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    Second Language Acquisition

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    Jun Prince

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    SECOND LANG! !AGE ACQUISITION: FROM MAIN THEORIES ‘To COMPLEXITY! ‘Vera Licia Menezes de Olivera e Paiva (UMGICNPy/PAPEMIG) INTRODUCTION Larsen-#eeman and Long (1991227) sat that“ least forty “theories of SLA have been propose” and itis my contention hat none of ‘these attempts to explain SLA present thorough explanation forthe ‘phenomenon. Like any other type of learning, language caring is nota linea process, and therefore cannot be deemed es predictable a many ‘models of SLA have hypothesized it tobe, Countess theories have been developed to explain SLA, but most such theories focus merely on the scquisition of syntactic structures and ignore other important aspects Inthe next section, I present brie review ofthe main SLA theories anu then move ont the current tendency to sce SLA as an emergent phenomenon, ‘SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THEORIES Despite the huge number of SLA theories and hypotheses, I will briefly summarize only eight: behaviourism, acculturation, the universal the grammar hypothesis, the comprehension hypothesis, the interaction Tam att na Braga an Ricardo Apo de Soa fr hein sugestons. hypothesis, output hypothesis, sociocultural theory and connectionsm. 1 consider those to he the ones which have caused the greatest impact inthe field Behaviourism Behaviourism gave bith ta stimulus-esponse (S-R) theory which sees language asa set of structures and acquisition as a mater of habit, formation. Ignoring any intemal mechanisms, it takes into aevount the Iinguistic environment snd the stimuli produces. Learning is an observable bbehavioue whichis automatically acquired by means of stimulus and response in the form of mechanical repetition. Thus, acquite a language is to acquire automatic linguistic habits. According to Johnson (2004:18), “(Behaviorism undermined the role of mental processes and viewed leaming as the ability to inductively discover pattems of rule-gaverned ‘behavior ftom the examples provided fo the leer by his or her ‘cavironment” Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991:266) consider that $-R. models offer “litle promises as explanations of SLA, except for perhaps pronunciation and the rote-memorization of formule” ‘This view of language learning gave birth to research on contastive analysis, especially error analysis, the main focus of which i the interference of one's fist language inthe target language. An important reaction to behavioursin was the intelanguage studies, a the simple comparison between first and sevond language neither explained nor described the language produced by SL leamers.Interlanguage studies will be present in othe [A perspectives, as the concern of the area has been ‘mainly with the acquisition of grammatical mosphemes or specific language Acculturation Another envionmena-oriented theory is proposed by Schuman (1978), In his Famous longitudinal investigation of some syntactic aspects ‘with sx lamers ehileen,2adoleseonts, 2 ads), Sehumman wed questionnaires, observed spontaneous conversation fr ten months nd pple a quantitative treatment to the data. He found out that “the subject wo acquired he least amount of English was the one who was the ost socially and psychologically distant fom the‘. group” (p34). In his vow, SLA is the result of aecuturation, which he defines as “ie social and psychological integration ofthe lerer withthe target language (TL) group” (p.28). The acculturation model argues that lamers willbe successful in SLA if there are fewer social and psychological distances between them andthe speakers of the second language. Universal grammar hypothesis ‘As counterpoint othe environmental perspective, Chomsky’s followers to understand SLA in the ligh of his universal grammae (UG) theory, human inate endowssent. Chomsky (1976 is interested inthe nature of language and ses language asa mir ofthe mind. Although he is not coneetned with SLA, his work has been influencing studies in our area, According to his theory, every human being is biologically endowed with a language faculty, she language acquisition device, which is responsible forthe inal state of language development. The UG theory considers that the input from the envionment is insufficient 1o account for language acquisition. Inthe same perspective, White (2003:22) says that {1}; ws ot tha the L2leamer aequres abstract properties that could not have been induced fom te input, this is strongly indicative that principles of UG conseain imtetlanguage grammars, parallel to the station ‘of LI sequisition”, As Mitchel and Myles (2004:94) remind us, “The universal Grammar approach is only interested inthe lamer 36a processor ‘of amin that contains language” and not as a socal being. ‘The research supported by UG theory works mainly with experiments in the form of grammatically and acceptability judgments Comprehension hypothesis Influenced by