INSTEAD, SIMPLIFIED EXPERIMENTS ARE
APPLIED INTO THE SYSTEM;
o THUS, WE HAVE A “SIMPLIFIED SYSTEM” THAT
REFLECTS THE REAL SYSTEM.
Ref.: Power System Simulation

Associate Prof., Docent 3
KTH Royal Institute of Technology
Stockholm, Sweden

THERE ARE MANY TYPES OF MODELS – IN
ENGINEERING, WE MAINLY DEAL WITH
TWO TYPES:
o PHYSICAL MODEL: A PHYSICAL OBJECT THAT
MIMICS SOME PROPERTIES OF A REAL
SYSTEM TO HELP US ANSWER QUESTIONS
ABOUT THE SYSTEM.
o MATHEMATICAL MODEL: A DESCRIPTION OF
THE SYSTEM WHERE THE RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN VARIABLES OF THE SYSTEM ARE
EXPRESSED IN MATHEMATICAL FORM - THE
FORM: EQUATIONS!
Stockholm, Sweden
o MODEL KNOWLEDGE IS STORED IN BOOKS
AND HUMAN MINDS WHICH COMPUTERS
CANNOT ACCESS - THIS MEANS THAT
EQUATIONS NEED TO BE TRANSLATED INTO
COMPUTER READABLE FORM - THE FORM:
COMPUTER PROGRAMS.
o THE ARTIFACTS REPRESENTED BY
MATHEMATICAL MODELS IN A COMPUTER
ARE CALLED VIRTUAL PROTOTYPES (IN
MOST INDUSTRIES AT LEAST).

Stockholm, Sweden

WHAT IS SIMULATION?
o SIMULARE FROM LATIN, MEANS TO
PRETEND. A SIMULATION IS AN EXPERIMENT
PERFORMED ON A MODEL.
o WE FOCUS ON MODELS THAT CAN BE
WRITTEN IN COMPUTER-REPRESENTABLE
FORMS.
o HENCE, WE PERFORM NUMERICAL
EXPERIMENTS BY PERFORMING
COMPUTATIONS IN A COMPUTER.

Stockholm, Sweden
THE VALUE OF SIMULATION IS COMPLETELY

DEPENDENT ON HOW WELL THE MODEL
REPRESENTS THE REAL SYSTEM REGARDING
THE QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED!

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WHY DO WE DEVELOP MODELS

AND PERFORM SIMULATIONS?
TO REDUCE THE LIFETIME COST OF A
SYSTEM.
o IN REQUIREMENTS: TRADE-OFF STUDIES
o IN TEST AND DESIGN: FEWER PROTO –
TYPES
o IN TRAINING: AVOID ACCIDENTS
o IN OPERATION: ANTICIPATE PROBLEMS

Stockholm, Sweden
POWER SYSTEM SIMULATION – SHORT
HISTORY
1929 – THE NEED FOR COMPUTATIONAL AIDS LED
TO THE DESIGN OF A SPECIAL PURPOSE
ANALOG COMPUTER (AC NETWORK
ANALYZER), AN OUTGROWTH OF THE DC
CALCULATING BOARDS USED IN THE VERY
EARLIEST POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS
LATE 1940S – THE EARLIEST APPLICATION OF
DIGITAL COMPUTERS TO SOLVE POWER
SYSTEM PROBLEMS WAS USED
MID 1950S – LARGE-SCALE DIGITAL COMPUTERS
BECAME AVAILABLE
Stockholm, Sweden

HISTORY
BACK IN THE 60S & 70S, ALL SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITIES
WERE IN THE SAME CONDITION: MOST SOFTWARE WAS
OPEN SOURCE DE FACTO AND WAS SHARED AMONG
EXPERTS IN THE AREA.
¾ SOFTWARE FOR POWER FLOW AND TRANSIENT
STABILITY BECAME AVAILABLE AROUND MID 60S.
¾ PROGRAMS RAN IN MAINFRAMES, GE AND
WESTINGHOUSE WERE THE MAIN SERVICE
PROVIDERS.
¾ LARGE COMPANIES THAT HAD MAINFRAMES (FOR
BILLING) STARTED LOOKING INTO USING THEM FOR
POWER SYSTEM STUDIES.
Stockholm, Sweden
HISTORY
¾ BY THE LATE 60S MANY UTILITIES IN THE USA
HAD DEVELOPED THEIR OWN POWER FLOW
AND STABILITY PROGRAMS: PHILADELPHIA
ELECTRIC CO. (PECO) AND BPA'S BECAME
WIDELY USED PROGRAMS FOR PLANNING.
¾ THESE PROGRAMS AND THEIR SOURCE CODE
WERE FREELY GIVEN AWAY (THE TERM "OPEN
SOURCE" DID NOT EXIST YET), AND THE BPA SW
WAS IN THE PUBLIC DOMAIN BECAUSE IT WAS
DEVELOPED BY A US GOV’T ENTITY.

