Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 36 (1992) 63-80 63

Elsevier Scientific Publishers Ireland Ltd.

Indigenous phytotherapy of gastrointestinal disorders in a lowland

Mixe community (Oaxaca, Mexico):
Ethnopharmacologic evaluation

M. Heinrich”, H. Rimpler” and N. Antonio Barrerab

“Institut ftir Pharmazeutische Biologie, Albert Ludwigs Universitiit, Schiinzlestr. 1. 7800, Freiburg (F.R.G.) and hEl Barrio de la
Soledad. Oaxaca (Mexico)

(Received June 26, 1990; accepted December 4, 1991)

Gastrointestinal disorders are one of the major health problems in developing countries. Sixty-five plants used popularly in the
treatment of such disorders in a Mixe Indian community in Oaxaca (Mexico) and collected during a fieldstudy of I5 months are
described. According to indigenous criteria a plant is used in the treatment of a certain illness because of the plant’s characteristic
smell and taste. Plants with astringent properties are particularly valued to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. Bitter, aromatic and
bitter-aromatic plants are especially employed to treat gastrointestinal cramps and pain. Additionally, the efficacy of these plants was
evaluated using ethnobotanical, phytochemical and pharmacologic information on the plants. The majority of the plants contain
chemicals that may produce the effects desired by the Mixe. Frequently tannin-containing drugs are used to treat diarrhoea and dysen-
tery. A large number of the plants used by the Mixe in the treatment of gastrointestinal pain contain essential oil or bitter principles.
As a result of this evaluation, plants were selected which should be studied phytochemically and pharmacologically with priority,
to evaluate further their potential in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders.

Key words: gastrointestinal parasites; gastrointestinal medicine; Mixe Indians (Mexico); ethnopharmacologic evaluation; medicinal
plants; ethnobotany

Introduction pharmacopoea). Usually screening programmes to

There have long been two different focuses in
ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacologic research.
One line of interest tried to ellucidate the prin-
ciples that are used by indigenous people to
classify their environment including the plant life
that surrounds them (Berlin et al., 1973; Foster,
1976: 182-187; Messer, 1987; cf. Etkin, 1988).
Other researchers have been more inclined
towards empirical questions. It is the aim of these
studies to evaluate the value of the indigenous
plants as medicine (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis, 1977;
Dominguez and Alcorn, 1985; Caceres et al.,
1987), as well as in wider ecological contexts
(Alcorn, 1984: 475-483; Neugebauer, 1986).
This study on the use of medicinal plants in a
Mexican Indian community has evolved out of our
interest in empirically evaluating indigenous medi-
cine. Purely descriptive studies on the use of me-
dicinal plants by indigenous people are com-
paratively frequent. It is less often attempted to
evaluate the pharmacopoea of a people (ethno-
Correspondence to: M. Heinrich, lnstitut fur Pharmazeutische
Biologie, Albert Ludwigs Universitlt, Schanzlestr. I, 7800,
Freiburg, F.R.G.
evaluate such ethnopharmacopoeas (e.g. screeing
plants against specific microorganisms) are used
for such a purpose. Since the evaluation should be
based on the actual use of the specific plant, this
screening method seemed inappropriate.
Therefore an initial ethnobothanical study in a
Mixe Indian community in Oaxaca (Mexico) was
conducted. Afterwards the efficacy of the plants
was evaluated using a non-experimental method.
It is based on the published information already
available on the plants used. It indicates to what
degree the plant use is based on empirically
verifiable principles or whether symbolic aspects
of healing are of greater relevance.
Additionally, ethnological data on the impor-
tance of a specific plant in the local pharmacopoea
are included. Such ethnological data yield infor-
mation about which plants should be investigated
phytochemically and pharmacologically with
priority. The criteria for such a selection are ac-
cordingly discussed.
Background and Methods
Ethnobotanical research
The land of the Mixe extends mostly through

0378-8741/92/$05.00 0 1992 Elsevier Scientific Publishers Ireland Ltd.

Printed and Published in Ireland
64
the cool and humid mountain areas of the Sierra
de Juarez in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. San Juan
Guichicovi is the only Mixe-speaking community
belonging to the subtropical Istmo de Tehuantepec.
San Juan is the cabecera (centre) of a m~i~ipo
(subdistrict) of the same name. The average annual
temperature is 25.1 “C; the average precipitation is
2254 mm (INEGI, 1987). In 1980 20 000 persons
were living in the municipio, approximately 5500 to
6500 of them in the cabecera (Censo General,
1980: 145-146 and unpublished data). Seventy-
five percent of the population are considered to be
bilingual. A minute fraction of the population
speaks only Spanish. The economy is based on
subsistence agriculture (mostly maize) and on the
production of coffee and citrus fruit.
No detailed monograph on the lowland Mixe is
available. Brief accounts are give by Foster (1969)
and Nahmad (1965; cf. also Wimmer, unpublished
bibliography). The only cultural aspect that has
been dealt with in greater detail is the prehispanic
calendar, which is still in use in some parts of the
municipio (Carrasco et al., 1961; Lipp, 1991;
Weitlaner and Weitlander, 1963).
The language belongs to the macro-nlayan
stock. Mixe vowels are geneally pronounced as in
Spanish. The Mixe words are transcribed as used
by the bilingual teachers of San Juan Guichicovi.
Vowels are similar to Spanish. Additionally (s) or
(5) is used, which is pronounced as a nasalized
Spanish (0). The consonants are pronounced as in
Spanish. A glottal stop (‘) and palatalized con-
sonants and vowels are frequent (written as (ay),
(ky), (my) etc.).
Fairly large differences exist between the curing
method of the various groups of pa ‘am iixp ’
(healers) in the community. The largest group are
‘specialists in home remedies’. These are a group
of practitioners who do not consider themselves
healers, but who ‘only give some plants if a person
is ill’. They are generally knowledgeable with re-
spect to plants that can be used in the treatment of
common, minor illnesses and ailments. Other large
groups are midwives, chupadores (healers that
‘suck out an illness’) e~p~r~ti~t~ and e~piritualistas.
There is one healer who is particularly renowned
for his skills and who treats a large variety of ill-
nesses. While - according to the Mixe - rituals
(e.g. in front of the house altar or in the church)
are of importance for successful therapy in severe
cases, herbal remedies are usually an integral part
of the therapy.
The ethnobothanical data were collected be-
tween November 1985 and December 1986 and in
February and March of 1988. During the first
months all pa ‘am iixp ’ (healers} known in the com-
munity were contacted. Most of the plants men-
tioned in this study were collected together with
the info~ants. A total of 15 healers were inter-
viewed repeatedly and in greater detail. With ap-
proximately 250 other inhabitants structured and
unstructured interviews were conducted. The
following information about the individual plants
were collected: popular name, uses, part(s) used,
mode of preparation and application, doses, time
and duration of application, perceived action of
the plant on the patient, known side reactions,
popular classification of the plant. With 182 in-
habitants structured interviews were conducted, to
get more detailed information on the forms of
treatment of eight popularly recognized illnesses:
r&&r@@ (diarrhoea), jaxk baam (pain of the body),
kopk ba’am (headache), jobt baam (stomach ache),
toy (fever), ts&d’al (susto), wiintooy (evil eye) and
tsubox wiintooy (spirit possession).
Voucher specimens (collection numbers Hein-
rich and Antonia: GUI l-265) are deposited at the
National Herbarium in Mexico D.F. (MEXU) and
at the herbarium of the Institut fur Phar-
mazeutische Biologie (FB, Freiburg, F.R.G.). The
plants were identified at the National Herbarium
in Mexico D.F. (see Heinrich, 1989; Antonio, B.,
1989).
Ethnopharma~o~ogic evaluation of the plants
Until recently no rational procedure has been
available to evaluate the ethnopharmacopeoa of a
people. The most frequent procedure involved the
screening of plants in one or two selected test
systems (e.g. against microorganisms). This fre-
quently excludes the possibility of evaluating the
various plants based on the use they actually have.
Therefore it was out goal to find out whether there
is information available which validates the popu-
lar use of the plants. We used a methodology bas-
ed on the one described by Browner et al. (1988).
Plants which are used ritually or in the form of
external rubs, massages or shower-baths were not
further modes of application is uncertain. There-
fore only plants which are used orally or rectally
(or topically in the case of wounds and skin infec-
tions) have been evaluated further.
The plants which are applied in an empirically
verifiable manner may either be effective, possibly
effective, or ineffective. The plants popularly used
in San Juan are frequently not well studied
phytochemically or pharmacologically. Therefore
the evaluation is based on the info~ation avail-