Chomsky’s assumptions on language asa innate faculty, Krashen developed an influential proposal to explain SLA which he first named as monitor model (Krashen 1978), with emphasis on the contrast between leaming and acquisition, then called it the input hypothesis (Krashen 1985), focusing on the data which feed acquisition, and more recently, comprehension hypothesis (Krashen 2004) emphasizing the mental process as responsible for acquisition, According to Krashen (2004-1), [The Comprehension Hypothesis is closely elated to other hypotheses, The Comprehension Hypothesis refers fo subconscious acquisition, not conscious learning. The result of providing aequirers ‘with comprehensible inputs the emergence of grammatical structure ina predictable onder. A strong afecive fier (eg. high anxiety) ‘wil prevent input fom eaching those pts ofthe bin tt promate language acquisition Krashon's model views aoquisition in linear perspective which not ‘only establishes a cause and effet relationship between input and acquisition but also states thatthe grammatical structure is acquired in a redicable order. Nonetheless, like inthe the theories discussed so ft, his theory doesnot go beyond the acquisition of grammatical structures, Krashen's model lacks esearch evidence, As Cook (1993: 65.6) pots ou *itmakos Sense in ts own ens but snot vera” “The next three theories can be named Intrsctionst SLA theories as all of them conceive language and language leaming 3s social practices Interaction hypothesi COrerattempts to explain SLA are the diferent versions of he ineraton hypothesis defended by Hatch (1978) and by Long (1981, 1996), to name but two who did nt accept Krashen’s Input Hypothesis. Both atch and Long consider that input alone isnot sufficient o explain SLA, Hatch disagrees hat eames first eam statues and then use them in Aiscourse, She considers the reverse possiblity “One leas how to do conversation, one leas how ta intra verbally, nd ot of his interaction -sytctie structures are developed (p44) Based onan empirical study, Long (1981) observed that in conversations between native and nan-atve speakers, there ae more ‘madiiatons in interaction than inthe inp provided by the mative speakers He doesnot eee the postive ole of modified input, but las ‘hat moicatins in interactions are consistently fund in suecessfil SLA, Long (1996-451-2) suggests that negotiation for main, expecially negotiation work that riggers Interaetonal adjustments by the NS or more competent ntocsor, facilitates acquisition because it connects in, intemal leaner capacities, particulary selective attention, snd output in productive ways. Larsensseemsn and Long (1991:266) argue tat he interactions ‘ows are more powerful than other theories “because they invoke both innate and environmental fctrs explain language leaning” I would add ‘at thoy ate the fist view language not oly asa mater of syntactic structures but lso a8 a mater of discourse. Regarding investigation, the ntrsctionist eseteh uses data recorded from free conversation or controlled conversation tasks. ‘Output hypothesis ‘Swain (1985, 1995) also goes aginst Krashen’s radical positon ‘owas the role of input and argues in favour ofthe output hypothesis. She claims that practeing the language helps learners observe ther own. production, which is essential to SLA. I¢ is her contention that “ouspat may stimulate Teamers to move from the semanti, open-end non: ‘deterministic, strategie processing prevalent in comprehension tothe ‘complete grammatical processing noeded for accurate production” (Swain, 1995: 128), She explains that “leamers may notice a gap between what they ‘want to say and what they ean say, leading them to recognize what they do ‘ot know, or know only partially" (p. 126). She highlights that ‘noticing’ is essential to SLA and also hypothesizes that output has other two functions ‘o txt hypothesis and to trigger reflection, a metalinguistie fetion She explains that learners ‘may’ output just to see what works and what does not” (p. 132) and that they refleet upon the language they produce when negotiting meaning because the content of negotiation isthe relation ‘between the meaning they ate trying to express and the language frm A fa as researel is concemed, the investigation in this perspective ‘nave mainly used experiments with contol groups, pre-ets and post-ests ‘Think-aloud protocol was also used in Swain and Lapkin (1995) tose the impact of output upon the learners’ thought processes, CColocara critica so trmo output nap, 99 no lito Sociocultural theory. Sociocultural theory Te sociocultural theory (SCT), based on Vygosskian thoughts, claims that language learning isa socially mediated process. Mediation isa fundamental principle and language is cultural atte tht mets social and psychologiea ets. “rom a social-cultural perspective children’s carly language leaming arses rom processes of meaning-making in collaborative activity with other members of given culture” (Mitchell and Myles, 204-200), Lantolf and Thome 2007) defen that he priniples of the SCT can also apply to SLA. They explain