Stockholm, Sweden

HISTORY
¾ BPA AND PECO HAD WELL-KNOWN GROUPS OF
POWER ENGINEERS WHO DEVELOPED,
MAINTAINED AND IMPROVED THE SW
THROUGHOUT THE 70S AND INTO THE 80S.
¾ OTHER POWER COMPANIES THAT USED THESE
SOFTWARE, DID NOT HAVE THEIR OWN GROUPS
TO SUPPORT IT WHILE BPA AND PECO COULD
NOT PROVIDE THE MUCH NEEDED TECHNICAL
SUPPORT.
¾ THUS, VENDORS OF PLANNING SW WHO COULD
PROVIDE SUCH USER SUPPORT ALSO THRIVED
IN PARALLEL.
Stockholm, Sweden
HISTORY
¾ BY THE LATE 80S EVEN PECO AND BPA DECIDED TO

DISBAND THEIR IN-HOUSE EXPERTISE IN SW
DEVELOPMENT AND THE USE OF THESE PACKAGES
DWINDLED.
¾ THERE ARE FEW TRACES OF THESE PROGRAMS LEFT,
EXCEPT FOR THEIR MENTION IN THE TECHNICAL
LITERATURE FROM THOSE DAYS.
PRESENT – THE DIGITAL COMPUTER IS AN INDISPENSABLE

TOOL IN POWER SYSTEM PLANNING WHILE DIFFERENT
POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS SOFTWARE ARE AVAILABLE IN
THE MARKET
Stockholm, Sweden

POWER SYSTEM SIMULATION SOFTWARE'S ARE A CLASS OF
COMPUTER SIMULATION PROGRAMS THAT FOCUS ON THE
OPERATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS. THESE
TYPES OF COMPUTER PROGRAMS ARE USED IN A WIDE
RANGE OF PLANNING AND OPERATIONAL SITUATIONS FOR:
¾ ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION - NUCLEAR,

CONVENTIONAL, RENEWABLE
¾ COMMERCIAL FACILITIES
¾ UTILITY TRANSMISSION
¾ UTILITY DISTRIBUTION
¾ RAILWAY POWER SYSTEMS
¾ INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEMS
14
APPLICATIONS OF POWER SYSTEM SIMULATION
INCLUDE:
¾ LONG-TERM GENERATION AND TRANSMISSION
EXPANSION PLANNING
¾ SHORT-TERM OPERATIONAL SIMULATIONS
¾ MARKET ANALYSIS (E.G., PRICE FORECASTING)
THESE PROGRAMS TYPICALLY MAKE USE OF
MATHEMATICAL OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES SUCH
LINEAR PROGRAMMING, QUADRATIC PROGRAMMING,
AND MIXED INTEGER PROGRAMMING.
15
MOST COMMON POWER SYSTEM

STUDIES
LOAD FLOW STUDIES
SHORT-CIRCUIT STUDIES
STABILITY STUDIES
INSULATION COORDINATION
SYSTEM PROTECTION
COORDINATION
ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS
HARMONIC ANALYSIS
MOTOR-STARTING STUDIES
CABLE AMPACITY STUDIES
GROUND MAT STUDIES
ARC FLASH ANALYSIS
16
TIME DOMAIN OF POWER SYSTEM DYNAMICS

Stockholm, Sweden
18
ADVANTAGES OF USING PER UNIT

CALCULATIONS
• VALUES IN PER UNIT QUANTITIES ARE MUCH EASIER

TO HANDLE
• IMPEDANCES BEING REFERRED TO ONE SIDE OF
THE TRANSFORMER DUE TO TRANSFORMATION
RATIO IS NOT A PROBLEM
• MANUFACTURERS SPECIFY THE IMPEDANCES OF
THEIR EQUIPMENT IN PERCENT (OR PER-UNIT)
USING THE NAMEPLATE RATING OF THE EQUIPMENT.
19