able on the various plants in the scientific
literature. It is assumed that the more information
validates the popular use of a single plant the more
likely it is to be effective in treating a certain ill-
ness. Consequently four levels of validity were
established:
If no information whatsoever supports the use,
the plant is presumably inactive.
A plant (or a closely related species of the same
genus) which is used in geographically or tem-
porally distinct areas in the treatment of similar
illnesses, is assigned to level one if no further
phytochemical or pharmacologic information
validates the popular use. The use in other areas
presumably increases the likelihood that the
plant is active against this illness. This is the
lowest level of validity.
If in addition to the ethnobotanical data,
phytochemical or pharmacologic information
also validates the use in San Juan Guichicovi,
the plant is assigned to level two. Plants in the
category presumably exert a physiologic action
on the patient and are more likely to be effective
remedies than those in level one.
If ethnobotanical and phytochemical and phar-
macologic information supports the folk use,
the plant is grouped into the level with the
highest degree of confidence: three. ‘Plants
assigned to this level are very likely to be ef-
ficacious remedies.
The results are an indication of our current state
of knowledge on these plants (Ortiz de Montellano
and Browner, 1985: 62) and we hope that this
evaluation will guide further phytochemical and
pharmacologic research on the efficacy and safety
of indigenous medicinal drugs. Plants which are
also used in other areas and that have neither been
studied phytochemically nor pharmacologically in
great detail are likely candidates for further
research.
Additionally we were interested in the frequency
of usage of a given plant. Since the observations
on the frequency of usage could not be quantified,
popularity of a plant was used as an indicator. We
consider information on plants which is more fre-
quently cited by the informants as ethnographical-
ly more valid than information on plants which is
infrequently cited (cf. Alcorn, 1984: 527-528).
Therefore, the plants were divided into three
groups according to the frequency of their being
cited as medicinal by our informants. Plants were
are known to a large number of informants and
65
which are also known to at least three healers are
assigned the ethnographic validity (A). Plants
which are only known to two informants and
which are not known to the healers are assigned
the lowest level (C). B is an intermediate category,
which is used for plants known to several infor-
mants and to one or two healers. Plants that were
cited by only one informant as being medicinal are
not included in the collection. The data on the
ethnographic validity are included in Tables 3, 4
and 5. Accordingly plants with high ethnographic
validity should be investigated phytochemically
and pharmacologically with higher priority than
those with a low ethnographic validity.
Results
Indigenous criteria for plant selection
In order to understand the criteria that are used
to characterize and select a medicinal plant, the in-
formants were asked why a specific plant is consid-
ered to be medicinal. The Mixe distinguish a large
number of qualities of the plants which are used
medicinally (Table 1). Odour and taste of a plant
or its parts are the most important criteria for
deciding against what illness a plant may be used.
These qualities also guide the search for new me-
dicinal plants. To treat infections of the skin plants
with all of the qualities summarized in Table 1,
with the exception of pahk, are used. Aromatic
(cooling) plants are considered particularly useful
to treat illnesses that are associated with fever and
are mostly applied externally. Astringent drugs
(especially the bark of various trees) are valued to
treat diarrhoea and dysentery. Additionally, bitter
plants are used as a supplementary therapy for
TABLE I
PROPERTIES OF MEDICINAL PLANTS ACCORDING
TO INDIGENOUS CRITERIA
iuip hot (like onions)
jumuump hot (like chilli)
pu bk sweet
ra ‘urn bitter
ri’ity astringent
ISU‘tsp burning
u ?y gelatinous (also called nQ tempd)
xujts 00 ‘Is foaming (‘forms foam when rubbed’)
xun sour
xuup aromatic (cooling)
these indications. Bitter, aromatic and aromatic- TABLE 2
bitter plants are particularly valued in the treat-
PREFERRED FORMS OF CURING FOR DIARRHOEA
ment of gastrointestinal cramps and pain. Cough AND STOMACH ACHE BASED ON 182 INTERVIEWS
and other complaints of the respiratory system are (MULTIPLE RESPONSES POSSIBLE)
treated mostly with sweet and sometimes with sour
drugs. A special category is xajtz oo’ts. The foam Mode of application Biness category % (n)
that is formed if one rubs the plant is seen as a hint
tdYn& Jo’ot bahm
for its medicinal properties. (diarrhoea) (stomach pain)
A plant may also have other qualities which pre-
vent its usage or which make it dangerous to External application 3.7 (8) 9.7 (22)
touch. The most important one are ke’ep (burn- Oral application
Tea 64.3 (137) 49.1 (112)
ing), no’op (burning-itching), tuamts (salty), xi’@
Drops 6.1 (13) 2.6 (6)
(hot-itching), u ‘xp (itching). Purging 3.3 (7) 20.2 (46)
The hot/cold dichotomy (cf. Foster and Ander- Tablets 18.3 (39) 9.6 (22)
son, 1976: 39, 59-60, 74-75) is of little importance Rectal application 4.2 (9) 8.8 (20)
in San Juan Guichicovi. In fact, asking whether a
Total responses 99.9 (213) 100 (228)
plant ought to be considered as hot or cold does
not make sense to many informants.