that “SCT is grounded ina perspective that does not separate the individual from the social and infact argues that the individual emerges from social interaction and as such is lays fundamentally social being” (p, 217-8). Is inthe socal word hat ‘he language leamers observe othots using language and imitate them. is also withthe collaboration of other social actors hat leamers move from one stage to another. One ofthe main concepts borrowed fom Vygotsky is ‘scaffolding’, understood as the assistanee one leamer gets from another person (e teachers, watives, classmates) and which enables him or her to perm a leaming task. This phenomenon has been inthe agenda of collaborative leaming research andthe data have been collected mainly by means of audio and video recordings of classes and peer interaction Recall protocols and interviews are also used. Connestionism CConnectonism seeks to explain SLA in terms of mental representations and information processing while rejecting the innate endowment hypothesis. Elman er af (1996) agree that there are universal behaviours, but that does not mean that they are directly contained in our genes. Any leaning is understood as a mater of neural networks. The networks learn in a Parallel Distributed Processing (Rumelhart etal, 1986) Where connections are stengthened or weakened, Language leaming is ‘understood as the processing of experience and the repetition of experiences ‘causing the sengthening ofthe connections. Elis (2007) explains that “our eral apparatus is highly plastic ints nial state” (p. 82), but “the iii state of SLA is no longer aplastic system; itis one that is already tuned and ‘commited tothe L1” (p83). Heads that “inthe L2 situation, forms of low salience may be blocked by prior Lt experience, and all the extra input in the world may not reult in advancement” (p84). In contest withthe linearity ofbehaviourism, connectionism presupposes that some mental processes can occur in a parallel or simultaneous way and that knowledge is distributed among the various interconnections. Thus, leaming does not occur in sequenced sages, but rather in parallel, ie, in different prs ofthe brain simultaneously CConnectonisn, along with other attempts to explain SLA, can be situated in the philosophical and scientific tradition known as emergentsm, ‘whose studies are inspire in the studies ofthe complex systems. Ellis (1998:631) explains emergentism as language representations which emerge “from interactions at all levels fom bean to society". He adds that “{S]imple lestning mechanisms, operating in and across the human systems for perception, motoraeton and cognition as they are exposed to language ata as par ofa social environment, slice to deve the emergence of complex language representations Connections studies usually emplay computer technology either by simulating neura networks in computers or by resoting o computerized corpora. fn the ist cae, researchers creat artificial networks, Fed them with inguistciput and then compare thee ouput to human ouput Corpora, such as CHIL an clstonic corpus of cil language that is Seely avilable onthe internet (htphewncntsinas belies), have also boon used ta study the aquisition af lexical items Inthe nox section, I present my ow interpretation of SLA scquitiion as an emergent phenomenon, namely a achaoteeomplex system, SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AS A CHAOTICICOMPLEX SYSTEM Despite all he research, we stil donot know how languages are leamed. tis dificult to reject any ofthe aforementioned theories as al of them seem reasonable They also seem incomplete though, a they do not Aescrbe the whole SLA phenomenon, only pars oft Language leaning, like anyother typeof Tearing, is not linear process and therefore cannot be deemed as predictable as some ofthese ‘models of acquisition have hypothesized itt be. Minimal differences in initial conditions can cause very different results. Nevertheless, consider thatthe previous attempts fo explain SLA should not be disegarded because when they are pu together they provide a broader view ofthe phenomenon In this new perspective, st SLA model shouldbe regarded ata set of connections within a dynamic system that moves inthe direction ofthe “edge of chaos”, which is understood asa zone of creativity withthe maximum potential for leaning. ‘Chaos theory and the studies on complexity have been influencing ‘many different research fields, including Applied Linguistics, Larsen Freeman (1997), in er inaugural work inthis new perspective, ses “many ‘sciking similarities between the science of chaos/complexity and language and SLA" (p.141), Sho presents several arguments forthe understanding of| language and SLA as complex, non-linear dynamic phenomenon, dynamic ‘meaning growth and change. Larsen-Freeman (2000) ses complexity as “a metaphorical lens through which diverse perspectives can be sceommodated, indeed integrated” (p.173). ‘Thornbury (2001) also argues tat language and language learning share some features with other complex systems. It is dynamic and non- linear; adaptive and