Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 13 (1985) 57-88 57

Elsevier Scientific Publishers Ireland Ltd.

CHEMICAL BASES FOR MEDICINAL PLANT USE IN OAXACA,

MEXICO

BERNARD R. ORTIZ DE MONTELLANOa and C.H. BROWNERb

aDepartment of Anthropology and Center for Chicano-Boricua Studies, Wayne State
University, Detroit, MI 48202 and bUniversify of California, Los Angeles, School of
Medicine, Mental Retardation Research Center Group at Lanferman State Hospital,
Pomona, CA 91768 (U.S.A.)
(Accepted October 16,1984)

SUMMARY

Fifty-eight medicinal plants used for the management of reproduction and

the treatment of women’s reproductive health problems in an indigenous
community in southern Mexico are described. The efficacy of these plants
is assessed according to both community members’ understandings of the
therapeutic effects they seek and the standards of conventional Western
medicine. The majority of the plants contain chemicals which would appear
to enable them to accomplish their intended effects in either or both the
popular and the conventional medical systems.

INTRODUCTION

Illuminating the principles that cultural groups use to organize and classify
plants and other natural phenomena has long held the interest of ethno-
logists and other types of social scientists. Far less attention has been paid
to studying the empirical value of plants used for healing and health main-
tenanee in these societies. This is unfo~unate since there is growing evidence
that the selection of medicinal plants is not random (Bruhn and Holmstedt,
1981, pp. 421-422; Levi-Strauss, 1950; Moerman, 1979a,b) and that herbal
medicines are often effective (Bruhn and Holmstedt, 1981, pp. 416-419;
Ortiz de Montellano, 1975,1979). In part, such research has not been attrac-
tive to physicians, biochemist, ph~acolo~~, and other natural scientists
because they have relied on their own models of human physiology which
sometimes blinded them to the valuable effects of these remedies. In other
cases, even when the efficacy of herbal medicines was observed, they were
discounted because physicians or researchers lacked explanatory mechanisms
to account for their modes of action (Goodwin and Goodwin, 1984).

0378-8741/85($11.55 Q 1985 Elsevier Scientific Publishers Ireland Ltd.

Published and Printed in Ireland
58

Using “folk” understandings of the intended effects of herbal medicines

to develop hypotheses concerning their modes of action is a more promising
approach. Research of this type would synergistically combine ethnographic
data on folk physiology and medical therapeutics with chemical and pharma-
cological data on the remedies themselves to enhance our understanding of
both. Analyzing how herbs are likely to work pharmacologically may help
identify the specific attributes that lead to their choice for the treatment of
particular illnesses. Within folk botanical systems, plants are classified and
evaluated according to such factors as taste, smell, form, and feel, as well as
by physiological effect. This “sensory” information can be used to develop
logical and rational taxonomies of illnesses and their cures. However, an
adequate assessment of the extent to which, and the mechanisms by which,
herbs are empirically effective requires an understanding of the folk thera-
peutic systems to which they belong. In order to determine whether an
appropriate remedy is chosen, the “sensory” attributes listed above, there-
fore, can be used to establish what the pharmacological or mechanical curing
actions of the remedy should be. An objective evaluation of the chemical,
physiological, and pharmacological properties of folk herbal remedies may
also reveal criteria used in the cross-cultural creation of plant taxonomies
which purely ethnographic questionnaires would overlook.
This paper is an example of the approach outlined above. We will describe
and evaluate many of the plants used for the management of reproduction
and the treatment of women’s reproductive health problems in a highland
Chinantec community in Oaxaca, Mexico. The effectiveness of the remedies
will be assessed based both on the outcomes users from the community
intend and the standards of conventional medicine. Whenever possible, we
will include an indication of the degree of reliability of our evaluation.

Background and methods

San Francisco (a pseudonym) is a bilingual Chinantec-Spanish speaking

township located in the IxtlGn district of northwestern Oaxaca. The town-
ship’s 18,300 hectares are located at altitudes from 400 to 2000 m spread
over a 50 km range on the western and southern slopes of the Sierra Madre
Occidental. Lying within the Papaloapan River basin just northwest of the
botanical Chinantla (Schultes, 1941), San Francisco occupies one of
Mexico’s most diverse phytotypic zones with 14 distinct ecosystems repre-
sented (Beard, 1944). An estimated 2500 to 3000 plant species are found in
the municipio (township) or surrounding region (Martin, n.d.).
About a third of San Francisco’s 306 families live in a concentrated
settlement in the cabeceru (head town) located in pine-oak tropical highland
forest terrain (West, 1964). These residents cultivate privately-owned lands
nearby, or in the hot, dry thorn woodlands 10 km to the south. The remain-
ing two-thirds of the municipio’s families cultivate communally-held lands in
the low-lying montane rain forest northeast of the cabecera (Wagner, 1964).
 59

Some live permanently in dispersed hamlets in the rain forest zone while the
rest maintain homes in both the highlands and lowlands and divide their time
between the two regions. Ninety-five percent of Franciscanos practice sub-
sistence cultivation, primarily of maize, black beans and squash. Most also
engage in some wage labor and/or the production of coffee to generate cash
for basic household needs.
The data presented here were collected between August, 1980, and July,
1981, as part of a larger study that examined how knowledge of herbal and
other remedies for the treatment of female reproductive health problems and
the management of reproduction was distributed throughout the municipio
of San Francisco. Participant observation was supplemented by interviews
with a 54% purposive sample of the munic~pio’s 336 women and the
husbands of those who had them. The sample was constructed to represent
the age, residence, and linguistic background of San Francisco’s female popu-
lation. One hundred eighty women and 126 men were interviewed. Eighty-
six percent of the interviews were conducted by Browner or her chief
assistant, a local Chinantec woman, and the remainder were carried out by
five other trained local Chinantec assistants.
Intensive enthnobo~nic~ work was also conducted with the mun~ci~io’s
five midwives and seven other key informants who were chosen based on
their extensive knowledge of Chinantec ethnomedicine. All informants were
asked to name all the remedies they knew for the following reproduction-
related events: to treat infertility; prevent or terminate a pregnancy; to speed
labor and/or relieve labor pains; for postp~tum recovery; to treat amenor-
rhea; menonhagia; dysmenorrhea; menstrual hemorrhaging; and to stop a
threatened abortion. These questions were developed after a series of pilot
interviews determined that they covered the range of female reproductive
health concerns that were recognized and treated in San Francisco. Those
who reported knowledge of specific remedies were also asked to provide
info~ation on the substances’ medicinal and non-medicine used, their pre-
paration, administration, and why they were efficacious. Information on
women’s and men’s views of the female reproductive cycle was also collected
throughout the field study period.
A list of the 81 herbal remedies reported for the above-mentioned female
reproductive health concerns was then compiled. Plant specimens were
collected by a botanist with the assistance of one or more key informs.
A dried or field specimen was subsequently shown to at least one other key
informant to assure that the proper plant had been obtained. There was
100% agreement between key informants on the identity of the plants
chosen although many of the key informants could not identify all of the
specimens. These specimens were subsequently identifed by the botanist
who collected them, for as Holmstedt and Bruhn (1982, p. 182) observe
“the identification of medicinal plants and other traditional drugs is . . .
a crucial point, and good ethnopharmacological research can only be based
on properly prepared voucher specimens, carefully authenticated by
60

experts”. (Voucher specimens of the substances are deposited in the Her-

barium of the Unive~ity of California, Berkeley, and at el Instituto Mexi-
cane para el Estudio de las Plantas Medicin~es-IMEPL~.) With accurate
botanical identifications in hand, the chemical and medical literatures
were computer searched to identify chemical compounds present and
physiological effects reported for the species used. These data were used to
evaluate both the popular or folk (“emit”) and scientific (“etic”) validity of
the reported uses (Ortiz de Montellano, 1975).
The discussion below evaluates 58 of the remedies employed for the ten
reproductive health problems described above. The specific use of a parti-
cular species had to be mentioned by at least two interviewees or one recog-
nized lay specialist to be included in this discussion. Prior to considering the
58 individu~ plants listed in Table 5, three groups of plants will be discussed
more extensively: uteroactive plants, plants used for postpartum recovery
and uterine bleeding, and plants used for dysmenorrhea. The validity of
herbal medicines will be assessed at two levels: the emit (i.e. based on the
prevailing folk etiological beliefs) and the etic (i.e. based on an objective,
“scientific” criteria) (cf. Harris, 1968, pp. 568-604).