Results of the ethnobotanical study

A total of 213 plants were documented as medic-
inal in San Juan Guichicovi. Of these only four are
used in rituals while the vast majority are applied
orally or topically (the latter in case of skin
diseases). Usually fairly broad illness categories
were given by the informants. One should be
cautious not to equate these indigenous categories
with medical concepts. Sixty three plants are ap-
plied externally in the form of shower baths of
rubs to treat illnesses associated with fever.
Seventy-two are used topically to treat various in-
fections of the skin. Eighteen and 38 are used in
the treatment of respiratory disorders and ‘female
disorders’, respectively (Heinrich, 1989).
Sixty-five are used in the treatment of gastroin-
testinal disorders (see Appendix). All but three of
these are applied orally or also rectally. Thirty and
24 plants, respectively, are used to treatjoot bahm
(stomach ache) or t@‘&z&#(diarrhoea). Ten plants
are used to expel tu’unk (intestinal parasites)
Several of the latter plants are used because they
act as purgatives. They are also used to treat a
rather large variety of illnesses: susto (sudden
fright), fever, stomach ache and even in a few cases
diarrhoea.
To establish the most common forms of applica-
tion of plant remedies, 182 inhabitants of the com-
munity were asked to list their preferred forms of
treatment for eight popularly recognized illnesses.
With respect to diarrhoea (tf#n# and stomach
ache f’joot bu’am) the results are summarized in
Table 2. As can be seen from these data the most
popular form of treatment in both cases is teas.
Commercially available tablets (presumably most-
ly antibiotics) are increasingly becoming popular.
The relatively high percentage of rectal applica-
tions and the use of purges especially to treat stom-
ach pain are also noteworthy.
Ethnopharmacologic evaluation of the plants
Ethnobotanical information that confirms the
use in San Juan is available on 56 of the 63 plants.
The plants are therefore at least effective at level 1.
Our search for ethnobotanical information was
unsuccessful in the remaining seven cases. The
later - according to our evaluation scheme - are
presumably inactive (level 0). The results of the
ethnopharmacologic evaluation indicate that
many plants do contain chemicals that might pro-
duce the desirec physiologic effects (level 2 and 3,
respectively). The results are summarized in Tables
3, 4 and 5.
To facilitate the discussion, the three largest
groups of popularly recognized gastrointestinal ill-
nesses will be discussed separately (for most
references, see Appendix).
Treutment of diarrhoea and dysentery
Diarrhoea and dysentery are two of the major
health problems treated by the healers in San Juan.
Most frequently tannin containing drugs (ti’ity)
are used as in many other countries (Steinegger
and Hansel, 1988: 123). Tannins are effective an-
tidiarrhoeal agents and this type of therapy,
therefore, has to be considered a useful, general
therapy of diarrhoea. The mechanism of action is
still uncertain (Haslam, 1989; Schmid, 1952:
16-20; Verhaeren and Lemli, 1986).
TABLE 3

PLANTS USED ORALLY IN THE TREATMENT OF DIARRHOEA AND DYSENTERY

X, present or used for the given indication; (X), present in minor amounts; ?, uncertain if the plant contains such compounds; A,
B, C, ethnographic validity (A, highest; C, lowest); 0, 1, 2, 3, evaluation (3, presumably active; 2, likely to be active; I, only
ethnobotanical information validates the popular use in San Juan; 0, presumably inactive; see ethnopharmacologic evaluation of the
plants); CO, commercial drug.

Plant Popular Active compounds Evaluation

indication(s) (if known)

Diarrhoea Dysentery Tannins Other

present relevant
compounds
Yes No

Annona muricata X X - 2B
Annona reticulata X X - 2B
Anthurium schlechtendalii X x - OC
ssp. jimenezii
Anthurium schlechtendalii ssp. X x - oc
schlechtendalii
Byrsonima crassifolia X X - 2A
Cissampelos pareira X X X alkaloids(?) IA
Citrus limon
(See Table 4)
Croion repens X x - IA
Guazuma ulmifolia X - 2A
Eugenia acapulcensis X X - 2A
Hymenea courbaril X - 28
Machaerium jloribundum x - OB
Malvaviscus arboreus x - OA
Muss x paradisiaea X saccharides 28
Oryza safiva (CO) X saccharides 3B
Pluchea symphytt$olia
(see Table 4)
Psidium guajava X X - 2A
Psidium guineense X X - 2A
Punica granatum X X - 2A
Quercus glaucescens X X - 2A
Quercus oleoides X X - 2B
Quercus sapotifolia X - 2A
Sinningia incarnata X x - OA
Smilax lanceolata X x - 1B
Spondias purpurea X X - 2A
Zen mays X X saccharides 2A

In a few other cases (Muss x paradisiaca, Oryza
saliva, Zey mars) plant parts which are rich in
starch are used. The main beneficial effect of this
treatment (e.g. using rice water) is the reduction of
the stool volume and consequently the rehydration
of the patient (Molla et al., 1984, 1985). It is
therefore a useful dietary addition (Mohan et al.,
1986).
In several cases neither tannins nor polysac-
charides are known, or it is known that the plant
contains none: Anthurium schlechtendalii, Cis-
sampelos pareira, Machaerium floribundum, Mal-
vaviscus arboreus. Sinningia incarnata and Smilax
lanceolata. Whether these plants exert a physiol-
ogical effect is inknown.
Of all 24 plants used in the treatment of diar-
rhoea and dysentery, one and 15 are active on
levels 3 and 2, respectively. In three cases only
ethnobotanical information validates the use. In
five cases no information whatsoever is available.
Treatment of gastrointestinal pain and cramps
Frequently bitter (tu’am) and/or aromatic (xuup)
plants are used in San Juan to treat
gastrointestinal pain. Especially ‘Amara-aromat-
ica’ and essential oil-containing drugs are useful in
the treatment of gastrointestinal pain and cramps
(Steinegger and Hansel, 1988: 286-298, 304, 595).
A large number of the plants from San Juan con-
tain essential oil or butter principles (see Table 4).
In a few cases the active constituents of the plant
are known and pharmacologic tests have been un-
dertaken: Artemisiu absinthium, Chamomilla
recutita, Mentha x piperita and Ruta graveolens.
Besides these four plants, which are active at
level 3, there are 12 plants active at level 2. No
pharmacologic studies have been undertaken on
these plants. In other cases, no or only minor
amounts of essential oil or bitter compounds are

TABLE 4

PLANTS USED ORALLY IN THE TREATMENT OF STOMACH ACHE AND RELATED DISORDERS (ABBREVIATIONS
SEE TABLE 3)

Plant Popular Active compounds Evalu-

indication(s) (if known) ation

Stomach Other uses Essential Bitter Relevant

ache oil compounds compounds

Abe~moschus mo~chat~ X (Xl lB

Acosmium panamense X intest. cramps IA
Ageratum conyzoides X ? IC
Anethum graveolens (CO) X X 2A
Artemisia absinthium (CO) intest. cramps X X absinthin 3A
Artemisia iudovi~iana ssp. X vomiting X X sesquiter- 2A
mexicana penlactones
Calea urticifolia X hyperacidity 7 IB
Chamomilla recutita (CO) X X bisabolol 3A
Che~opodjum ambro~jojdes
(see Table 5)
Cinnamomum zeylanicum X vorhiting X 2A
(CO)
Citrus limon vomiting mt IA
diarroea
Cocos nuct~era
(see Table 5)
Croton glandulosus X IB
Cymbopogon citratus X indigestion X 2B
Eryngium foetidum X X 2B
Gnaphahum attenuatum X ? IC
Hyptis verticillata X w ? IA
lllicium verum (CO) X X 2A
Lippia alba X X 2A
Mentha x piperita X intest. cramps X 3A
Oxalis acuminata ‘belly ache’ IB
Persea americana X X 2A
Pluchea Syrn~hytI~o~ia ‘belly ache’ 2A
intest. paras.
Polygala variabilis ‘belly ache’ IA
Russelia sarmentosa X X aucubin. 2B
catalpol
Ruta graveolens intest. cramps X arborinine 3A
Seleria nutans X ? IB
Scoparia d&is X ? IA
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis X X ipolamiid 2B
Tagetes Iucida X X 1B
Tana~etum Farthenium ‘belly ache’ X X 2A
(CO) intest. parasites
Zornia thymijolia ‘belly ache’ X OB
 69