feedback sensitive; self-organizing; and emergent. He ‘observes that (the leamer’s grammar restructures ise it responds to incoming data. There seems to be periods of litle change alternating ‘with periods ofa great deal of flux and varcblty, and even some bocksliding, In this way, process grammars are not unlike ather complex systems which fuctuate between chaotic states and states of ily” (48) “There is evidence to suppor the claim that SLA i complex adaptive system due to its inherent ability to ada to different conditions present in both intemal and external eavironmets. As pointed ut by van Lier (1996:170), “we can neither cat tha sming is caused by environmental stimu (he behaviourist position) nor that its genetically determined (te innatst position). Rater, earings the result of complex (end contingent) ntersetions between individual and environment ‘A complex model can accommodate apparently apposed elements in ancl to explain SLA. Figure 1 pariallydeseiesthe way I see SLA. L say “partly” because it docs not show the dynamic interaction among the elements and either shows the changes. In adition, that, many other factors (¢¢ motivation, learning strategies, polities constraints, et.) aren eration in an SLA system and they are not represented in figure 1 ition Inaction vp ‘Neel Connections Sovoeotl medion Fig Second Language acquisition asa complex system ‘Acomplex model can simltancously admit the existence of innate ‘mental sructres and stain that pst ofthe language is cairo by means ‘of repetition and the ration of emtomatic linguist habits. It ean scknowledge the importance of language oflarion (L prefer “afiiton” to acculturation due tothe derogatory meaning ofthe ater) understood asthe Jove of relationship bexween the etme and the second language. Cultural o personal aititions withthe second language work 3 potent el fo move the SLA sytem. Moweover, in such model, inp, neraeton nd ‘outpur ate also considered of paramount importance foe language acquisition as they tigger both neural and sociocultural connections. Each component works as sbsystem embod inthe SLA system, Inthis perspective, language must be understood as a non-linear dynamic system, made up of intersted bio-cognitiv,sacioeutra, historical and political elements, which enable ws to think and actin society. A lnguage snot static object, but sytem in constant movement and its inceractng elements infueneeand are influenced by each other. At language is in evolution, s0 foo SLA and any change in a subsystem can alec other clement inthe network, It develops through dynamic and constant interetion among the subsystems, altemating moments of stability ith moments of turbulence. As complex systems are in constant movement after chaos, understood here asthe optimal moment fo learning, ‘new order arses, nota final static product, but as proces, somthing in constant evolton ‘As Human beings are different, so ae their contexts and so are SLA processes, which are mediate by different human agents and cultural rifts, As a contoquence, snegual learning experiences may occur in very similar situations, When we tam our observation to language teaching practices, we se tha no matter how much teachers plan and develop their classes, students will eact in different ways and unforeseen events will, ineitably be part of ther leaning experiences. The seemingly orderly ‘world of acquisition isin Fact chaotic and chaos seems to be fundamental in such a process, (Out of chaos emerges «new language which isa product ofall the clement involved in the process and which ean be placa incline which has first and second language as two opposing poles (energies or forces), the fis language being the initial condition for SLA. Fist and second languages are both live complex systems which change overtime. As Larsen-Freeman and Cameron (2008.96) explain, “we change a language by using i The fst and seeond languages work as atactrs, An atactoris “a region ofa system into which the system tends to move" (Larsen-Freeman sand Cameron 2008:50) and language developmen swings between these ‘wo poles, The langusge lear tracted a reeled by one ofthese ples and ou ofthis esee of traction and repulsion emerges a third element, namely, interlanguage. Inerlanguage works a8 a strange attractor, highly 1 conditions. Small changes inte initial conditions result in unpredictable shifts in fanguage development. Esch ineranguage phase eld similar yo never identical pattems or szenge stators. SLA consists ofa dynamic interaction among diferent individu and social factors put into movement by inner and socal processes, The random intercon among al the elements ofthe soquisition system yields the changes responsible for acquisition, The ate of change i not predictable snd varies secording to the natre ofthe interactions ammong all the elements ofthe system. lve acquisition sytem i always in movement and never reaches equilibrium, ethough it undergoes periods of more or les stabil In the nex section, Iwill provide some empirical evidence for acquisition a chaotefomplex system. I onde to do that wil