CALCULATIONS (CONT’D):
• THE PER-UNIT IMPEDANCES OF ELECTRICAL

EQUIPMENT OF THE SAME TYPE BUT
DIFFERENT RATINGS USUALLY LIE WITHIN A
NARROW RANGE. THIS MAKES THE DETECTION
OF AN ERRONEOUS IMPEDANCE DATA EASY.
ALSO, IF THE IMPEDANCE OF A PARTICULAR
EQUIPMENT IS NOT KNOWN, IT IS ACCEPTABLE
FOR MOST STUDIES TO SELECT FROM A RANGE
OF TABULATED TYPICAL VALUES.
20
• PER-UNIT REPRESENTATION YIELDS MORE

RELEVANT INFORMATION AND EASILY
CORRELATED DATA.
• NETWORK CALCULATIONS ARE THE SAME FOR
SINGLE-PHASE AND THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS.
THERE IS LESS CHANCE OF MIX-UP BETWEEN
PHASE AND LINE VOLTAGES, SINGLE-PHASE
AND THREE-PHASE POWERS, AND PRIMARY
AND SECONDARY VOLTAGES.
21

• PER-UNIT CALCULATION IS MORE CONVENIENT

TO USE WHEN THE SOLUTION REQUIRES A
DIGITAL COMPUTER
¾ POWER SYSTEM COMPONENTS, I.E.,
GENERATORS, TRANSFORMERS, TRANSMISSION
LINES, ETC. ARE MODELED WITH PER UNIT
IMPEDANCES IN THE DIFFERENT POWER SYSTEM
APPLICATIONS LIKE LOADFLOW, SHORT CIRCUIT,
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY, ELECTROMAGNETIC
TRANSIENTS, ETC.
22
CHOICE OF PER-UNIT VALUES
• CHOOSE ANY TWO OF THE ELECTRICAL
PARAMETERS. IN GENERAL, THE BASE VOLT-
AMPERES AND BASE VOLTAGE ARE CHOSEN.
NOTE: For actual power systems, equipment are rated in
kilovolts, kVA or MVA. Thus, the bases are often
expressed in kV and MVA or kVA.
• CALCULATE THE BASE IMPEDANCE AND BASE

CURRENT
NOTE: The base MVA or kVA will also serve as base for
true/real power and reactive power. The base Z will also
be used as base for resistance and reactance.
23
SINGLE-PHASE SYSTEMS
base voltage, VLN

ZB ,:
base current , I B
base kVA1)
IB
base voltage, kVLN
ZB
base voltage, kVLN u1000
base kVA1)
base voltage, kVLN
24
SINGLE-PHASE SYSTEMS
base voltage, k VLN 2 u 1000

ZB
base kVA1)
base voltage, kVLN 2
ZB
base MVA1)
Base Power , kW1) base kVA1)
Base Power , kVAr1) base kVA1)
25
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
ZB
>base voltage, kV LL / @
3 u1000
base current , I B
base kVA3)
IB
3 base voltage, kVL L
ZB
>base voltage, kV LL / @
3 u1000
base kVA3)
3 base voltage, kVL L
26
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
(base voltage, kVLL ) 2 u1000

ZB
base kVA3)
(base voltage, kVLL ) 2
ZB
base MVA3)
Base Power , kW3) base kVA3)
Base Power , kVAr3) base kVA3)
27
PER UNIT QUANTITIES

actual current
I pu
Base Current ( I B )
actual voltage (kV )
V pu
Base Voltage (kVB )
actual impedance
Z pu
Base impedance ( Z B )
Quantities in percent are per unit ×100.
28
PER UNIT QUANTITIES
actual true power (kW )

Ppu
Base Power (kVAB )
actual reactive power ( kVAr )
Q pu
Base Power ( kVAB )
29
TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT
IMPEDANCE IN P.U. SYSTEM
Zp Zs
n:1
Ip Is
Vp Vs
n = transformation ratio
V p , Vs , I p , I s rated values
Vp Is
n
Vs Ip
30
TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT
IMPEDANCE IN P.U. SYSTEM
Vs Vp / n Vp 1 §¨ V p ·¸
Z eqp Z p n2Z s Z Bs
Is n Ip n2 I p n 2 ¨© I p ¸¹
Z eqp Z p n2Z s
Z pu p since,
Z Bp Z Bp
Vp Z Bp
Vp Z Bp , then Z Bs
where, Z Bp Ip n2
Ip
Zp
Zp Zs
Z eqs Zs n 2 Z p n2Z s
n2 Z pu s
Z Bp Z Bp
Zp
Zs n2
Z eqs n2
Z pu s ? Z pu s Z pu p
Z Bs Z Bs
31
CHANGING THE BASE OF PER