TABLE 5

PLANTS USED ORALLY IN THE TREATMENT OF INTESTINAL PARASITES (ABBREVIATIONS SEE TABLE 3)

Plant Popular indication(s) Active Evaluation

compounds
Intest. General Other uses
parasites purgative

Acrocomia mexicana X X - oc
Asclepias curassavica X X cardenolides 2A
(9
Carica papaya X papain 3B
Chenopodium ambrosioides X stomach ache ascaridol 3A
Cocos nucifera X stomach ache IB
Hura polyandra X X hurin (?) 2A
Pedilanthus tithymaloides X X - IA
Pluchea symphytifolia
(see Table 4)
Sechium edule X oc
Tanacetum parthenium
(see Table 4)

known from the species. Thirteen of the plants are three are used externally. Of the remaining 62
accordingly grouped into level 1. One plant is like- plants 36 (58%) contain chemicals that may ex-
ly to be inactive. plain the popular use (29 (47%) and 7 (1 l%),
respectively for effectivity levels 2 and 3); 18 (29%)
Treatment of gastrointestinal parasites and the use are known from other regions to be used for
of purging similar illnesses (effective level 1); and 8 (13%) are
A total of ten plants are being used to treat presumably ineffective.
gastrointestinal parasites (for Pluchea sym- Four of the plant genera have not been studied
phytifolia and Tanacetum parthenium see the phytochemically at all: Oxalis acuminata, Pedilan-
previous paragraphs). Three of the plants are very thus tithymaloides, Sinningia incarnata and Zornia
strong purgatives and their use is associated with thymzfolia. In other cases little information on the
severe side effects. The side reactions of Asclepias plant or information only on other members of the
curassavica are due to the presence of genus is available.
cardenolides. The toxic compounds from Hura
Discussion
polyandra and Pedilanthus tithymaloides are un-
known. Deaths due to the overdosing of A. Ethnobotanical investigations have resulted in a
curassavica and P. tithymaloides are reported by large body of descriptive data (cf. Morton, 1981).
the informants. In both cases approximately three What is needed now are methods to evaluate these
times the curative doses is considered lethal. All data more rigorously (Farnsworth et al., 1985; 965;
these plants are effective purgatives, but due to the Browner et al., 1988: 686; Weniger and Robineau,
side reactions these plants should not be used as 1989) and to select plants that should be in-
therapeutics. vestigated phytochemically and pharmacologically
Chenopodium ambrosioides and Carica papaya with priority. In this article we attempt to con-
are effective antiparasitic remedies. Both contain tribute to the development of such procedures. Af-
well known compounds with antihelmintic activity ter documenting the medicinal plants in San Juan
(Claus and Tyler, 1965: 403-4; Steinegger and it was our goal to evaluate this ethnophar-
Hansel, 1988: 489-90). For Acrocomia mexicana macopoea. A procedure, such as the one outlined
and Cocos nucifera it is unknown whether they in this paper, helps to indicate whether the treat-
evoke any effect. ment used in a community has to be regarded as
an efficacious form of cure or whether symbolic
Overall efficacy of the plants aspects are of greater importance (Moerman,
Of the 65 plants discussed in this paper only 1979).
70
The results of our research clearly demonstrate
that the use of medicinal plants in San Juan
Guichicovi is based on rational criteria. Taste and
smell are used to pre-select plants which may be
used medicinally. The continued use of such a
pIant depends on its efftcacy according to the
observations by the Mixe. The use of medicinal
plants is embedded into a complex cultural context
and is based on indigenous criteria. It is distinct
from the hot/cold classification, which is reported
to be used in many parts of Mexico, Central and
South America (Foster and Anderson, 1976: 39,
59-60,74-75). Systems of plant ~lassi~cation bas-
ed on taste and smell are also reported from other
regions of Oaxaca. Ortiz de Montellano and
Browner (1985) report on the quality ‘astringent’
in the popular medicine and botany of a
Chinantec-speaking community. The importance
of taste and odour is also stressed by Messer (1978:
45-47) using a Zapotec community as an example.
Further studies in other communities will be
necessary to find out whether criteria based on
taste and odour are more widely distributed. How-
ever, there is no unicausal relation between a cer-
tain quality of a plant - according to indigenous
criteria - and its use. For example, not all plants
used in the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery
are astringent. Plants with other qualities, which
are regarded as appropriate, are also used.
Our results demonstrate not only that the use of
medicinal plants in San Juan Guichicovi is based
on rational criteria, but that a relatively large pro-
portion of plants do produce the physiologic ef-
fects desired by the Mixe. The number of effective
remedies used in the community should not be
underestimated. The overal effectiveness of the
Mixe ethnopharmacopoea is comparable to the
results from a Chinantec community (Ortiz de
Montellano and Browner, 1985). Especially the
treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery and
gastrointestinal pain has to be considered as a
useful, general therapy of the unspecific
gastrointestinal diseases prevalent in the com-
munity. With the exception of Caricu papayu and
Chenopodium ambrosioides, the plants used in the
treatment of gastrointestinal parasites or as
purgatives have to be considered as a form of
treatment which is of little therapeutic value. The
use of plants with strong side reactions will -
under the conditions in San Juan Guichicovi - be
a potential health hazard.
This evaluation is the first step for further
phytochemical and pharmacologic investigations.
With increasing knowledge of the constituents of
these plants, more plants may be assigned to levels
2 and 3. One goal ought to be the search for plants
to be used as safe and cheap medication in the
areas where the plants are available. Therefore,
pharmacologic and phytochemical studies on the
medicinal flora of San Juan Guichicovi should
concentrate on those plants which are potentially
of greatest value in treating gastrointestinal
illnesses. Whether the criteria proposed in this
paper (high ethnographic validity and similar uses
in other regions) are sufficient can only be shown
through a more detailed analysis of such plants.
Acknowledgements
We thank all persons who have helped us in the
field and especially the inhabitants of San Juan
Guichicovi and the staff of the Instituto National
Indigenista’s (INI) local centre. Special thanks are
due to Abelardo Ascona, Glafida Figueira, Gon-
zalo Gonzales, Amador MUAOZ,Epifania Pifieda,
Roberto Cervantes Alarcon (INI), Leopold0
Lopez Ordodez (INI), Adelberto Torres Toledo
(INI) and Carlos Viesca TreviAo (UNAM).
The plants were identified at the National Her-
barium in Mexico D.F. We appreciate the help
of D. Lorence A., Francisco Ramos M., T.
Ramamoorthy, R. Torres, Mario Sousa and J.L.
Villaseiror in the identification of difficult
specimens. Thanks are also due to R. Hertel, U.
Kohler, (Freiburg, F.R.G.), K.W. Ankenbrandt
and B. Ortiz de Montellano (both Detroit, U.S.A.)
for help at various stages of the project.
M.H.‘s research in Mexico was partially sup-
ported by the DAAD (Bonn, F.R.G.), by the
Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores (Mexico D. F.)
and the Freiburger Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft
(F.R.G. j.
Appendix
Plants used in the treatment of gastrointestinal
disorders
*Very common plants, no voucher specimen col-
lected.
Abelmoschus moschatus Med. (Malvaceae, GCIlr51)
effective level 1B
Reports from the Huastec (Alcorn, 1984: 528)
validate the folk use of the combined leaves,
Bowers and seeds to treat stomach pain in San
Juan. It is also - as in many other regions of Cen-
tral America and the Caribbean -- renowned for