sort toa corpus of English language leaning histories (LH) written by Brazilian, Japanese and Finish students (se p/w veramenezescomianfle a, LANGUAGE LEARNING HISTORIES AND SLA THEORIES, ‘As pointed out by Larsen-reeman (2000: 168), *[ Traditionally, the leamer ha been scen from an ete perspective” By choosing a work with language leaning histories (LLHs) and istening to language feamers, we sim at changing the etc perspective int an emic approach, In dong hat, ‘ve tt shit rom objectivsmsubjetviam to expeietialism as we can count on leamers experiences to understand how languages are lard {wil present some LLHS to show some evidence for diferent SLA theories. Diferent report highlight different aspects of SLA, reinforcing ry hypothesis thatthe theories explain only a certain aspect ofa much more ‘complex proses. Bchavirism is present inthe LLHs of Japanese 1), Fimish (2) and Brazilian (3) students (1) I memorized oven complex sentences. Though twas very had, it was worth doing it, [could improve my English (2) The grammar and the most basi and important words I've earned repeating them again and again. It was a good way to eam new language when Iwasa bit younger and sehoolbooks were 8) (..) my father wasabvay bringing me back apes frm the American MV, which I watched one right aller the other every day [ended up memorizing most of them and I rested the ines along ‘withthe hosts, My mother thought I was going eazy, but hat tine yy ears and improved my fheney. ‘These three students seem aware that repetition and memorization were important for their SLA. A diferent perspective canbe inferred fom narrative (4). (4) Lam stil earning English, from the books [ead from the music stent, from the movies and TV series I watch (and I ry to wate ‘them without subtitles), and from all the unconscious (more than conscious) input I receive. (Brazilian student) ‘Example (4) leads us to Input Hypothesis. This Brazilian student is aware ofthe importance of input and ofthe mental processes which transform input ito intake, The importance of input is also reported in (3) by & Finnish student who has the chanee to listen o different ac 8 but ‘whats more salient in the narrative is her awareness ofthe importance of speaking in SLA. t (6) we can finda similar eport by a Braziin student both (5) nd (6) sem to confirm te interactions theories. (6) Lam very eager to speak English everytime Ihave an ‘opportunity todo so, In my join the Old Market Hall meet ot of tourists fom all ver the word, Naturally, most of them spel English That is why Isso ear lois of diferent accents when having conversations with people for itstance fom Ireland, Canada sd Austatia.(..)The other goal is to have courage to speak and doit propery. Tat I can gain only by using the language as much a5, possible in diferent situations. (Finnish stent) (6yTbe ist place I remember fll sing my litle knowledge of English language was in Owto Preto, his gorgeous historical ty close to Belo, famous forts hstory and lots of foreign tourists, 50 ‘whenever I went there [red to dig a chance to speak. wanted rel lie experiences, real wage ofthe language I ove to speak (Brazilian student) CConnectionism can be exemplified by Brazilian students in (7) and 6 (9) developed a system to lem vocabulary. I looked fr al the words withthe same routs and leaned them together, like this: employ, employment, unemployment, employer, employee, et. I ‘compared the words in both Portuguese snd English dictionaries to ‘understand their meanings (8) Lstorted leaning fom my diet contact withthe United States cule, mainly comics and movies By making fee association with cognates and by looking up wor inthe dictionary, I eared words and expressions, Later, the Gequent use of videogames forced me to eam more inorder play them adequately The narators in (7) and (8) refer to mental connections, but they also acknowledge the importance ofthe mediation of elu! aft com, cinema, videogames) an that lads ws not ony tothe inp hypothesis, but stso tthe sociocultural theory. Afilitions tthe faguage ant the United States or England are found in diferent natives. Example (9) presents an exseet fom the LH of very proficient eacher who eared English in Brazil Iwas taken fom «very long narative which ports avery suceesfl English teacher with natie-tike pronunciation. (My objective, however was very clearas a child: wanted to be American. [use (think o mysefsnce I couldnt actually be America, ‘cause Iwas bor in the “wrong place wanted fo be 38 lose to that as I could be The LLhs reveal tht neither the theories nor the LHs can explain the whole SLA process, but hey make us aware that SLA is nota homogeneous process and that unpredictbily isan important fctor underlying itas we wil se inthe next section, ‘The edge of chaos (Order and chaos coexist ina dynamic tension. According to ‘Ockeeman (1997), the system is capable of remarkable things when operating in the narrow zone between order and chaos which is called “edge ‘of chaos”. Ockerman explains that [T]he edge of chaos i a paradoxical state, «spiral chance between ‘order and