UNIT QUANTITIES
actual impedance, Z (:) actual impedance, Z (:)
Z pu[ old ]
Z B[ old ] base kV[old ] 2 u1000
base kVA[ old ]
Z pu[ old ] base kV[ old ] u 1000
2
Z (: )
base kVA[ old ]
Z B[ new]
base kV u1000
[ new ]
2
base kVA[ new]

Z (: )
Z pu[ new]
Z B[ new]
32
CHANGING THE BASE OF PER
UNIT QUANTITIES
Z pu[ old ] base kV[ old ] u 1000
2
base kVA[ old ]

Z pu[ new]
base kV u1000
[ new ]
2
base kVA[ new]

2
§ base kV[ old ] · § base kVA[ new] ·
Z pu[ new] Z pu[ old ] ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨ base kV ¸ ¨ base kVA ¸
© [ new ] ¹ © [ old ] ¹
2
§ base kV[ old ] · § base MVA[ new] ·
Z pu[ new] Z pu[ old ] ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨ base kV ¸ ¨ base MVA ¸
© [ new ] ¹ © [ old ] ¹
33
kVA BASE FOR MOTORS
kVA/hp hp rating
1.00 Induction < 100 hp

1.00 Synchronous 0.8 pf
0.95 Induction 100 < 999 hp
0.90 Induction ൒ 1000 hp
0.80 Synchronous 1.0 pf
34
SYMMETRICAL
COMPONENTS
35
BALANCED THREE-PHASE SYSTEM

THE FOLLOWING ARE THE BASIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF BALANCED POLYPHASE
SYSTEMS:
1) THE MAGNITUDES OF THE VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
IN EACH PHASE ARE EQUAL.
2) THE PHASE DISPLACEMENTS OF THE VOLTAGE AND
THE CURRENT IN EACH PHASE ARE ALSO EQUAL.
3) THE MUTUAL REACTIONS BETWEEN THE PHASES ARE
REPRESENTED BY THE EQUIVALENT SELF-
IMPEDANCES OF EACH PHASE BECAUSE OF
SYMMETRY.
4) THE SOLUTION OF ONE PHASE YIELDS THE SOLUTION
OF OTHER PHASES AND THE TOTAL SOLUTION.
36
IN DEALING WITH NORMAL OR NEAR NORMAL

OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEMS, THE SLIGHT
UNBALANCES ARE IGNORED AND THEREFORE,
BALANCED OPERATION IS ASSUMED, I.E.,
BALANCED LOADS, BALANCED GENERATOR
OUTPUTS, AND BALANCED LINE/TRANSFORMER
PARAMETERS
37

Ia
Zs
Ea
ZL
Ib Zm
Zs Zm
ZL
Eb Ic Zm
Zs ZL
Ec
Ea I a Z s I a Z L I a Zm Ib Zm Ic Zm
I a Ib Ic 0
Eb Ib Z s Ib Z L Ib Zm I a Zm Ic Zm
Ib Ic Ia
Ec Ic Z s Ic Z L Ic Zm I a Zm Ib Zm
Ia Ic Ib
ª Ea º ª Z s Z L Z m Zm Zm ºªI a º
I a Ib Ic
«E » « Zm Z s Z L Z m Zm »«I »
« b» « »« b »
«¬ Ec »¼ «¬ Zm Zm Z s Z L Z m »¼ «¬ I c »¼ 38
ª Ea º ª Z s Z L 2 Z m 0 0 ºªI a º
«E » « 0 Z s Z L 2 Z m 0 »«I »
« b» « »« b »
«¬ Ec »¼ «¬ 0 0 Z s Z L 2Z m »¼ «¬ I c »¼
Ea
Ia
Z s Z L 2Z m The foregoing gives us a
very simple single-phase
Ib I a 120q solution!
Ic I a 120q
39
UNBALANCED POLYPHASE CIRCUITS
ZF
Z
Balanced Balanced
Source Load
• SAME SIMPLIFICATION AS IN BALANCED