its properties to cure snake-bites (Martinez, 1969:
490-492.; Morton, 1981: 515). Whether the
mucilage or the essential oil (farnesol 0.12% in
seeds, ambretolide and ester thereof) produce a
physiologic effect is unknown (Hegnauer, 1969:
34, 42).
Acosmium panamense (Benth.) Yakov (Fabaceae-
Cadieae, GUI 22) effective level 1A
Ethnobotanical data from a Zapotec communi-
ty in Oaxaca validate the use of the bark in the
treatment of stomach cramps (Heinrich et al.,
1990).
Acrocomia mexicana Karw. ex Mart. (Arecaceae,
GUI 241) not effective OC
The treatment of intestinal parasites with the
oil-rich seeds is unlikely to produce specific effects
on the parasites. It acts as a mild purgative.
Ageratum conyzoides L. (Asteraceae-Eupatorieae,
GUI 259) effective level 1C
The plant is also used in other parts of Central
America and in the Philippines to treat stomach
ache and similar complaints (Perry and Metzger,
1980: 83; Morton, 1981: 902). Numerous com-
pounds have been isolated from the plant: essential
oil with monoterpenes (sabinene, P-pinene), ses-
quiterpenes (especially germacrene D, P-caryo-
phyllene) and phenylpropanes (eugenol); a (Asteraceae-Anthemideae,
triterpene (friedelin), polyoxygenated flavones,
benzofuranes and coumarins (Hegnauer 1964: 453;
Dominguez, 1977: 494; Proksch and Rodriguez,
1983; Vyas and A. Mulchandani, 1986; Bennet et
al., 1988 and Ekundayo et al., 1988). The
physiologic effects of these compounds are
unknown.
Anethum graveolens L. (Apiaceae, GUI 38) effec-
tive level 2A
The use of the fruit to treat stomach pain is
widely distributed (Perry and Metzger, 1980: 410;
Morton, 1981: 642). The essential oil (monoter-
penes and phenylpropanes: dillapiol, myristicin
and isomyristicine) act as mild carminative and
stomachic (List and Hlirhammer, 1972: 86-88).
Additionally flavonoids and their glycosides
(quercetin- and kaempferol-glycosides) and
coumarins (scopoletin, anethum-coumarin) are
known from the fruit (Hegnauer, 1973; 575, 604,
618, 766).
71
Annona muricata L. (GUI 208) and Annona
reticulata L. (GUI 194) (both Annonaceae) effec-
tive level 2B
The bark is used in the treatment of diarrhoea.
Similar uses are reported from the Huastec
(Alcorn, 1984: 544-545) and African cultures
(Sengbusch and Dippold, 1980: 170). The tannins
which have been isolated from the bark
(Hegnauer, 1964: 120, 1989: 43-44,50; Leboeuf et
al., 1982) are presumably the active constituents.
Anthurium schlechtendalii ssp. jimenezii (Matude)
Croat (GUI 98) and Anthurium schlechtendalii ssp.
schlechtendalii Kunth. (GUI 179, Araceae) not ef-
fective OC
No data are available to validate the use in the
treatment of diarrhoea. Both plants might produce
side reactions due to the presence of cyanogenic
glycosides (Hegnauer, 1963: 82-85, 1986: 583).
Artemisia absinthium L. (Asteraceae-Anthemi-
deae, GUI 171) effective level 3A
The use of the leaves in the treatment of stom-
ach ache is widely distributed (Morton, 198 1: 909)
and has been introduced into San Juan. Absinthin
is especially known to be very bitter, to stimulate
the appetite and to have weak antihelminthic pro-
perties (List and Hiirhammer, 1972: 256;
Schneider and Mielke, 1979).
Artemisia ludoviciana ssp. mexicana Nutt.
GUI 1) effective level
2A
The use of the plant is similar to the use of
Artemisia absinthium and is also widely
distributed: U.S.A., Huastec Indians of Mexico,
Guatemala and other parts of Central Americas
(Morton, 1981: 909; Alcorn, 1984: 550). As Zz-
tauhyatl it was part of the folk pharmacopoea of
the Aztec (Ortiz de Montellano, 1975). No data
are available on pharmacologic tests performed
with the plant, but the essential oil (rich in
monoterpenes; limonene, borne01 and ses-
quiterpenelactones: arglanine, douglanine,
estaliatin, crisartemin A) contributes to the
physiological effect (List and H&hammer, 1972:
276; Lozoya and Lozoya, 1982: 45-59).
Asclepias curassavica L. (Asclepiadaceae, GUI 12)
effective level 2A
This is one of the strongest purgatives known to
the Mixe and it is especially used to treat infections
with intestinal parasites. It is also used in other
illnesses if purgation is desired as part of the
72
therapy. Similar usages are reported from the
Huastec (Alcorn, 1984: 552). Numerous cardeno-
lides are known from this species and from other
members of the genus: uscharine, uscharidine,
calotropine, calactine, calotoxine, calotropagenin
(Seiber et al., 1982). These contribute to the
purgative effect (Benson, J.M. et al., 1979; Kelly et
al., 1988). The strong side-reactions of the plant
that may lead to death are feared by the Mixe and
therefore the plant is now frequently being
substituted by magnesium hydroxide.
Buddleja americana L. (Loganiaceae, GUI 99) not
evaluated
The leaves are used externally to massage the
belly in case of stomach pain.
Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) H.B.K. (Malphigiaceae,
GUI 65) effective level 2A
The bark is also used in Guyana and Cuba
(Morton, 1981: 413) to treat diarrhoea. High con-
centration of tannins (2%40%) are reported from
the bark (Hegnauer, 1969: 26).
Calea urticifolia (Mill.) D.C. T. (Asteraceae-
Heliantheae, GUZ 85) effective level 1B
A popular digestive in many parts of Mexico
(Martinez, 1969: 348), which is used in San Juan
Guichicovi against stomach ache and acidity of the
stomach. It is unknown whether the sesquiterpenes
and benzofurans known from the species exert any
effect on the gastrointestinal tract (Seaman 1982;
Proksch and Rodriguez, 1983).
Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae, G CJ12.39) effective
level 3B
The continuous use of the fruit milk in the treat-
ment of gastrointestinal parasites in many parts of
South America (Dragendorff, 1967: 454; Martinez,
1969: 241-244) and the presence of papain with
proteolytic and antihelminthic properties validates
the popular use in San Juan (List and Hiirhammer,
1972: 714, Emeruwa, 1982; Hegnauer, 1989: 213).
Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert (Asteraceae-
Anthemideae, GUI 73) effective level 3A
Manzanilla is well known in many parts of the
world for its antiphlogistic action and for curing
mild stomach disorders. In San Juan Guichicovi
the plant is used for similar indications. A
spasmolytic effect has been demonstrated on the
guinea pig ileum and the plant also acts against
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
Numerous compounds have been isolated from
this plant which interact to produce these effects:
flavonoids (apigenin-, luteolin- and quercetin-
derivates), mucilage and especially essential oil
with sesquiterpenes (bisabolol, prochamazulen,
chamazulene, bisabololoxid A, B, farnesene),
(Hegnauer, 1964: 452-537; Jakovlev and
Schlichtegroll, 1969; Forster et al., 1980; Cinco et
al., 1983; Hartke and Mutschler, 1986; 2061-2065;
Carle et al., 1987).
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. (Chenopodiaceae,
GUI 27) effective level 3A
This plant is well known (Morton, 198 1:
176- 179; Alcorn, 1984: 595) for the antihelminthic
action of the monoterpene ascardiol (Donatelli,
1935; Lozoya and Lozoya, 1982: 31-44). The use
by the Mixe in case of parasitosis and related
gastrointestinal complaints is therefore a useful
treatment (Hegnauer, 1964; 4 19-422; Martinez,
1969: 127-128). Side effects in case of overdosing
(especially when using the extracted essential oil)
are possible (Rezza and Soragni, 1951).
Cinnamomum zeylanicum B 1. (Lauraceae, GUI
90*) effective level 2A
This introduced plant is used to treat vomiting
and stomach pain. Similar uses are widespread
(Dragendorff, 1967: 238). A vasoconstrictoric and
antihelminthic activity is known (Bennet et al.,
1988). Especially eugenol (with an inhibitory ac-
tion on the biosynthesis of prostaglandin and in-
hibitory action on smooth muscles) and essential
oil with monoterpenes (camphor), diterpenenes,
sesquiterpenes (caryophyllene etc.) and phenyl-
propanes (cinnamomic aldehyde, benzaldehyde)
were isolated. Tannins have been reported from
the bark (Hegnauer, 1966: 355, 1989: 644,650; List
and Hoi-hammer, 1973: 58-71).
Cissampelos pareira L. (Menispermaceae, GUI
113) effective level 1A
The root is also used in Sri Lanka and India to
treat dysentery and is popular in many parts of the
world to treat a wide variety of illnesses (Dragen-
dorff, 1967; 236; Morton, 1981: 217). The drug is
reported to have curariform activity and another
species has been shown to possess local anesthetic
activity (Basu, 1970, Gorinsky et al., 1972).
Whether the isoquinoline alkaloids (hayatine,
hayatidine, hayatinine, etc.), bisbenzylisoquino-
line alkaloids (dimethylwarifteine, methylwarif-
teine, warifteine) and protoberine alkaloids
(cyclanolinechloride) isolated from the plant con-
tribute to this effect is unknown. (Pradhan and De,