Emit evaluation

This type of evaluation requires investigating informants’ own understand-

ings of illness etiology to predict what remedies would be considered appro-
priate for particular types of illness. If, for example, women consider infer-
tility to be due to excessive “heat” in the blood, then “cold” herbs would be
chosen based on the widely accepted folk principle of curing by opposites
(Browner, n.d.). Although many curative principles in folk systems such as
“hot” and ‘“cold” cannot be verified empirically, others such as “irritating,”
“bitter, ” “emetic,” or “diaphoretic” can be chemically assessed. Previous
work has shown that the Aztecs, for example, achieved greater than 75%
accuracy in emit predictions of their remedies’ intended physiological effects
(Ortiz de Montellano, 1974-1975,1975).
Remedies which are used magically or religiously cannot be evaluated by
objective standards but rather must be assessed solely in terms of the culture
in which they are imbedded. Because there is no way to chemically evaluate
their efficacy, they will be referred to here as “m~c~ly effective.” In other
cases, the characteristic of the remedy which provides the emit rationale for
its use may, in fact, be a side-effect of the pharmacologically active com-
ponent. The use of mercury for the treatment of syphilis in the sixteenth
century is an example. Mercury was prescribed because an often fatal side
effect of mercury ingestion was constant copious salivation. This effect was
interpreted as the removal of excess phlegm from the head which was
regarded to be the cause of syphilis according to prevailing Hippocratic
humoral doctrine (Ransford, 1983, p, 10, p, 170).
 61

Etic evaluation

Growing documentation of the extensive and accurate botanical knowl-

edge of native peoples (Berlin et al., 1974; Ortiz de Montellano, 1979;
Rodriguez and Clymer Cavin, 1982) and the number of effective medicines
which originated in folk medicine, including reserpine, digitalis, emetine,
quinine, and atropine (Farnsworth and Bingel, 1977), demonstrates the value
of also evaluating folk medicines in an objective (etic) manner. The empirical
validity of herbal medicines can be shown to be effective, possibly effective,
or not effective, based on their known chemical constituents, their physio-
logical effects, and Western medical concepts. We do this for a number of
remedies listed in Table 5. However, in some cases, enough data are available
to attempt some indication of the level of confidence with which such pre-
dictions are made. This would be analogous to levels of confidence in statisti-
cal inference. We propose four such levels of confidence in the evaluation of
folk medicinal plants (for hallucinogens see Ortiz de Montellano, 1981).
Level I: The lowest level of validity is reported folk use. Parallel reports of
use by populations which are widely dispersed and among whom diffusion is
unlikely increase the probability that chemical activity may be there.
Similarly, persistent reports over long periods of time strengthen the evi-
dence, since one would expect ineffective herbs to be discarded over time.
Level II: Plants at this level satisfy the requirements for Level I and, in
addition, either isolated compounds or extracts have shown the desired
activity based on in vitro or in vivo tests.
Level III: Plants at this level satisfy the requirements for Level II and
there is also a plausible biochemical mechanism by which the plant consti-
tuents could exert the indicated physiological effect.
Level IV: These plants fulfill the requirements for Level III, and the com-
pounds involved have been clinically tested or are commonly used in medi-
cine.
The optimum level of confidence (IV) is that of controlled clinical trials
where the substance has been tested on humans. This level has not yet been
achieved for the majority of remedies we will consider. However, the
majority of drugs and procedures used in Western medicine have not been
verified at this level either (Office of Technology Assessment, 1978, pp.
93-94). A lower level of proof can be established by showing that either
an extract or an isolated compound shows the desired effects with test ani-
mals or in vitro with the appropriate tissues (Level II). This kind of evidence
can be buttressed by demonstrating a plausible chemical or biochemical
pathway which would provide a rational basis for the expected physiological
effects (Level III). This is not always possible for the data offered here be-
cause the substance implicated may not yet be known to science. For
example, the Thongan custom of ingesting human semen to induce labor
(Junod, 1927, p. 40) or the popular American belief that sexual intercourse
62

late in pregnancy can cause premature labor were dismissed as superstitious

until it was discovered that semen contains prostaglandins in the appropriate
concentration to induce uterine contractions (Karim, 1972, p. 141). Thus,
the notation of a particular level of confidence in this report is merely an
indication of our current state of knowledge and signal to the direction for
future research.

Criteria for plant selection

A brief discussion of Chinantec concepts of reproductive physiology will

help clarify the reasons specific botanical species are chosen, and why many
of the same species are selected by the women of San Francisco for certain
groups of female reproductive health concerns.

Uteroactive plants

These plants facilitate labor, restore delayed menstrual flow, and regulate
fertility, either by inducing abortion or by preventing implantation. In
Franciscanas’ (women from San Francisco) views, a woman’s body under-
goes profound physiological changes during pregnancy. Not only does the
fetus use the food the pregnant woman eats for its growth, frequently
leaving her nutritionally deficient, but it also depletes the woman’s blood
supply which the fetus requires for its physical development. This is danger-
ous for the pregnant woman herself because her own physiological balance is
maintained by the blood (Browner, n.d.), and during pregnancy there is less
of it available to maintain homeostasis. Blood has the ability to maintain
homeostasis by neutralizing “cold” (giiii3)* that enters the body. Cold may
be produced by a wide number of circumstances people encounter in the
course of their daily lives. These include environmental conditions such as
chilly winds or wet weather; physical activities such as laundering clothes
in cold water in the rain; or ingesting certain inherently “cold” foods,
medicines, or beverages (e.g. avocado, pork, lemon). It is especially difficult
for pregnant women to sustain the effects of cold on the body and maintain
somatic balance because the nutritive needs of the developing fetus have left
them with a diminished blood supply. A cold body is therefore the most
common prenatal problem Franciscanas suffer and the most frequent cause
of protracted labor.
Most prenatal care practices in San Francisco are thus intended to main-
tain bodily warmth and reduce the opportunities for cold to penetrate.