SYSTEMS IS NOT POSSIBLE
40
• CLASSICAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS USING

KIRCHHOFF䇻S LAWS AND SIMULTANEOUS
EQUATIONS ARE VERY DIFFICULT TO SOLVE AND
OFTEN IMPOSSIBLE
• UNBALANCED REACTIONS BETWEEN PHASES
• WHERE ROTATING MACHINES ARE INVOLVED, IT
IS NECESSARY TO INTRODUCE IMPEDANCES
RELATING THE STATOR AND ROTOR CIRCUITS
41

ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION METHODS
¾SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
¾ ALPHA, BETA, ZERO COMPONENTS (POPULARIZED BY
EDITH CLARKE OF GENERAL ELECTRIC)
¾ POSITIVE-PLUS-NEGATIVE, POSITIVE-MINUS-
NEGATIVE, ZERO COMPONENTS
ONLY THE METHOD OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS WILL
BE DISCUSSED
42
CHARLES LEGEYT FORTESCUE DISCUSSED IN
HIS 114-PAGE PAPER “METHOD OF
SYMMETRICAL COORDINATES APPLIED TO THE
SOLUTION OF POLYPHASE NETWORKS”, WHICH
WAS PUBLISHED IN 1918 BY THE THEN AIEE
[NOW IEEE]), THAT ANY SET OF N UNBALANCED
VECTORS CAN BE REPRESENTED BY N SETS OF
BALANCED VECTORS.
• BALANCED SYSTEM CAN BE SIMULATED WITH
SINGLE PHASE PARAMETERS. EASIER TO
ANALYZE AND COMPUTE.
• THREE PHASE UNBALANCED
VECTORSoTHREE BALANCED “SEQUENCE
VECTORS.”
43
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS –
THREE PHASE SYSTEM
• POSITIVE-SEQUENCE COMPONENTS
CONSISTING OF THREE PHASORS EQUAL IN
MAGNITUDE DISPLACED FROM EACH OTHER
BY 120° IN PHASE AND HAVING THE SAME
SEQUENCE AS THE ORIGINAL PHASORS
• NEGATIVE-SEQUENCE COMPONENTS
CONSISTING OF THREE PHASORS EQUAL IN
MAGNITUDE, DISPLACED FROM EACH OTHER
BY 120° IN PHASE AND HAVING A PHASE
SEQUENCE OPPOSITE THAT OF THE
ORIGINAL PHASORS
44
• ZERO-SEQUENCE COMPONENTS CONSISTING
OF THREE PHASORS EQUAL IN MAGNITUDE
AND WITH ZERO PHASE DISPLACEMENT
BETWEEN EACH OTHER
• THE UNBALANCED PHASOR IS EQUAL TO THE
PHASOR SUM OF THE SYMMETRICAL
COMPONENTS OF EACH PHASE, I.E.,
Va Va1 Va 2 Va 0
Vb Vb1 Vb 2 Vb 0
Vc Vc1 Vc 2 Vc 0 45
Vc1 Va1 Va 2
Vb 2
Vb1
Vc 2
Positive Sequence Negative Sequence
Va 0
Va 0 Vb 0 Vc 0 Va
Vc 0
Vc1
Vc Va 2
Va1
Vc 2
Vb 0
Vb
Vb1
Vb 2
Zero Sequence Unbalanced Phasors
46
OPERATOR a
DEFINITION:
The operator a is a phasor with a magnitude
equal to unity with an angle of 120°, i.e.,
a=1/120° X
Function:
Any phasor that is multiplied
a -a2
by the operator a is rotated
counterclockwise by 120°.
This is shown by the phasor -1 1
diagram on the right:
aX a2 -a 47
OPERATOR a
EQUALITIES OF OPERATOR a
LETTER POLAR RECTANGULAR
EXPRESSION FORM FORM
a 1120q 0.500 j 0.866
a2 1240q 0.500 j 0.866
a3 1360q 1 1 j0
a2 a 1 0 0
a 2 a 1 -1 -1
a 3 a 1 a a 2 1240q 0.500 j 0.866
48
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS OF
UNBALANCED THREE-PHASE PHASOR
Va Va 0 Va1 Va 2 Eqn (1)
Vb Vb 0 Vb1 Vb 2 Eqn (2)
Vc Vc 0 Vc1 Vc 2 Eqn (3)
Vc1 Va1 Vb 2 aVa 2 Va 2
Vc 2 a 2Va 2 Va 0 Vb 0 Vc 0
Vb1 a 2Va1 Vb 2
Vc1 aVa1
Vb1
Vc 2
Positive Sequence Negative Sequence Zero Sequence
49
In summary:
1
Va Va 0 Va1 Va 2 Va 0 Va Vb Vc
3
Vb Va 0 a 2Va1 aVa 2 Va1
1
Va aVb a 2Vc
3
Vc Va 0 aVa1 a 2Va 2
Va 2
1
Va a 2Vb aVc
3
50
In summary (matrix form):
ªVa º ª1 1 1 º ªVa 0 º ªVa 0 º ª1 1 1 º ªVa º