1959; Srivastava and Khare, 1964; Bhatnagar and
Popli, 1967; Answer et al., 1968; Dwuma-Badu et
al., 1975; Borkakoti and Palmer, 1978).
Citrus limon (L.) Burm. (Rutaceae, GUI 166) effec-
tive level 1A
The fruit juice is particularly valued to treat
vomiting and vomiting associated with diarrhoea.
The use for these indications is widely distributed
(Morton, 1981: 373-377). Citric acid is the main
constituent of the fruit juice. Limonoids,
flavonoids, vitamin C and various sugars are also
known (Hegnauer, 1973: 177-210, 215-217; List
and Hiirhammer, 1973: 93-94; Maier, 1983).
Whether these compounds exert any specific ac-
tion on the gastrointestinal tract is uncertain.
Cocos nucifera L. (Arecaceae, GUI 235*) effective
level 1B
The use of coconut milk against gastrointestinal
parasites is widely distributed in the Caribbean.
No active constituents are known from the plant
(List and Horhammer, 1973: 183; Hegnauer, 1986:
749-756).
Croton glandulosus L. (Euphorbiaceae, GUI 119)
effective level 1B
The use of members of this genus in the treat-
ment of stomach ache is also reported from
Guatemala and the U.S.A. (Dragendorff, 1967:
377; Reis, 1973: 151; Reis and Lipp, 1982: 156).
Several species of the genus show activity against
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria
(Nickell, 1959). Essential oil (0.04%), diterpenes
and alkaloids are known from the genus
(Hegnauer, 1966: 119-122,461; Farnsworth et al.,
1969).
Croton repens Schlecht. (Euphorbiaceae, GUI 167)
effective level 1A
This species is reported to be used in the treat-
ment of dysentery and heavy diarrhoea in
Guatemala (Reis, 1973; 151). No compounds re-
sponsible for this action are known. Several spe-
cies of the genus show activity against Gram-
positive and Gram-negative bacteria (Nickell,
1959; see also C. glandulosus).
Cymbopogon citratus (D.C.) Stapf. (Poacea, GUI
133) effective level 2B
The use in the treatment of stomach pain is
reported from the Huastec (Alcorn, 1984: 621).
The essential oil with monoterpenes (especially
citral (70-80%) and myrcene (approx. 20%)) is
73
assumed to contribute to this action, but its activi-
ty has not been proven (Hegnauer, 1963: 187;
BGA, 1988).
Eryngium foetidum L. (Apiaceae, GUI 2) effective
level 2B
The use in the treatment of stomach ache (‘air in
the belly’) is also reported from the Caribbean,
South America, Panama, the Malay Peninsula (in
combination with Scoparia dulcis) (Dragendorff,
1967: 485; Reis, 1973: 212; Perrry and Metzger,
1980: 385; Morton, 1981: 647-648). The extract is
active against Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus
aureus (Nickel& 1959: 292; Goncalves de L.,
1962/3: 271). The aqueous extract of the aerial
parts act as anti-spasmodics on cramps induced by
picrotoxine (Simon and Singh, 1986). Especially
essential oil (0.03% from the fresh plant) with
dodec-2-en-l-01 (major fraction), monoterpenes
(cr-pinene, fenchylalcohol, furfurol) and couma-
rins are known (Hegnauer, 1973: 601; Pinar and
Galan, 1985).
Eugenia acapulcensis Steud. (Myrtaceae, GUI 140)
effective level 2A
The use of bark and leaves of other members of
this genus in the treatment of dysentery is also
reported from Cuba (Morton, 1981: 624) and
Brazil (Filho et al., 1985). Tannins are presumably
the active constituents of the plant (Bate-Smith,
1962: 147; Hegnauer, 1969: 186; List and Horham-
mer, 1973: 861-863; Nonaka et al., 1987).
Gnaphalium attenuatum DC. (Asteraceae-
Inuleae, GUI 260) effective level 1C
Ethnobotanical data validate the popular use in
the treatment of stomach pain (Reis, 1973: 312).
Guazuma ulmifolia Lam. (Sterculiaceae, GUI 64)
effective level 2A
The bark, which is used in the treatment of diar-
rhoea in San Juan, is also used by the Huastec and
was listed in the Mexican Pharmacopoea
(Sociedad Farmaceutica Mexicana, 1952: 232;
Alcorn, 1984: 661). Leaves and bark are rich in
tannins (List and Horhammer, 1973: 1210).
Hura polyandra Baillon (Euphorbiaceae, GUI 1.54)
effective level 2A
This tree, which was introduced into San Juan
at the end of the last century, was used as a strong
purgative, especially in cases of gastrointestinal
parasites. This use is also reported from
Guatemala. Other species of the same genus are
used in various parts of America for the same pur-
pose (Morton, 1981: 447). Di- and triterpenes
(latex), flavonoids (leaves) and lectins (latex) are
known. The lectins hurin and crepitin are
presumably responsible for the purgative action
(List and Horhammer, 1976: 109; Barbieri et al.,
1983; Rizk, 1987). The toxicity of the tree is feared
by the Mixe and the latex is no longer used.
Hymenaea courbaril L. (Caesalpinaceae-Detari-
eae, GUI 81) effective level 2B
The use in the treatment of diarrhoea is also
reported from Costa Rica and Venezuela (Morton,
198 1: 322). The bark is active against Staphylococ-
cus aureus and Bacillus subtilis (Verpoorte and
Dihal, 1987). Sesquiterpenes and tannins as well as
a diterpene (copalic acid) are known from the
leaves and wood, respectively (Harborne, 1971:
264; Crankshaw and Langenheim, 1981).
Hyptis verticillata Jacq. (Lamiaceae, GUI 14) ef-
fective level 1A
Ethnobotanical data validate the popular use to
treat stomach cramps (Alcorn, 1984: 672).
Lignanes (e.g. fl-peltatine), some with antimitotic
action (podophyllotoxine), were isolated from H.
verticillata (German, 1971). Other species yield
essential oil with mono- and sesquiterpenes.
Diterpenes, triterpenes and lactones are reported
for several species of Hyptis (Hegnauer, 1966: 3 13;
Misra et al., 1983; Mukherjee et al., 1984; Luz et
al., 1984; Achmad et al., 1987).
Zllicium verum Hook f. (Illiciaceae, GUI 84) effec-
tive level 2A
Introduced from Asia, this plant is popularly
used in San Juan to treat gastrointestinal pain
(Perry and Metzger, 1980: 180- 181). Especially
essential oil with phenylpropanes (anethol
(80-95%) isoanethol and anisaldehyde) and
monoterpenes ((+)-pinene, a-pinene, a-phellan-
drene) are known from the fruits and are responsi-
ble for the carminative action (List and
Horhanmrer, 1976: 228-231).
Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E.Br. (Verbenaceae, GUI 79)
effective level 2A
The use of the leaves in the treatment of
gastrointestinal pain is also reported from
Curacao (Sengbusch and Dippold, 1980: 244). The
plant is very rich in essential oil and also contains
an iridoid (geniposide). These act as mild car-
minatives (Craveiro et al., 1981; Heni 1987).
Machaerium ji’oribundum Benth. (Fabaceae-
Pterocarpeae, GUI 75) not effective OB
No ethnobotanical data are available to validate
the use of this plant in San Juan to treat diarrhoea.
Malvaviscus arboreus Cav. (Malvaceae, GUI 93)
not effective OA
While the plant is presumably useful in the treat-
ment of post-partum problems (the other popular
use in San Juan) the use of leaves, flowers and seed
to treat gastrointestinal pain is not validated by
any ethnobotanical or other information. No
phytochemical information is available on this
species. From M. conzattii sesquiterpenes (farn-
esol), triterpenes, a flavonoid (kaempferol), a
purin-alkaloid (allantoin) and malvidinchloride
are known (Hegnauer 1969: 35; Achari et al.,
1984).
Mentha x piperita L. (Lamiaceae, GUI 95) effec-
tive level 3A
A very common folk remedy (Morton, 1981:
771/2; Alcorn, 1984: 704) which is used as a mild
spasmolytic. This action has been demonstrated
pharmacologically (Forster et al., 1980). Especially
essential oil (0.5-4%) with monoterpenes ((-)-
menthol (major component), (-)-menthon, men-
thy1 acetate and others) as well as caffeic acid
esters are known (Hartke and Mutschler, 1986:
2702-2708).
Musa x paradisiaca L. (Musaceae, GUI 164 *) ef-
fective level 2B
The polysaccharides of the fruit are a useful
dietetic treatment of diarrhoea, which is also used
in many other regions of the world (Hegnauer,
1962: 366-371; Alcorn, 1984: 710).
Oryza sativa L. (Poaceae, GUI 126*) effective level
3B
The treatment of diarrhoea with commercially
available rice is a widely distributed (Perry and
Metzger, 1980: 167-168) and effective dietetic ad-
dition to other forms of treatment. The rice water
will influence the uptake of electrolytes and sac-
charides (Molla et al., 1984). This will reduce the
stool volume (Molla et al., 1985).
Oxalis acuminata Schlecht. (Oxalidaceae, GUI
195) effective level 1B
Ethnobotanical information on other members
of the genus in India and Brazil validates the use
in the treatment of stomach pain (Morton, 1981:
361-362; Maheshwari and Singh, 1984: 258).