*San Francisco Chinantec has three levels of tone: 4 is high, 3 mid, and 2 low. In addi-
tion, there are four tone glides (23, 24, 34, 42) which are a combination of the level
tones. For more information, see Anderson, J., Martinez, I. and Pace, W., San Francisco
Chinantec Tone, unpublished manuscript, Summer Institute of Linguistics.
 63

Warm baths are regularly taken throughout pregnancy and increased in fre-
quency during the last 2 months. Cold baths and work in cold settings are
avoided since they cause the skeleton to harden and close; they also un-
balance and shock the system. “Cold” foods are also avoided during preg-
nancy as are fried foods and “sticky” foods (e.g. honey) because they can
lengthen the labor, neutralize the curative effects of the postpartum herbs,
or cause a postp~um infection. No herbs are routinely taken prenatally to
strengthen the woman or facilitate the birth.
Two conditions must be satisfied for a rapid delivery: the women must
have sufficient physical strength to bear the child, and her entire body, but
especially her womb, must be warm. Franciscanas usually give birth in their
kitchens near the warmth of the cooking fire. During the early stages of
labor, the birth attendant warms the parturient’s body so that the fetus will
quickly emerge by giving warm baths, total body massage, or warming herbal
teas. Other teas are given to stimulate or intensify uterine contractions or to
dull pain. Still others provide strength although chocolate or cooked or raw
egg with the shell are more often administered for this procedure. If labor is
proceeding rapidly and she is already warm, the parturient is not warmed
further because too much heat can harm the fetus. However, should labor
proceed slowly or stop completely, the attendant will further warm the
parturient’s body by administering additional teas, hot baths, or heat or local
massage to the woman’s hips, legs, buttocks, back, or abdomen.

Emit ev~~uutio~
Some of the herbs administered during labor are given to warm the par-
turient by stimulating the flow of blood throughout the body. Others are
used to irritate the uterus, thereby inducing or intensifying uterine contrac-
tions. Many of these same uteroactive herbs are also used as emmenagogues,
abortifacients, or contraceptives. They either warm the blood to facilitate its
free flow, or they irritate the uterus to cause con~actions which prevent im-
plantation or interrupt a newly developing pregnancy. (Still other utero-
active herbs are employed exclusively for fertility control. They are burning
or drying substances used to render the womb inhospitable to fetal develop-
ment or to kill a developing fetus.)
The expectation that uteroactive plants would be considered “hot” or
“warming” is in accord with the previously described ethnophysiolo~c~
understandings held by Franciscanos. However, this characteristic is not
amenable to empirical verification that would be acceptable to modern
science. In a recent paper (Browner and Ortiz de Montellano, n.d.), we have
shown that, in San Francisco, the “irritative” properties of uteroactive plants
are even more salient than their humoral attributes. This property can be
empiricaIly determined. Table 1 lists the uteroactive plants with their classi-
fications as hot and/or irritating. Oils from Album, Ananas, Chrysanthemum,
Cinnamomum, Coriandrum, Matricaria, Piper, Ruta and Styrax have been
64

TABLE 1

EMIC EVALUATION OF UTEROACTIVE PLANTS

Plant name Common Uses Irritating Humoral

name classification

Allium sativum Garlic Abortifacient Yes Hot

Oxytocic
Ananas comosum Pineapple Abortifacient Yes Cold
Baccharis gtutinos~ Sleep willow Emmenagogic Yes Hot
Oxytocic
Chrysanthemum Fever few Emmenagogic Yes Hot
parthenium Oxytocic
Cinnamomum Cinnamon Abortifacient Yes Hot
zeylanicum Oxytocic
Citrus aurantium Bitter orange Oxytocic Yes Cold
Citrus limon Lemon Abortifacient Yes Cold
Emmenagogic
Cordiandrum sativum Coriander Abortifacient Yes Hot
Oxytocie
Crescen tia cuje te Cujete Oxytocic Yes Hot
Matricaria chamomilla Chamomille Oxytocic Yes Temperate
Mimosa albida Mimosa Emmenagogic (?I Temperate
Oxytocic
~o~tanoa tomentosa Zoapatle Oxytocic Yes Hot
Abortifacient
Origanum uulgare Oregano Abortifacient Yes Hot
Persea americana Avocado Oxytocic Yes Hot
Piper auritum Jamaica Oxytocic Yes Hot
black pepper
Ruin cha~epensis Rue Oxytocic Yes Hot
Emmenagogic
Styrax argenteus Styrax Emmenagogic Yes Hot
Tagetes lucida Day flower Emmenagogic Yes Hot
Oxytocic
Turbina corymbosa Ololiuhqui Oxytocic Yes (?)
lS/19 = 95% 13119 = 68%

shown to be irritating (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis, 1977, p, 83; Morton, 1981,

p. 62; Spoerke, 1980, pp. 59,74,116,151; Uphoff, 1959, p. 282). Other
plants, including Cinnamomum, Coriandrum, Crescentia, Origanum and
Persea, have astringent properties due to tannin (Thompson, 1978, p. 176;
Uphoff, 1959, p. 158). Finally, a number of the uteroactive plants
(Baccharis, Citrus, Tugetes) contain limonene which is a skin irritant
(~indho~tz et al., 1976, p. 718). As can be seen in Table 1, 18 of 19 reme-
dies (95%) are irritating while only 13 of 19 (68%) are classified as “hot”.
 65

Thus, “irritant” is the more salient property, and can be objectively demon-
strated to be present in the overwhelming majority of these plants.

Etic evaluation
Table 2 lists uteroactive remedies evaluated objectively and classified
according to the “levels of confidence” described above. Ninety-five percent
of the remedies are effective at some level of confidence, and 79% are effec-
tive at Level II or above. The distinction between plants at Level III and
those at Level II is primarily that Level III plants contain tyramine, sero-
tonin, N,N-dimethyltyramine, and/or allylbenzene derivatives, as explained
below.
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter which itself can produce smooth muscle
contractions. Tyramine produces uterine contractions acting as an agonist of
norepinephrine which is the activator of uterine smooth muscle (Foye, 1981,
pp. 377-379). However, there are difficulties postulating either of these
compounds as active components in folk remedies. Both are metabolized
rapidly in the intestine and liver, giving rise to doubts that one could achieve
a therapeutic dose by oral administration, the usual dose reported here
(Farnsworth et al., 1975; Goodman et al., 1980, p. 180). However, we
hypothesize that there is a synergistic effect in which destruction of the
active compound is prevented by the presence of monoamine oxidase (MAO)
inhibitors in the extract of the plant which could allow these plants to
remain active. Such an effect is found in the South American hallucinogenic
mixture, ayahuasca, in which the hallucinogenic properties of dimethyltryp-
tamine are made possible by the presence of harmine and its derivatives
which prevent its destruction by MAO (Schultes and Hofmann, 1980, p.
180). Similarly, patients who are taking MAO inhibitors such as pargyline for
high blood pressure are cautioned to avoid eating cheese (high in tyramine)
because they could suffer a hypertensive crisis because of their inability to
metabolize tyramine (Foye, 1981, p. 421). A combination of an MAO
inhibitor and tyramine has been used to treat hypotension (Wanda et al.,
1976). The substituted allylbenzene, myristicin (and, presumably, its con-
geners estragole, apiol and eugenol), shows a mild MAO inhibiting activity
(Truitt et al., 1963). These compounds are often found in our sample in
combination with serotonin, tyramine, of NJ-dimethyltryptamine, and it
is possible that the combination would be active orally. This possibility has
not yet been tested empirically.
MAO inhibitors can produce abortions in rats and in humans when they
are injected directly into the amniotic sac (Koren et al., 1966,1968). The
results were rationalized as the effect of an abnormal buildup of serotonin
by the inhibition of MAO which is present in the amniotic fluid and placenta
to assist the pregnancy to reach term.
Myristicin and its congeners may also be active by another mechanism. In
larger doses, Myristica fragans (nutmeg) has long been used as a hallucinogen
(Schultes and Hofmann, 1980, p. 118). It was also widely used as an aborti-
TABLE 2
ETIC EVALUATION OF UTEROACTIVE PLANTS