«V » « 2 »« » «V » 1« 2 »« »
1 a a » «Va1 » 1 a a V
»« b »
« b» « « a1 » 3«
«¬Vc »¼ «1 a a 2 » «¬Va 2 »¼ «¬Va 2 »¼ «1 a 2 a » «¬Vc »¼
¬ ¼ ¬ ¼
51
POWER INVARIANCE OF
S Va I a* Vb I b* Vc I c*
Substituting the symmetrical components
of the voltages and currents, collect terms,
and with 1 + a + a2 = 0, the process yields:
S 3Va 0 I a*0 3Va1 I a*1 3Va 2 I a*2
52
(SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES)
53

The power system can better be described through a single-line diagram (SLD)
Power system is modeled by an impedance diagram representing the correct

sequence network models (positive-, negative-, or zero-sequence)
54
The sequence impedance of each power system element must be shown in per unit value.
SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES
55
SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES
DEFINITION:
Positive-sequence Va1
impedance (Z2) Z1
I a1
Negative-sequence Va 2
impedance (Z2)
Z2
Ia2
Zero-sequence Va 0
impedance (Z0) Z0
I a0
Sequence impedances of most power system components, i.e.,
rotating machines, transformers, etc., except transmission/
distribution lines, are generally expressed in percent or per unit
based on equipment ratings (kV and kVA or MVA)
56
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
MANUFACTURES PROVIDE THE FOLLOWING DATA:
• ARMATURE RESISTANCE
• DIRECT-AXIS REACTANCES
• QUADRATURE-AXIS REACTANCES
• NEGATIVE-SEQUENCE REACTANCE
• ZERO-ZERO REACTANCE
ARMATURE RESISTANCE IS USUALLY VERY SMALL

COMPARED WITH THE REACTANCES, HENCE, GENERALLY
NEGLECTED FOR SHORT CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS. THE
REACTANCES, ON THE OTHER HAND, ARE REFERRED TO
THE DIRECT-AXIS AND QUADRATURE-AXIS. THE DIRECT-
AXIS REACTANCES ARE COMMONLY USED IN SHORT
CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS.
57
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES –
SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES
¾ Positive-sequence impedance
Xd = direct-axis synchronous reactance
X䇻d = direct-axis transient reactance
X䇿d = direct-axis subtransient reactance
Xd > X’d > X”d
¾ Negative-sequence impedance (salient-pole
machines)
x ' ' d x ' 'q
x2
2
¾ Zero-sequence reactance is smaller than the
positive-sequence reactance 58
TYPICAL SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR PARAMETERS*
Turbo-Generators Water-Wheel Generators Synchronous Condensers Synchronous Motors
(solid rotor) (with dampers)** (general purpose)
Low Ave. High Low Ave. High Low Ave. High Low Ave. High
Reactances (in p.u.)
xd 0.95 1.10 1.45 0.60 1.15 1.45 1.50 1.80 2.20 0.80 1.20 1.50
xq 0.92 1.08 1.42 0.40 0.75 1.00 0.95 1.15 1.40 0.60 0.90 1.10
x'd 0.12 0.23 0.28 0.20 0.37 0.50*** 0.30 0.40 0.60 0.25 0.35 0.45
x'q 0.12 0.23 0.28 0.40 0.75 1.00 0.95 1.15 1.40 0.60 0.90 1.10
x"d 0.07 0.12 0.17 0.13 0.24 0.35 0.18 0.25 0.38 0.20 0.30 0.40
x"q 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.23 0.34 0.45 0.23 0.30 0.43 0.30 0.40 0.50
xp 0.07 0.14 0.21 0.17 0.32 0.40 0.23 0.34 0.45
x2 0.07 0.12 0.17 0.13 0.24 0.35 0.17 0.24 0.37 0.25 0.35 0.45
x0* 0.01 0.10 0.02 0.21 0.03 0.15 0.04 0.27
Resistances (in p.u.)
ra(dc) 0.0015 0.0050 0.0030 0.0200 0.0020 0.0150
r(ac) 0.0030 0.0080 0.0080 0.0150 0.0040 0.0100
r2 0.0250 0.0450 0.0120 0.2000 0.0250 0.0700
Time constants
(in seconds)
T'd0 2.80 5.60 9.20 1.50 5.60 9.50 6.00 9.00 11.50
T'd 0.40 1.10 1.80 0.50 1.80 3.30 1.20 2.00 2.80
T"d = T"q 0.02 0.035 0.05 0.01 0.04 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.05
Ta 0.04 0.16 0.35 0.03 0.15 0.25 0.10 0.10 0.30
Source: Kimbark [19]. Used with permission from the publisher
* x0 varies from about 0.15 to 0.60 of x"d, depending upon winding pitch
**For water-wheel generators without damper windings, x0 is a listed and
x"d = 0.85x'd, x"q = x'q = xq, x2 = (x'd + xq)/2
***For curves shwoing the normal value of x'd of water-wheel-driven generators as a function of kilovolt- 59
ampere rating and speed
*Analysis of Faulted Power System