Pedilanthus tithymaloides (L.) Poit. (Euphor-
biaceae, GUI 57) effective level 1A
The stem juice is used as a strong purgative. This
use is also reported from other parts of South
America (Dragendorff, 1967: 385; Martinez, 1969:
388). It is popularly regarded as very toxic. Due to
the reported strong side reactions, the plant is to-
day mostly being substituted by commercially
available magnesium hydroxide. No phytochemi-
cal or pharmacologic information is available on
the genus.
Persea americana Mill. (Lauraceae, GUI 106) ef-
fective level 2A
Ethnobotanical data from the Huastec validate
the use of the leaves in the treatment of stomach
ache (Alcorn, 1984: 735). The lipophilic extract is
active against Gram-positive and Gram-negative
bacteria, mycobacteria and pathogenic fungi.
Essential oil with sesquiterpenes (caryophyllene,
E-cardinene) and phenylpropanes (especially
estragol, eugenol) are known (Bergh et al., 1973;
Montes et al., 1981; Hegnauer, 1989: 637).
Eugenol acts as an inhibitor on smooth muscle
(Bennet et al., 1988).
Pluchea symphytifolia (Miller) Gilis (Asteraceae-
Inuleae, GUI 42) effective level 2A
The leaves of this plant are used to treat stom-
ach pain, gastrointestinal parasites, and as a sup-
plementary treatment also for diarrhoea. It is one
of the most popular medicinal plants of the Mixe
and is also used to treat infections and pain of the
ear and menstrual problems. The use of the genus
in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders is
widely distributed: Brazil, the Orient, Egypt (Mor-
ton, 1981: 956). Plutchea lanceolata [sic] induces
a reduction of the rhythmic concentrations of the
isolated rat and rabbit ileum (Prasad et al., 1965).
Numerous sesquiterpenes are known from the ge-
nus (Ahmad and Fizza, 1988).Cuauthemone
derivatives were isolated from the species
(Jakupovic et al., 1985). Also triterpenes, coffeic
acid derivatives and flavonoids are known (Mar-
tino et al., 1979; Wollenweber et al., 1985; Scholz
et al., 1990).
Humeria rubra L. (Apocynaceae, GUI I44) not
evaluated
The crushed leaves are used externally to
massage the belly in case of stoinach pain.
Polygala variabilis H.B.K. (Polygalaceae, GUI
f98) effective level 1A
The treatment of intestinal cramps is also
75
reported from Curacao (Morton, 198 1: 418). The
compounds (methylsalicylate, lignane) known
from this genus are unlikely to produce the desired
effect (Hegnauer, 1969: 353-357).
Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae, GUI 41) effective
level 2A
The treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery using
the leaves of this plant is also reported from other
ethnic groups in South America (Morton, 1981:
629-631; Alcorn, 1984: 765; Schmeda Hirsch-
mann, 1988; Heinrich et al., 1990). The leaves are
rich in tannins (Bate-Smith 1962, Okuda et al.
1982, 1987).
Psidium guineense. SW. (Myrtaceae, GUI 114) ef-
fective level 2A
The root of this species is used in a manner
similar to Psidium guajava. The activity is also bas-
ed on the presence of tannins (Bate-Smith, 1962;
Morton, 1981: 629-631; Okuda et al., 1982, 1987;
Alcorn, 1984: 765; Schmeda Hirschmann, 1988).
Punica granatum L. (Punicaceae, GUI 165) effec-
tive level 2A
The pericarp is used to treat diarrhoea. Similar
uses are reported from many other parts of Ameri-
ca (Morton, 1981: 613). Hydrolysable tannins in
fruit and bark (granatin A and B, punicalagin,
punicalin) presumably are the active constituents
(List and HGrhammer, 1977: 981; Mayer et al.,
1977; Okuda et al., 1981; Tanaka et al., 1985).
Alkaloids are only known from the bark of the
stem and root (Wade and Reynolds, 1977: 1JO).
The plant has been introduced.
Quercus glaucescens H. and B. (GUI 77A), Qu.
oleoides Schlecht. and Cham. (GUI IlO), Qu.
sapotifolia Liebm. (GUI 47) (all Fagaceae) effective
level 2A, B, A
All three species are used to treat diarrhoea. In
numerous other parts of the world the bark is used
for similar indications (Hegnauer, 1966: 145-148,
Martinez, 1969: 418-419; Perry and Metzger,
1980: 154; Morton, 1981: 135). Active constituents
are hydrolysable and condensed tannins, which
are known from numerous members of the genus
(Bate-Smith, 1966: 117; Haslam, 1989: 34,
118-l 19). The quality of the remedy is - accor-
ding to the Mixe - better if one uses brown or
black forms of xoj. Therefore Qu. oleoides (jiny
xoj, black oak) is considered a much more useful
remedy than Qu. sapotifolia (poop xoj, white oak).
This might be due to the varying contents of tan-
nins in the two species.
76
Ricks communis L. (Euphorbiaceae, GUI 54) not
evaluated
The seed oil is used externally to treat gastro-
intestinal cramps.
Russelia sarmentosa Jacq. (Scrophulariaceae, GUI
28) effective level 2B
The leaves are used in San Juan and in other
parts of Mexico to treat stomach ache (Hegnauer,
1973: 350). Two bitter iridoid glycosides (aucubin,
catalpol) are known (Kooiman, 1970). These act as
mild stomachics.
Ruta graveolens L. (Rutaceae, GUI 87) effective
level 3A
This is a popular remedy introduced from
Europe. It is especially used to treat stomach ache
and ‘air in the belly’ (amoebiasis). It is also used
- together with Quercus spp. - to treat diar-
rhoea. Numerous other uses in the treatment of
skin infections and female disorders are also
reported. It is a very popular plant with a wide
distribution (Perry and Metzger, 1980: 368; Ortiz
de Montellano and Browner, 1985: 81). The crude
extract shows spasmolytic and abortifacient ac-
tion, with arborinin having the strongest effect
(List and Horhammer, 1977b: 207-208; Steinegger
and Hansel, 1988: 702). It also acts vermicidally
@repel and Akacic, 1962). Chalepensin (a
coumarin) acts as a spasmolytic and abortifacient.
It is supposed to have antimicrobial action.
Numerous other compounds are known: essential
oil, flavonoids (especially rutin with protective ac-
tion on vascular tissue), coumarins and alkaloids
(Hegnauer, 1973: 227-228; Mester, 1983;
O’Sullivan, 1983). A known side-reaction is photo-
sensitization due to the coumarins.
Scleria nutans Kunth. (Cyperaceae, GUI 107) ef-
fective level 1B
Another species of the genus is used in South
America to treat stomach ache (Reis and Lipp,
1982). No phytochemical information is available
on the genus.
Scoparia dulcis L. (Scrophulariaceae, GUI 61) ef-
fective level 1A
The use of the leaves to treat stomach pain is
also reported from Paraguay (‘stomach diseases’),
Martinique and other parts of South and Central
America (Morton, 1981: 816; Kawasaki et al.,
1987). Numerous compounds, some of which
possess cytotoxic activity, were isolated from the
aerial parts of the plant: diterpenes (scoparic acid
A, B, C, scopadulcic acid A (with antiviral ac-
tion)), triterpenes (dulcionic acid, betulinic acid,
ifflaion acid, etc.), alkaloids (6-methyloxybenzox-
azolinone) (Hegnauer, 1973: 355; Chen and Chen,
1976; Mahato et al., 1981; Hayashi et al., 1987a,b,
1988).
Sechium edule (Jacq.) SW. (Cucurbitaceae, GUI
1.56) not effective OC
No data are available to validate the popular use
of the young leaves in San Juan to treat intestinal
parasites.
Sinningia incarnata (Aubl.) D. Denh. (Gesne-
riaceae, GUI 211) not effective OA
No data validate the popular use in San Juan to
treat diarrhoea and dysentery. No phytochemical
data are available on the genus.
Smilax lanceolata L. (Smilacaceae, GUI 76) effec-
tive level 1B
Another species of the genus is used by the
Huastec to treat diarrhoea (Alcorn, 1984: 792).
Whether the saponins known from several species
(Hegnauer, 1963: 346-348) contribute to the
physiological action of the plant is unknown.
Spondiaspurpurea L. (Anacardiaceae, GUI 101) ef-
fective level 2A
The use of the bark of this species in the treat-
ment of diarrhoea is also known from Brazil,
Haiti, Colombia and Trinidad (Morton, 1981:
476-478). Presumably tannins are the active con-
stituents (Hegnauer, 1964: 109).
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl. (Verben-
aceae, GUI 205) effective level 2B
This bitter plant is being used to treat pain of
the gastrointestinal tract, a use which is also
reported from Haiti and Mexico (Morton, 1981:
752-754). Ipolamiid (a bitter iridoid glycoside) is
known from S. jamaicensis and several other spe-
cies of the genus (Heni, 1987). It acts as a mild
stomachic.
Tagetes lucida Cav. (Asteraceae-Helenieae/
Tageteae, GUI 9) effective level 1B
Uses in the treatment of stomach ache are also
reported from other parts of Mexico and from
Guatemala (Morton, 198 1: 97 1). Especially
flavonoids (kempferitrin, quertagitrin) and essen-
tial oil with monoterpenes (tagetone, ocimene) are
reported from the genus (Hegnauer, 1964: 457,
526, 528).