Plant name Common name Chemicals Folk Tests Chemical Effective

report mechanism level

Allium satiuum Garlic Prostagiandin X X X Yes (III)

Ananas comosum Pineapple Serotonin, psitosterol, X X X Yes (III)
5stigmastene-3p,7ar-dial,
ascorbic acid
Baccharis Sleep willow Limonene, saponins X Yes (II)
glu tinosa
Chrysanthemum Fewer few Staehydrine X Yes (II)
paFthenium
Cinnamomum Cinnamon Eugenol, myristicine, camphor X Yes (II)
zeylanicum
Citrus auran tium Bitter orange Hesperidin, tyramine, ascorbic -- Yes (II)
acid, stachydrine
Citrus limon Lemon Hesperidin, tyramine, ascorbic X X Yes (III)
acid, stachydrine
Coriandrum satiuum Coriander Borneol, terpenene X - Yes (I)
Crescentia cujete Cujete Tannins, cyanogenetic, glycosides X - Yes (I)
Ma tricaria Chamomille Apigenin, bisabolol, chamazulene X -
(?)
chamomilla
Mimosa albida Mimosa iV,N-Dimethyltryptamine X - X Yes (III)
Montanoa Zoapatle Zoapatanol, montanol X X X Yes (IV)
tomentosa
Origanum Oregano Thymol, carvacrol X Yes (II)
uulgare
Persea americana Avocado Serotonin, estragole, tyramine, X X X Yes (III)
tannin
Piper auritum Jamaica N-Isobutyl-deca-trans-2,4-diene X X Yes (II)
black pepper amide
Ru ta chalepensis Rue Rutin, skimmianine X X Yes (II)
Styrax argenteus Styrax Cinnamic acid, oleanoiic acid, X X Yes (II)
saponins
Tagetes lucida Day flower Quercetagetin, patuletin X - Yes (I)
Turbina corymbosa Ololiuhqui Ergonovine X X X Yes (IV)
____-.-
 67

facient at the turn of the century in Europe, the United States (Forrest and
Heacock, 1972), and in India (Farnsworth et al., 1975). A proposed mode
of hallucinogenic action would have myristicin and other oxygen-substi-
tuted allylbenzenes act as precursors to the actual active compounds. Meta-
bolic addition of ammonia to these allylbenzene derivatives would yield
analogs of norepinephrine which are postulated to be responsible for the
hallucinogenic action of nutmeg (Forrest and Heacock, 1972; Kalbhen,
1970). However, as we have discussed above, agonists of norepinephrine can
also promote uterine contractions which would explain the use of these
allylbenzene derivatives as abortifacients.

Plants used for postpartum recovery, uterine bleeding, and infertility

Although few Franciscanas make significant changes in their diets or

levels of physical activity during pregnancy, they follow extensive obser-
vances to restore their health during the postpartum period. A strict post-
partum regimen is necessary because the blood that the fetus took from the
women for its own development must be regenerated. In addition, the
“wound” (‘mi’23) that occurred during childbirth as the fetus tore itself
from its mother’s spine must be cleansed to reduce the risk of infection,
and healed. Measures must also be taken to reclose the womb, skeleton,
and the rest of the body, which “opened” so that the fetus could emerge.
Failure to do so leaves the body susceptible to penetration by gui3 (air)
which can cause such diverse postpartum complications as swellings, lock-
jaw, bodily aches and the feeling of severe bloating.
Franciscanas attribute many of the reproductive health problems they
suffer to incomplete postpartum recovery. The extensiveness of the post-
birth regimen makes it difficult for most women to strictly adhere. Post-
partum complications are also unavoidable for women who do not have
relatives to help with domestic chores during the recovery period. In San
Francisco, many reported cases of menorrhagia (excessively heavy and often
painful menstruation), menstrual hemorrhaging (sudden, usually painless,
menstrual flow at other than normal times), and miscarriage (spontaneous
abortion) are attributed to postbirth complications. Such complications may
occur when the body seeks through menstrual discharge to cleanse itself
of impurities that were produced during a previous pregnancy; when a parti-
cularly difficult labor or delivery causes the womb to weaken and become
unable to retain menstrual blood or a developing fetus; or when gui3 remains
in the blood or the womb following a previous birth. Miscarriage may also
occur if the fetus lacks a site to adhere because the birth wound has not
completely healed or the back has not sufficiently strengthened because
previous pregnancies have occurred too close together. Postpartum compli-
cations can also lead to infertility, for example, gui3 may get trapped in the
womb and prevent the female and male seeds from joining so that gestation
can occur; the back or womb may be too weak for the fetus to adhere once
68

gestation has taken place; or the blood may contain impurities so that it
rushes from the body instead of nourishing the developing fetus.
Menorrhagia, menstrual hemorrhaging, miscarriage and infertility can also
be caused by excess “heat” (guii3) in the blood. A variety of conditions can
cause heat to accumulate in the body. Strenuous physical activity, physical
trauma caused by such stresses as a fail or a beating, emotional upset, witch-
craft, and physical or emotional illness all add to the heat the body normally
generates through routine activities. Blood has the ability to neutralize some
heat as it can neutralize some coldness, but too much of either can overload
and damage the system. Women are more vulnerable than men to accumula-
tions of heat in the body because monthly menstrual bleeding and periodic
childbirth leave them with less blood to absorb the heat normally created
during daily activities. Menorrhagia, menstrual hemorrhaging, and miscar-
riage may therefore occur when the body seeks to reequilibrate by discharg-
ing heat-laden blood. Infertility can also result as the body discharges such
blood instead of retaining it for fetal development.

Emit evaluation
According to Franciscanas’ understandings, the birth process itself
weakens the parturient and leaves her body “open” and thus susceptible to
penetration by gui3 (air, drafts) which can cause lockjaw, swellings, and a
wide variety of other postpartum complications. The postpartum regimen
should therefore stop bleeding, restore lost blood, help to heal the birth
wound, and close the womb, skeleton and body as a whole. The recovery
process involves bed rest, eating “hot” and spicy foods, taking very hot
herbal baths, and drinking medicinal teas. The two latter usually consist of
mixtures of a number of plant species.
Table 3 lists 20 herbs used for postpartum recovery and uterine bleeding.
They are described more fully in Table 5 and its accompanying commentary.
Seventy percent of the species have an astringent effect which could be inter-
preted emically as “closing” or tightening the body, or they have aromatic,
“strengthening” properties. The postpartum herbal teas are also said to
“look like blood” (Browner, n.d., p. 18) and thereby could be seen as help-
ing to restore lost blood by the magical principle of similarity.

E tic evaluation
Not only are these remedies effective by emit standards but they would
also be useful from an objective viewpoint. Modern medical practice recom-
mends warm sitz baths after giving birth to diminish pain and to keep the
tissues clean as they heal (Berkow and Talbott, 1977, p. 946). Baths such as
those taken in San Francisco which contain substances which are antiseptic
would greatly facilitate this endeavor, especially in a cultural setting where
sanitary conditions are extremely difficult to achieve. The styptic action of
tannins is described by Claus et al. (1970, p. 131) as “. . . the proteins of the
exposed tissues are precipitated forming a mildly antiseptic, protective coat
 69

TABLE 3

REMEDIES FOR POSTPARTUM RECOVERY AND UTERINE BLEEDING

Plant name Antiseptic Tannins Astringent Aromatic Used

magically

Adiantum poiretti X X X
Arbutus xalepensis X X X
Arundo donax
Baccharis glutinosa X X
Brickellia secundiflora
Citrus aurantium X X
Dodonaea viscosa X X
Eupatorium Eigastranum X X X
Eupatorium quadrangulare X X X
Galium mexicanum X X X
Gaultheria acuminata X X
Hydrocotyle mexicana
Iostephane trilobata
Lippia al ba X X X
Litsea glaucescens X X
Mimosa albida X X
Persea americana X X
Quercus elliptica X X
Selaginella pallescens X
Zea mays X

under which the regeneration of tissues may take place”. Seventy percent
have an antiseptic effect, due to tannins in 45% of the plants and limonene,
methyl salicylate and catalpol in the rest.