- P. M. Anderson
REACTANCE VALUES FOR INDUCTION

MOTORS
Subtransient X” (pu)
Induction Motor above 600V 0.17
Induction Motor below 600V 0.25
60
TRANSFORMERS
61
POSITIVE- AND NEGATIVE- SEQUENCE

REACTANCE OF TRANSFORMERS
¾THE POSITIVE- AND NEGATIVE-SEQUENCE

REACTANCES OF TRANSFORMERS ARE EQUAL,
REGARDLESS OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE
TRANSFORMER.
¾THE IMPEDANCE OF SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
WHEN CONNECTED IN TREE-PHASE BANK IS THE SAME
62
ZERO-SEQUENCE REACTANCE OF
TRANSFORMERS
¾FOR THREE-PHASE SHELL TYPE TRANSFORMERS,
THE ZERO-SEQUENCE REACTANCE IS EQUAL TO
THE POSITIVE-SEQUENCE REACTANCE. THE SAME
IS TRUE FOR AND SINGLE-PHASE
TRANSFORMERS.
¾THE ZERO-SEQUENCE REACTANCE OF THE
THREE-PHASE CORE-TYPE TRANSFORMERS IS
SMALLER THAN THE POSITIVE-SEQUENCE
REACTANCE DUE TO THE LEAKAGE OF ZERO-
SEQUENCE FLUX TO THE TRANSFORMER TANK
DURING GROUND FAULTS. 63
TYPICAL PERCENTAGE IMPEDANCES OF

50 HZ THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS *
64
* J.P. Transformer Handbook
IMPEDANCE VALUES OF THREE-PHASE
MEDIUM VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
VOLTAGE RATING kVA RATING % IMPEDANCE
2.4kV – 13.8kV 300 - 500 Not less than 4.5%
2.4kV – 13.8kV 750 – 2,500 5.75%
General Purpose 15 – 1,000 3% to 5.75%

Less than 600V
Typical Values for X/R Ratio of Medium

Voltage Transformers
X/R = 6
65
TRANSMISSION LINES
66
TRANSMISSION LINES –
SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES
¾ THE POSITIVE- AND NEGATIVE-SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES

OF TRANSMISSION LINES ARE EQUAL.
¾ THE ZERO-SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE OF TRANSMISSION
LINES IS OF HIGHER VALUE THAN THE POSITIVE-
SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE DUE TO THE FACT THAT THE
ZERO-SEQUENCE CURRENT MUST RETURN THROUGH
THE EARTH, OR VIA THE EARTH AND GROUND WIRES, IF
THERE ARE ANY.
67
SEQUENCE NETWORKS
68
DEFINITION OF SEQUENCE NETWORKS
POSITIVE-SEQUENCE NETWORK
EA1 = THEVENIN䇻S EQUIVALENT VOLTAGE AS SEEN FROM