chaos, humming oscillation between the two extremes, characterized by risk, exploration, experimentation, Here is where the system operates atts highest level of fontioning, where the information procesing takes plac, where risks ae taken and new bbehavior is ried out. And when new behavior emerges that is someliow beneficial othe system, where the system's primary task and operating rules are modified in sucha way tha the system's ‘overall levels of “finess” i improved relative to other systems, we ‘say that the change is innovative; the system has leamed or evolved. (222) (Ockerman ads that ‘There are five factors, or contol parameters, that determine whether «system ean move nt the ee of chaos (or beyond into Aisitogration: the rat of information flow, the degree of diversity, the rchness of connectivity, the level of contained anxiety, sd the ogre of power diferent, In human systems, hese actors combine nto a kind of creative tension where people ae linked to cher in paradoxical relationships of copertin/competiion, inapration/anicy, and conplonceinivduality (group of nitive to ilustrate the process) (p.222) Inan acempto apply those five factors to SLA, we might regard ‘hem asthe rate of exposure othe target language, the diversity of authentic Input, the ichness of interactions, the low level of anxiety, andthe rate of autonomy o conta of one's ow learning. In our corpus of LLHS, there is enough evidence to say that learners axe Jed othe edge of chaos by factors which are not usally described at part ofthe educational context. One of our Breziian narators fo instance, reports how skateboard competitions offered him elevant experiences with the English language. Ise it asthe passpor forthe edge of chaos. He says (10) My first contact with English happened in 1987, when I was leven years old. Itwas an English course in my neighborhood, Actually it was just an introductory couse, really focused on basic English. The classroom activites followed a traditional method, by ‘using non authentic materials, and teacher centered al the time “Then went high school, where English classes are simply afl ‘Every year the same subjects were aught tus, such as ver obs, negative Forms, interrogatve formset, However, the sport ave boon preticing from tat petiod so fa i ful oF English words and expressions, what made me more interested in English, In ct saichoard has been a ‘eatapul to my English fearing process tis ‘common to mest native English speakers in skateboard contest, so had to communicate with thems in order comment the const, or ven about my tm nt, forinstnce. This fist steps whee then, related to communicative leaming proces, since eal use of Janguage was equied inorder to communicate, Slangs and jargons ‘were used all he time, and I did not know what exacty they meant, but could get their meaning through the context we wer in, After that, my interest have increased in many aspects of English such as musi, at end sports, whats just the continuity ofthe process hat ‘began with when I was child [Naratve (10) exemplifies a recurrent patter in EFL leaming in Brazil [Narrators usually portray language learning in high school asa dull experience which deals with impoverished input and focus mainly on tammar end then they al sbout ther experiences which show the SLA system in it ighest level of functioning, represented in (10) bythe learners interactions with his skateboard poor. Inspite of recurent claim that language learning in regular Schools is @ poor experience, our corpus also offers some positive examples ‘Some nansatorsdesrie rich experiences ina regular schoo, as a Brazilian leamer reports in (1). (1 There were classes with 8 students, and 5 days a wok, 3 hours aay, We used to ak in English ll he time, even onside the cas. (mths couse, wing kil was not very well explored. The professor was kind of mediator, comeing mistakes and mang conversation go on, We used to watch videos with native speakers to lear accent and cultural environment, and every Friday we used to listen to music alfilling sup, trying to understand the mesnings by the content Different experiences ean move the system towards SLA. In (10) the rat of exposure to the target language ad the diversity of authentic input ‘were augmented in skateboard competitions. The leaner isin conto of his own leaning and rch interactions re provided by his new context We ean infer that anxiety is lw ashe Seems to enjoy this kindof experienc. This example proves that his acquisition system i open, ie itis not predictable ‘and now elements may ener the sytem an transform it. fn (11) the school so offers good amount of authentic snd diverse input nd it seems tobe ‘enough for that natrator. Ktshibaum (2002) explains that ‘the unpredictability that is thus inherent inthe natural evolution of complex systems then can yield results that ae totally “unpredictable based on knowledge of the original conditions. Such ‘unpredictable results are called emergent properties. Emergent properties thus show bow complex systems ae inherently creative Unpredictability is ound in many