Treatment of dysmenorrhea

Dysmenorrhea (painful menstruation) is another of the reproductive

health problems Franciscanas commonly report. Like the four disorders
described above, dysmenorrhea can be caused by gui3 or accumulated im-
purities in the bloodstream or the womb; by the failure of the womb to com-
pletely heal following a pregnancy; or by excess heat in the blood. However,
excessive coldness in the blood is another important cause of this condition.
As described above, cold may enter the body from such diverse sources as
chilly, wet weather, the weakness brought on by extreme tiredness, the un-
balancing effects of extremely cold foods, beverages, or medicines, or even
witchcraft. Fecund women are more vulnerable than anyone else to cold
entering their bodies because their wombs regularly “open” during menstru-
ation and childbirth, and because women’s blood is intrinsically colder than
men%. Such coldness can make the blood stick in the veins or womb, and
dysmenorrhea may result.
Emit eualua tion
In San Francisco, then, menstrual pain is understood to be caused by
excessive heat or coldness in the blood, by gui3 trapped in the womb, or by
impurities in the bloodstream or the womb secondary to incomplete post-
partum recovery. However, we lack the means to determine empirically
whether these remedies do restore the blood’s thermal balance, or remove
impurities or gui3 from the blood or other parts of the body. None of those
disorders described above produce sensory effects amenable to empirical
evaluation.

Etic evaluation
Menstrual pain is now acknowledged by the medical experts to be a real
syndrome, and modern treatment prescribes inhibitors of the biosynthesis
of prost~landins (Goodman et al., 1980, p. 708). A number of the species
used for dysmenorrhea contain compounds which inhibit prostaglandin
biosynthesis (e.g. limonene, eugenol, myristicin) (Rasheed et al., 1984) and
therefore should be effective in the treatment of dysmenorrhea. Others con-
tain compounds which are known spasmolytics which might also help to
ease pain, e.g. cinnamaldehyde, rutin, quercetin, estragole, bisabolol, apige-
nin, carvacrol and myristicin (Achterrath-Tuckermann et al., 1980; Wagner,
1978, pp. 605,608). A total of 13 of 20 remedies in Table 4 contain these
chemicals, yielding 65% of the remedies as possibly effective.

TABLE 4

REMEDIES FOR DYSMENORRHEA

Plant name Active Inactive

Anoda cristata X
Aphelandra auran tiaca X
Baccharis glutinosa Limonene
Brickellia secundiflora X
Chrysanthemum parthenium X
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Eugenol, myristicin,
cinnamaldehyde
Citrus auranti~m Limonene
Citrus limon Limonene
Caultheria acuminata X
lndigofera harfwegii Apigenin
Iostephane trilobata ?
Litsea glaucescens Limonene
Matricaria chamomilla Bisabolol, chamazulene
Mentha citrata Limonene
Mimosa albida X
Oeno thera rosea Quercetin
Origanum uulgare Carvacrol
Persea americana Estragole
Pluchea odorata Quercetin
Ru ta chalepensis Rutin
Discussion of individual plants

Each of the plants in Table 5 will be briefly discussed in alphabetical

order. Where applicable, levels of confidence will be indicated according to
the following:
Level I: Reported folk use.
Level II: Isolated compounds or extracts have shown activity in vivo or
in vitro.
Level III: Isolated compounds or extracts have shown in vivo or in vitro
activity and there is a plausible chemical mechanism for the
action.
Level IV: The compounds have been clinically tested or are in common
medical use.

Adiantum poiretti (effective)

Tannins present would give an astringent, cooling feeling to postpartum
baths while creating an antiseptic environment.
Allium sativum (effective level III)
There are reports of emmenagogic, abortifacient and oxytocic uses in
Trinidad, Jamaica, Mexico, Yucatan and other areas (Ayensu, 1981,
p. 14; Farnsworth et al., 1975; Morton, 1981, pp. 76-78). There are
reports from India and Spain of extracts producing uterine contractions
either in vivo or in vitro (Farnsworth et al., 1975). Prostaglandins are
used clinically to induce labor and as abortifacients (Page et al., 1976,
p. 211).
Anqnas comosum (effective level III)
Used as an emmenagogue in Haiti (Duke, n.d.). Reported abortifacient in
Malaya, India, the West Indies, Bangladesh and Africa (Ayensu, 1981,
p. 62; de Lazlo and Henshaw, 1954; Farnsworth et al., 1975; Rao and
Jamir, 1982; Sarker, 1981). A. comosum shows anti-implantation effects
in albino rats (Bhaduri et al., 1968; Garg et al., 1970). Isolated fl-sitosterol
and stigmasterol showed anti-implantation effectiveness in the range of
67-95s in female rats (Kamboj and Dhawan, 1982). Serotonin is an
active uterine stimulant but it is rapidly metabolized when taken orally
(Farnsworth et al., 1975). 5-Stigmastene-3fl,7~-diol and its 7-epimer iso-
lated from the leaves exhibit significant antifertility effects (Pakrashi et
al., 1975) and are abortifacient in mice (Pakrashi and Basak, 1976).

Anoda cristata (effective?)

There are not data on chemical constituents or folk use elsewhere.
Aphelandra aurantiaca (not effective)
The chemicals isolated would not produce the effects desired.
Arbutus xalapensis (effective)
Gallic acid would be an effective astringent and cooling bath.
Arundo donax (not effective)
Does not contain tannins or aromatic volatile oils which would be indi-
cated for postpartum baths.
TABLE 5

PLANTS USED FOR WOMEN’S REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH IN OAXACA