THE FAULT POINT
Z1 = THEVENIN䇻S EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE AS SEEN
FROM THE FAULT POINT Ia1
+
Z1
Va1 Ea1 I a1Z1 Ea1 Va1
- 69

NEGATIVE-SEQUENCE
NEGATIVE SEQUENCE NETWORK
Z2 = THEVENIN䇻S EQUIVALENT NEGATIVE-SEQUENCE

IMPEDANCE AS SEEN FROM THE FAULT POINT
Ia2
+
Va 2 Ia2Z2 Z2
Va2
-
70
ZERO-SEQUENCE NETWORK
Z0 = THEVENIN䇻S EQUIVALENT ZERO-SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE

AS SEEN FROM THE FAULT POINT
Ia0
+
Va 0 Ia0Z0 Z0
Va0
-
71
72
73
MERALCO DC CALCULATING BOARD
Photo courtesy of Engr. Eduardo S. Gonzales, former VP of Meralco 74

TP10 Fundamentals of Power System Modeling v2018-11-12 43rd ANC (FCLeynes)

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TP10 Fundamentals of Power System Modeling v2018-11-12 43rd ANC (FCLeynes)

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FUNDAMENTALS OF

POWER SYSTEM MODELING

43rd ANNUAL NATIONAL CONVENTION

Ref.: Power System Simulation

MODELS AND SIMULATIONS

Ref.: Power System Simulation

MODELS AND SIMULATIONS

Ref.: Power System Simulation

THE VALUE OF SIMULATION IS COMPLETELY

Ref.: Power System Simulation

WHY DO WE DEVELOP MODELS

Ref.: Power System Simulation

POWER SYSTEM SIMULATION – SHORT

Ref.: Power System Simulation

POWER SYSTEM SIMULATION – SHORT

¾ BY THE LATE 80S EVEN PECO AND BPA DECIDED TO

PRESENT – THE DIGITAL COMPUTER IS AN INDISPENSABLE

POWER SYSTEM SIMULATION

¾ ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION - NUCLEAR,

MOST COMMON POWER SYSTEM

Ref.: Power System Simulation

PER UNIT CALCULATIONS

ADVANTAGES OF USING PER UNIT

• VALUES IN PER UNIT QUANTITIES ARE MUCH EASIER

PER UNIT CALCULATIONS

• THE PER-UNIT IMPEDANCES OF ELECTRICAL

• PER-UNIT REPRESENTATION YIELDS MORE

PER UNIT CALCULATIONS

• PER-UNIT CALCULATION IS MORE CONVENIENT

• CALCULATE THE BASE IMPEDANCE AND BASE

base voltage, VLN

base voltage, k VLN 2 u 1000

(base voltage, kVLL ) 2 u1000

PER UNIT QUANTITIES

actual true power (kW )

CHANGING THE BASE OF PER

base kVA[ new]

base kVA[ old ]

base kVA[ new]

kVA BASE FOR MOTORS

1.00 Induction < 100 hp

BALANCED THREE-PHASE SYSTEM

IN DEALING WITH NORMAL OR NEAR NORMAL

BALANCED THREE-PHASE SYSTEM

UNBALANCED POLYPHASE CIRCUITS

• SAME SIMPLIFICATION AS IN BALANCED

• CLASSICAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS USING

UNBALANCED POLYPHASE CIRCUITS

Vc1 Va1 Vb 2 aVa 2 Va 2

ªVa º ª1 1 1 º ªVa 0 º ªVa 0 º ª1 1 1 º ªVa º

POWER SYSTEM MODELING

Power system is modeled by an impedance diagram representing the correct

ARMATURE RESISTANCE IS USUALLY VERY SMALL

*Analysis of Faulted Power System

REACTANCE VALUES FOR INDUCTION

Induction Motor above 600V 0.17

Induction Motor below 600V 0.25

POSITIVE- AND NEGATIVE- SEQUENCE

¾THE POSITIVE- AND NEGATIVE-SEQUENCE

TYPICAL PERCENTAGE IMPEDANCES OF

VOLTAGE RATING kVA RATING % IMPEDANCE

2.4kV – 13.8kV 300 - 500 Not less than 4.5%

2.4kV – 13.8kV 750 – 2,500 5.75%

General Purpose 15 – 1,000 3% to 5.75%