Ls, One tant registers that her SLA was all of sudden augmented because she had to move tthe USA to help a cousin take care of her bby. Another narator considers hat his SLA was wiggred by Brasilien TV program teaching English through songs et. Selforganizaton is anther characteristic of complex ystems. {Laysen-Freeman and Cameron (2008:59) explain that [Sometimes sel orgenization leads to new phenomens ona itferet sale o level, a process called ‘emergence’. What emerges 8a result of phase shift is something diferent fom before: & whole that is more than the sum ofits prs and that cannot be explained ‘redetively through the activity ofthe component pats, The LLHs indicate tha phase shifts achieved when stents look for experiences outside their schools in onder to overcome the lack of the sccessary conditions for SLA in school and anew order, orn interianguage phase emerges. This new phase is more than the sum of school activities and experiences outside school. When reading those LLHs, cone realizes that the rate of exposure tothe Language can be inreased by scans ofthe mediation of ultra sefiets~ television, ri, computers, movies, magazines, newspapers, music, on-line interaction ~in ation to face-to-face interaction, mainly with proficient speakers, Some ofthese ‘experiences are reported by Brazilians in (12) and (13) and we ean conclude ‘atthe natators ae aware that now level of inelanguage organization, higher than the previous ont, emerged fom those linguistic socal practices. (12) The one thing tha helped me trough my lesming experince and late on improve my English were the books Te ime L was learning thee was no cable TV and no SAP on TV. So reading books and magazine in English were what kept me connected tothe language outside the classroom. (13) 1just could improve my English, mainly my orl skills, by studying on my own, through songs, movies and cartoons ‘The LLMs show tht the ede of chaos will be reached if students can got sich inp, interact with roficen speakers, nd if they can ute the second language for socal purposes, desing wit different ora, writen or ital gene informal an informal contexts. There is enough evidence o say that learner te Ie othe ee of chaos by factors which are not usually desribed as part ofthe school context. Some formal educational context ry to keep equilibria and init perturbations in order to Keep the established order, teaching nt the language itself, but about the language. By dong tat, they deny the students the pat othe edge of chaos. As Gilstrap (2005:58) points out, “contol mechanisms are finn in place to preserve order, oftentimes sd leading ost polces, iid hierarchies, resistance to change, ‘maintenance ofthe status quo”, This lack of optimal conditions for Ingunge tearing is overcome by the selfonganization ofthe SLA system, Teachers se not in contol oftheir students quisition processes and there will always be some space for alonomy which empowers student o overcome the boundaries posed by the contest. Autonomy or consol of one's own eaming is manifested in desision ‘making by he language learners and by thei bility to overcome social, conomical and politi! constaints which iit thee earning experiences. The dynamicity responsible for nterlanguage development is achieved by the mediation of the SL cultural production and by lamers’ experiences broad or interactions with proficient speakers. These experiences distur) the onder and cause the necessary turbulences to put SLA into movement WHAT'S IN A NAME? THE QUEST FOR A NEW SLA METAPHOR What in a name?” says Juliet to Romeo, trying o persuade him o bandon his sumame which she regarded as her enemy. Can we use the same reasoning ta shandon the acquisition metaphor? ashen was the frst one to tackle the problem when he proposed to Aistingush acquisition from learning. For him, acquisition is sn unconscious process and learing & conscious on, but oer SLA rscatchers have continued using both interchangeably ‘Whena metaphor names phenomenon it highlights one of is spect, but hides others nthe case of acquisition, lnguageis understand 28 commodity, someting he lames (a eipient) scares rom the anes who posses it Stud (1998:5) tells us hat “[S}nce he dawn of evilizaion, human teaming is conceived of as an acquisition of something” and inspired in Lave and Wenger (1991) proposes the priipaion metaphor (becoming ‘member of community) to complement the sequisition metaphor (mind as recipient), Donato (2000), PavlskoL ano (2000) inspired by Start (1998) doend the same ea for SLA. Larsen-Freema (200238) suggests chaostomplexity theory asa retaphorical means to overcome the acquisition versus use! pastcipation dilemma. She argues that such a perspective avoids reductionism and encourages ws tose the interconnections among the parts ofthe system Later, Larsen-Freeman and Cameron (2008) also reject the sequisiton/partiviptory dichotomy and propose ‘development’. They cxplin that it implies the dynamic interaction between a person andthe context andthe ides of «continuous change. Moreover, he tem implies itis nota ready-made system and