Plant name Uses Chemicals References

Adiantum poiretti Postpartum recovery Tannins, 2’,4’,6’-trihydroxy- Hegnauer, 1962-1977, Vol. I, p. 260
chalcone
Allium sativum Abortifacient, oxytocic Prostaglandin A, alliine, Karrer, 1958, no. 22’71; Maugh, 1979;
allicin Trease and Evans, 1978, p. 657
Ananas comosum Abortifacient Serotonin, bromelain, Hegnauer, 1962-1977, Vol. II, p. 104;
5stigmastene_3@,7a. Karrer et al., 1977, no. 4382;
diol, fl-sitosterol Pakrashi et al., 1975
Anoda cristata Dysmenorrhea, menorrhagia, -
menstrual hemmorhage,
infertility
Aphelandra Dysmenorrhea, menorrhagia, Aphelandrine, saponins Bosshardt et al., 1978; Gibbs, 1974,
aurantiaca menstrual hemmorhage Vol. III, p. 1775
Arbutus xalapensis Postpartum recovery Ursolic acid, quercetin, Hegnauer, 1962-1977, Vol. IV, p. 67;
gallic acid Karrer, 1958, no. 2015
Arundo donax Postpartum recovery Gramine, N, N-dimethyl- Farnsworth et al.. 1975
tryptamine
Baccharis glu tinosa Dysmenorrhea, postpartum Myrcene, limonene, Karrer et al., 1977, no. 32, no. 53,
recovery, menorrhagia, carquejol, saponins no. 3536
menstrual hemorrhage,
infertility, prevents
miscarriage, oxytocic,
emmenagogue
Begonia sp. Menorrhagia, menstrual Quercetin, cyanidine-3- Hegnauer, 1962-1977, Vol. III, p. 239,
hemorrhage glucoside p. 642
Brickellia Dysmenorrhea, postpartum Pendulin Karrer et al., 1977, no. 4639
secundiflora recovery, menorrhagia,
menstrual hemorrhage,
infertility, prevents
miscarriage
Chenopodium Abortifacient 1 -Limonene, p-cymene, Claus et al., 1970, p. 194
ambrosioides ascaridol
Chrysanthemum Dysmenorrhea, postpartum Pyrethrins, parthenolide, Farnsworth et al., 19’75; Spoerke, 1980,
parthenium recovery, oxytocic, stachydrine p. 27
emmenagogue
Cinnamomum Abortifacient, dysmenorrhea, Cinnamaldehyde, eugenl Ayensu, 1981, p. 112; Claus et al.,
zeylanicum oxytocic pinene, myristicin, 1970, p. 76; Hegnauer, 196221977,
camphor Vol. IV, p. 355
Citrus aurantium Abortifacient, dysmenorrhea, Hesperidin, tyramine, Ayensu, 1981, p. 165; Farnsworth et
postpartum recovery, limonene, vitamin C, al., 1975; Honan Medical College,
menstrual hemorrhage, N-methyltyramine, 1978; Raffauf, 1970
oxytocic stachydrine
Citrus limon Abortifacient, dysmenorrhea, Hesperidin, tyramine, Ayensu, 1981, p. 165; Farnsworth et
emmenagogue, contraception limonene, vitamin C, al., 1975; Honan Medical College,
N-methyltyramine, 1978; Raffauf, 1970
stachydrine
Clidemia se tosa To conceive female children -
Columnea Menorrhagia Anthocyanidins Hegnauer, 1962-1977, Vol. IV, p. 204
schiedeana
Coriandrum Abortifacient, oxytocic, contra- Linalool, borneol, terpenene Claus et al., 1970, p. 171
sativum ception
Crescentia Oxytocic Cyanogenetic glycoside, Ayensu, 1981, p. 53
cujete crescentic acid, tannin
Cuminum Oxytocic Coumingine, cuminic Farnsworth et al., 1975; Khafagy et al.,
cyminum aldehyde, a-terpineol, 1978; Trease and Evans, 1978,
pinene, apigenin p. 421
Dodonaea Postpartum recovery, menor- (Used externally) -
viscosa rhagia, menstrual hemorrhage,
infertility prevents miscarriage
Eupatorium Postpartum recovery Eupatorin, tannin, tremetrol Spoerke, 1980, p. 43
ligastranum
Eupaton’um Postpartum recovery Eupatorin, tannin, tremetrol Spoerke, 1980, p. 43
quadrangulare
Euphorbia Contraception Aesculetin, quercetin, Farnsworth et al., 1975; Karrer, 1958,
pulcherrima salicylic acid no. 1522; no. 885
Eysenhardtia Contraception Dehydrorotenone, Dominguez et al., 1978
polystachya p-sitosterol
Galium mexicanum Postpartum recovery, menor- Rutin, gallic acid, hesperidin Hegnauer, 1962-1977, Vol. VI,
rhagia, menstrual hemorrhage, pp. 157-159
prevents miscarriage
 ;:
TABLE 5 (Continued)