Tan~cet~m ~arthenium CL.1 Schultz-Bip.
(Asteraceae-Anthemideae, GUI 103) effective
level 2A
The use of this plant especially in the treatment
of dysmenorrhea is widespread. In San Juan it is
used additionally to treat gastrointestinal cramps
and parasites. Similar uses are reported from
Europe (Dragendorff, 1967: 676). Flavonoids and
essential oil with monoter~nes ((-)-borneol, cam-
phor), sesquiterpenes (parthenolide, stachydrine),
monoterpene-derivatives (pyrethrine) and deri-
vatives of apigenin were isolated (Hegnauer, 1964:
473,525; List and H~rha~er, 1973: 906; Wagner
et al., 1988). In a double blind study it was shown
to reduce the mean number and severity of
migraine attacks and the degree of vomiting dur-
ing these attacks (Murphy et al., 1988).
Zea mays L. (Poaceae, GUI 122*) effective level
2A
The use of polysaccharides to treat diarrhoea is
widely distributed in America (Morton, 1981:
43-45). This is a useful dietetic treatment (List and
H&hammer, 1979: 55 l-552).
Zornia thymifalia H.B.K. (Fabaceae-
Hedysareae, GUI 196) not effective OB
No ethnobotanical or phytochemical data are
available on the genus.
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