that Teams have he capacity to eeate their ‘wm patterns with meaning and uses" (p16). though tink wear stil inthe quest fora good metaphor, I ‘would like to join ard (1998: 12) and also defend that [Als researchers, we seem tobe doomed to living reality constructed fom a variety of metaphors. {have to accept the fact, ‘hac metaphors we use while theorizing may be good enough to fit small areas, but none of them slice to cover the entire filed.” In order to filly apprehend whet leaming language is we must go on ‘eying to understand the many aspects ofthat phenomenon, SUMMARY, “This chapter presents a review ofthe main SLA hypothesis and theories and luis that those studies represent differen aspects ofthe same ‘phenomenon. It then proposes that they should be put together sa as to provide a broader and deeper view of SLA. tn onder 0 justify his assumption, excerpts from some English language earning histories ae provided to exemplify how Tears describe thee leaming processes The chapter defends that SLA shouldbe Seen a chaaticleomplex system and closes the reflections with brie discussion of the metaphors which have ben used to deeribe second language leaming. RELATED TOPICS ‘Tobe completed REFERENCES: ‘Chomsky, N. A. (1976) Reflections on Language. New York Pantheon. Cook, V. (1998) Linguistics and Second Language Acquistion, New York, ‘St Martin's Press Donato, R. (200) Sociocultural contributions io understanding the Frsign and second language eassrom, In: Lantolf J.) Saciacaral heory and Second Language Learning. Oxiol: Oxford University Press, 2000. Elis, N. (1998) Emergentism, conneetionism and language leaming. Language Leaming 48:4, pp. 631-664 (2007) The associtve-cognitive CREED. tn: vanPatn, B, Wiliams, J. Theories in Second Language Acquistion: an fnrodeeion Mata, NJ: Laurence Elba 77-98, Elman, JL, eta. (1996) Rethinking Innteness: A Conneetionist Perspective on Development. Cambridge, MA: MIT Pres Gilsteap, DL. 2005) Stange Attactors and Human fateraction: Leading Complex Organizations Through the Use of Metaphors, Complicity. 2 (I), 55.69 Available a 1upvww.compleityandedeation albera.ca COMPLICITY2/Complicity2.him, dawnload 26/12/2004 atch, EM, (1978) Discourse analysis and language acquisition. In Hatch, E. Meus) Second Language Aequision: a book of readings. Rowley, (MA: Newbury House, 401-35, Johnson, M. (2004) Philasophy of Second Language Acquistion, New York: New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press ashes, S.D. (1978) The monitor model for second language sequston, In: Gingras, RC. (Ed) Second-language Acqsstion & Fotsign Language Teaching, Washington: Cente for Applied Linguist. p.l26, (1985) The Input Hypothesis: issues and implications London and New York, Longin, (200) Applying the Comprehension Hypothesis: some suggestions. Paper presented at 13th Intemational Symposium and Book Fair on Language Teaching (English Teachers Association of the Republic of Chins), Tipe, Taiwan, November, 13. Available at usp sdrashen conlariclesita_papefindex i Lantolf, J. & Thome, (2007) Sociocultural theory and second language Teaming tn B. VanPatten & J. Williams 2007) Thevies in second language acquisition :an ntoducion, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Eelbaun, pp 201-224 Lasen-Freeman, D, Long, MH, (1991) Av Introduction to Second Language Acquistion Research, New York Longman, Larse-fecemin,D. (19) "Chioslomplesitysience and second language scquisiton, Applied Linguistics, 18, 141-65 (2000) Second language acquisition and applied linguistics’, drm Revew of Applied Lingsties, 20: 165-181 (2002) Language acquisition and language use fom a chaoscompleity theory perspective. In Kratnsch, C, (Ed) Language Acquistion an language socialization. London, New York: Continuum, 2002, p3-48 Cameron, L. (2008) Complex Systems and Applied Linguistics, Oxford: Oxford University Press Lave and Wenger (1991) Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation, New York: Cambridge University Pres Long, MH. (1981) Input, interaction and second language acquisition. In Wine, H. (ed) Native language and foreign language Acquisition. Anmal ofthe New York Acadeny of Sciences, 319: 259-7, Long, MH. (1996) The role ofthe linguistic envionment in ssond language aoguisiton. In W. Ritchie & T. Bats (Eds), Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. San Diego Academic Press. Mitchell, R Myles, F. 2004) Second Language Learning Theories. 2nd cation. London: Amold ‘Ockerman C. (1997) Fciitaing and Teaming a the edge of chaos: Expuning the context of experiential education, ABE Intemational Conference Proceedings. Available at huperie gov’ BRICDocsidaaeriedocs/content storage 01/00000006/ s0ns/ru61 Pavlenko, A & Lantolf, J (2000) Second Language Learning 88 Participation andthe (e)onstrtion of selves. In Lantolf, J. (Ed) Socincutural Theory and Second Language Learning. Oxford, Oxford Univesity Press, 2000, ‘Rumelhrt, DB eal. (1986) Schemata and sequential thought processes in PDP models: Rumelbat,D.,; Mecelland, J (Eds). Parallel

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