Plant name Uses Chemicals References

- --~ _-
Dysmenonhea, postpartum Methyl salicylate Claus et al., 1970, p. 199
recovery, me~a~hag~a~
menstrual hemorrhage,
infertility, prevents
miscarriage
Hybunthus brew% Menarrhagia, menstrual Saponins, em&line (?) Hegnauer, 1962-1977, Vol, VI,
hemorrhage p 685
Hydrocotyle Postpartum recovery, menstrual Apiol, pinene, mustard oil Hegnauer, 1962-1977, Vol. VI,
~eXiCll~~ hemorrhage p. 566, p. 598
Indigofera hartwegii Dysmenorrhea Indican, apigenin, xutin, Bhalla and Dakwale, 1978; Karrer,
hesperidine 1953, no 2511
Dysmenorrhea, postpartum - -
recovery, menarrhagia,
~~~er~ility, menstrual
hemorrhage, speeds birth
Postpartum recovery, rne~~~ha~~a, Ljmone~e~ tannin Ayensu, 1981, pp. 189-191;
menstrual hemorrhage Thompson, 1973, p. I74
Dysmenorrhea, postpartum Limonene, citral, saponins Hegnauer, 1962-l 977, Vol. IV,
recovery, infertility p. 365, p. 375
Dysmenorrhea, oxytocic Bisabolol, apigenin, Hegnauer, 1962-1977; Vol. III,
chamazulene, luteolin p 528; Rarrer, I958, no. 1449,
no. 1874
Dysmenorrhea, menorrhagia, Carvone, limonene Trease and Evans, 3 978, p. 409
menstrual hemorrhage
Dysmenorrhea, postpartum Mimosine, N~N.dim~th~l- Ayensu, 1981, p. 126;
recovery, menorrhagia, tryptamine, tannins Karrer, 1958, no. 1862
menstrual hemorrhage,
infertility, axytocic,
emmenagogue
Montanoa tomentosa Abortifacient, oxytocic,
emmenagogue
Oenothera rosea Dysmenorrhea, menstrual
hemorrhage, infertility
Origanum vulgare Abortifacient, dysmenorrhea
Persea americana Dysmenorrhea, postpartum
recovery, menorrhagia,
menstrual hemorrhage,
infertility, oxytocic,
contraception, emmenagogue,
prevents miscarriage
Phaseolus sp. Oxytocic
Piper auritum Oxytocic, emmenagogue
Pleurothallis To conceive male children
cardiothallis
Pluchea odorata Dysmenorrhea
Podocarpus matudae Contraception
Psittacanthus Menorrhagia, menstrual
calyculatus hemorrhage, infertility,
prevents miscarriage
Quercus elliptica Postpartum recovery
Ricinus communis Infertility
Russelia sarmentosa Contraception
Ruta chalepensis Dysmenorrhea, oxytocic,
emmenagogue
Sam bucus Menstrual hemorrhage
mexicana
Montanol, zoapatanol
pSitostero1, quercetin,
tannin
Thymol, carvacrol
Serotonin, estragole,
tyramine, tannin
- -
Ascorbic acid, N-isobutyl-
deca-trans-2,4-diene
amide, safrole
- -
Artemetin, herbacetin,
cuahtemone, quercetin
Genistein, podospicatin,
podocarpic acid, myrcene,
limonene
-
Quercetin, tannin
Rutin, ellagic acid,
quercetin, ricinoleic acid
Catalpol
Skimmianine, rutin
Sambucine, sambunigrin,
tyrosine, tannin
Levine et al., 1979
Hegnauer, 1962-1977, Vol. V,
p. 225
van der Broucke and Lemli, 1980
Ayensu, 1981, p. 112; Farnsworth
et al., 1975; Karrer et al.,
1977, no. 4382
Baumgarth, 1980; Morton, 1981,
p. 125
Arriaga-Giner et al., 1983;
Dominguez et al., 1981; Romo de
Vivar et al., 1982
Farnsworth et al., 1975; Hegnauer,
1962-1977, Vol. I, p. 410.
Claus et al., 1970, p. 122, p. 136.
Claus et al., 1970, p. 144; Hegnauer,
1962-1977, Vol. IV, p. 112.
Hegnauer, 1962-1977, Vol. VI, p. 350.
Farnsworth et al., 1975
Spoerke, 1980, p. 68.
TABLE 5 (Continued)

Plant name Chemicals References

Setaginella Postpartum recovery, Catalpol, amento~avone Chakravarty et al,, 1981; Megnauer,

pallescens menstrual hemorrhage 1962-1977, Vol. VI, p. 352.
St~t~~nthu~ Menstrual hemorrhage Tannin Megnauer, 1962-1977, Vol. IV, p. 433.
densiflorus
Styrar argenteus Abortifacient, contraception Cinnamic acid, oleanolic Wegnauex, 1962---1977, Vol. VI, p. 474;
acid, saponins, egonol Trease and Evans, 1978, p, 399
glycosides, benzoin, resin
Tagetes lucidd Qxytocic, emmenagogue Quercetagetin, pat&Sin, Megnauer, 1962-1977, Vol. III, p. 457;
Iimanene Karrer, 1958, no. 555, no. 1557.
Turbina uxytocic Ergonovine Farnsworth et al., 1975.
corymbosa
Zea nays Postpartum recovery, menstrual (Used externally) Karrer, 1958, no. 1522, no. 1638.
hemorrhage, infertiiity
 77

Baccharis glutinosa (effective dysmenorrhea; effective postpartum recovery;

effective emmenagogue and oxytocin level II)
Limonene can inhibit biosynthesis of prostaglandins and thus reduce dys-
menorrhea. B. genistelloides is used as emmenagogue in Colombia (Hirs-
chhorn, 1981). Extracts of B. articulata are uterine stimulants in vivo and
in vitro (Farnsworth et al., 1975). Limonene and myrcene are antiseptic
and thus would be effective for postpartum recovery.
Begonia sp. (not effective)
No folkloric reports of use, and constituents isolated would not produce
effects desired.
Brickellia secundiflora (not effective)
No folkloric reports of use, and constituents isolated would not produce
effects desired.
Chenopodium ambrosioides (effective Level I)
Folkloric reports of emmenagogic action in Africa, India, and Italy
(Farnsworth et al., 1975). Folk reports as abortifacient in Texas (Kimber,
n.d.), Mexico (Quezada, 1975), and Yucatan (Morton, 1981, p. 176).
Chrysanthemum parthenium (effective level II)
Folk use in Europe to promote menstruation and to induce abortion
(Farnsworth et al., 1975; Lewis and Elvin-Lewis, 1977, p. 323; Spoerke,
1980, p. 27). Stachydrine showed uterine stimulant activity in vivo and
in vitro (Farnsworth et al., 1975).
Cinnamomum zeylanicum (effective level II; effective dysmenorrhea)
Long been used as an emmenagogue in India and Mexico (Farnsworth
et al., 1975; Quezada, 1975). C. cassia has been used in Europe for the
same purposes since ancient times (Jochle, 1974). A review of Chinese
medicine states that “in all abortifacient prescriptions, cinnamon is
included” (Kong et al., 1976). Camphor has been shown to be a uterine
stimulant (Farnsworth et al., 1975). As discussed above, both eugenol and
myristicin are potentially active either as MAO inhibitors or via conversion
to norepinephrine analogs. Eugenol and myristicin would also be effective
in reducing dysmenorrhea by inhibiting the biosynthesis of prostaglandins.
Citrus aurantium, Citrus limon (effective level III; effective postpartum
recovery, dysmenorrhea)
C. limon has reputed antifertility effects in India (Farnsworth et al.,
1975), Mexico (Quezada, 1975) and Colombia (Browner and Ortiz
de Montellano, nd.). It is reported as such by Duke and Wain (1981)
in their listing of pharmacologically proven folk medicine. Jordan (pers.
commun.) notes that women at a Los Angeles Women’s Health Center
reported inducing miscarriages by ingesting 6 g of ascorbic acid for
5 days in succession. Three components of Citrus species - hesperidin,
tyramine, and stachydrine - have been shown to stimulate the uterus.
Hesperidin is also reported to prevent pregnancy in rabbits (Farnsworth
et al., 1975). Abortion in guinea pigs and rats was apparently achieved
by doses of ascorbic acid in the range of 1 g/kg. Menstrual bleeding in
78

pregnant women was induced following a dose of 0.5 g/day of ascorbic

acid for 3 days (National Academy of Science, 1973, p. 245).
Clidemia se tosa (used magically)
Folkloric reports as a remedy for sterility in Guatemala (Morton, 1981,
p. 634; von Reis and Lipp, 1982, p. 213). In our study, it is used magi-
cally to conceive female children because its leaf base structures resemble
female genitalia. Informants explained that plants which could differen-
tiate plant tissue into “female” and “male” forms could do the same for
human genital tissue.
Columnea schiedeana (effective?)
No data on components or on folk uses.
Coriandrum satiuum (effective level I)
Reported emmenagogue (Morton, 1981, p. 644). Constituents not likely
to be active.
Crescentia cujete (effective level I)
Folkloric emmenagogic and oxytocic use (Ayensu, 1981, p. 53; Morton,
1981, pp. 619-620).
Cuminum cyminum (effective level II)
Folkloric abortifacient and emmenagogue in El Salvador, Brazil, Africa
and India (Farnsworth et al., 1975; Morton, 1981, p. 645). Plant extracts
at a dose of 250 mg/kg prevented implantation of the fetuses in the uteri
of white rats when administered 7 days after conception (Garg, 1976). An
isolated principle (coumingine) has produced uterine contractions in vivo
and in vitro (Farnsworth et al., 1975).
Dodonaea uiscosa (used magically)
The components listed should not be effective for the uses listed. This
plant in Chinantec is called “the horn tree plant” since the trunks are like
deer antlers in that they are durable and hard to break. Externally applied
compresses of the leaves are used to strengthen a weak or broken part of
the body, specifically to knit fractures, heal the back postpartum, and
prevent miscarriage. No folkloric uses found in the literature.
Eupatorium quandrangulare, E. ligastranum (effective)
Tannins would make an effective antiseptic, astringent postpartum bath.
Euphorbia pulcherrima (not effective)
The constituents listed not obviously contraceptive. A number of
Euphorbia species reported as emmenagogic and abortifacient. Extracts
as well as aesculetin were shown to stimulate the uterus both in vivo and
in vitro (Farnsworth et al., 1975).
Eysenhardtia polystachya (possibly effective)
p-Sitosterol has a 93% anti-implantation score when tested on rats
(Kamboj and Dhawan, 1982). Most folk references for the last 400 years
have referred to this species as a diuretic and as useful for kidney ailments
(Martinez, 1969, p. 469).
Galium mexicanurn (effective postpartum recovery; magical use for Uterine
bleeding)
 79

Tannins would produce an antiseptic, astringent postpartum bath. The

name of this plant in Chinantec is “the herb with the metal”. It is a long-
stemmed plant covered with many small retrose barbs which give its leaves
the appearance of being able “to cut like a machete”. The use of G.
mexicanurn for miscarriage and bleeding is probably drawn from that of
the more widely known remedy for these conditions in San Francisco, a
drink made from water and iron shavings from a newly sharpened machete.
In the case of either remedy, the intent is to strengthen the woman’s
entire system.
G~~~~~e~~~~~~~~~~~a (effective)
Methyl salicylate would be useful as a postpartum aromatic ingredient as
well as having antiseptic properties (Claus et al., 1970, p. 199).
Hy banthus breuis (not effective)
The chemicals present would not be effective.
Hydrocotyle mexicana (not effective)
The constituents would not seem to produce the effects required for the
uses listed.
Indigofera hartzuegii (effective)
Flavones such as rutin and apigenin have strong smooth muscle spasmo-
lytic effects. Apigenin is 3.29 times as effective as papaverine (Achterrath-
Tucke~~n et al., 1980). As such, this plant should help to alleviate dys-
menorrhea. Used in Mexico as an antispasmodic (Morton, 1981, p. 323).
Iostephane trilobata (effective?)
Folkloric report of its use in Mexico to treat infertility (von Reis Altschul,
1973, p. 319). No chemical data are available.
Lippia alba (effective)
Tannins would be useful for postpartum astringent, antiseptic treatment,
Litsea glaucescens (effective postpartum recovery, dysmenorrhea)
The presence of aromatic antiseptic compounds (limonene and citral)
would make an effective postpartum bath (Sticher, 1977, p. 142). Limon-
ene would reduce dysmenorrhea by inhibiting the biosynthesis of prosta-
glandins.
~~tricariu chumomi~Zu (effective dysmenorrhea; ? oxytocic)
Bisabolol and the flavone glycosides are effective smooth muscle spasmo-
lytics and would be expected to help alleviate dysmenorrhea (Achterrath-
Tuckermann et al., 1980; Hegnauer, 1962-1977, Vol. III, p. 528). It is
used in New Mexico as a folk remedy for dysmenorrhea (Moore, 1977).
Reported to be a folk emmenagogue and abortifacient in Europe (Jochle,
1974), Italy (Farnsworth et al., 1975), Costa Rica and Mexico (Morton,
1981, p. 918; Quezada, 1975), hence could effectively induce labor.
Men tha citru ta (effective)
Limonene would decrease dysmenorrhea by antagonizing the biosynthesis
of prostaglandins.
Mimosa uibidu (effective postp~tum recovery, magically effective for uterine
bleeding; effective emmenagogue level HI)
80

Tannins are effective in postpartum baths. In Chinantec, its name is “the

herb to pinch or close up” because it is a shrub which closes its leaves
when lightly brushed. Informants believe that M. albida will heal or
strengthen the back or womb by imparting its “closing” properties to the
injured site. It has been used as an abortifacient in Cuba (Morton, 1981,
p. 330). N,N-Dimethyltryptamine resembles serotonin structurally and
could function as an agonist.
Montanoa tomentosa (effective level IV)
Famed as an oxytocic since the time of the Aztecs in Mexico (Dibble and
Anderson, 1963, p. 179; Hernindez, 1959, p. 294; Martinez, 1960,
p. 356; Quezada, 1975). Zoapatanol has been shown to produce contrac-
tions in smooth muscle, including the pregnant uterus (Smith et al.,
1981). An extract of the plant interrupted pregnancy in guinea pigs and
inhibited implantation in rats, mice and hamsters (Hahn et al., 1981;
Levine et al., 1981).
Oenothera rosea (not effective)
No folkloric reports.
Origanum vulgare (effective level II; effective dysmenorrhea)
Thymol and carvacrol have been shown to inhibit muscular response to
acetyl choline and serotonin in rats and guinea pigs (Racz et al., 1980; van
der Broucke and Lemli, 1980,1982) and thus would be useful for dys-
menorrhea. Several Origanum species used as emmenagogues or aborti-
facients in Europe and India (de Lazlo and Henshaw, 1954; Farnsworth
et al., 1975; Jochle, 1974), Chile (Moreno-Azorero and Schvartzman,
1975), and Mexico (Quezada, 1975). Several Origanum species interrupted
pregnancy in guinea pigs and inhibited implantation in rats, mice and
hamsters (Hahn et al., 1981; Levine et al., 1981).
Persea americana (effective level III; effective postpartum recovery, dysmen-
orrhea)
Used as an emmenagogue or abortifacient in several areas of the world
including Africa, Central Mexico and Yucatan (Diaz, 1976, p. 90; Farns-
worth et al., 1975; Morton, 1981, p. 236; Quezada, 1975; Uphoff, 1959,
p. 397). Both serotonin and tyramine have been isolated from P. ameri-
cana and shown to stimulate uterine tissue (Farnsworth et al., 1975).
Estragole may help to potentiate the activities by inhibiting MAO.
Phaseolus sp. (effective?)
NO folk listing. Informants report that it is swallowed whole in order to
induce a gag reflex and sympathetic contractions.
Piper auritum (effective level II)
There are a number of references as a folk abortifacient and emmenagogue
(Ayensu, 1981, p. 148; Duke, n.d.; Farnsworth et al., 1975). Extracts
show uterine stimulant activity (Farnsworth et al., 1975). Several species
are also reported to prevent conception by preventing implantation (Das,
1966; Das and Sarkar, 1979). Recent experiments on Piper as abortifaci-
ent, oxytocic and emmenagogic identify N-isobutyl-deca-trans-2,4-diene
 81

amide as the active compound (Baumgarth, 1980). A drug containing

Piper longum acting as a contraceptive by preventing implantation of the
ovum in the endometrium has been patented (Das, 1966; Das and Sarkar,
1979).
Pleurothallis cardiothallis (used magically)
In Chinantec, “the herb of the male”, it has a base leaf structure that
looks like male genitalia. It is used to conceive male children on the same
magical principle described above under Clidemia.
Pluchea odorata (effective)
It has been used in Yucatan as an antispasmodic (Morton, 1981, p. 955).
Extracts of P. lanceolata have shown uterine relaxant activity at low con-
centrations (Prasad et al., 1965). Q uercetin is a known spasmolytic and
the other two flavonoids, artemetin and herbacetin, may also be active.
Podocarpus matudae (possibly effective)
Both podocarpic acid and genistein show estrogenic activity. Although
genistein is much less active than 17P-estradiol, it has been shown to make
sheep sterile (Brandt and Ross, 1948; Farnsworth et al., 1975).
Psittacan thus calycula tus (used magically)
This parasitic mistletoe has sticky seeds that attach to the host plant and
send roots into it to satisfy its nutritional requirements. This process
parallels Franciscanos views of human reproduction where the fertilized
seed attaches itself to the woman’s spine and is parasitically nourished
from the mother’s own food intake. P. calyculatus is used in San Fran-
cisco to treat both infertility and miscarriage, which is caused by the
fetus’ inability to adhere to the mother’s spine. It is also used for men-
strual hemorrhaging and heavy bleeding, the inability of menstrual blood
to “stick” in the womb to form the fetus.
Quercus elliptica (effective)
Tannins present would be effective postpartum bath.
Ricinus communis (not effective infertility)
Castor oil as an effective purgative (Juan and Beubler, 1982; Beubler and
Juan, 1982). Constituents should not be effective in promoting fertility.
Russelia sarmentosa (not effective)
No folk uses listed and chemicals not likely to be contraceptive.
Ruta chalepensis (effective level II)
R. graueolens, the Old World equivalent, has a long history of use (Jochle,
1974) and is still used in Europe today (de Lazlo and Henshaw, 1954;
Galt and Galt, 1978; Grieve, 1972, Vol. 2, p. 694; Spoerke, 1980, p. 151).
Rue is used as an emmenagogue or abortifacient in other widely scattered
parts of the world, including China (Kong et al., 1976), India and Africa
(Farnsworth et al., 1975), and Morocco (Uphoff, 1959, p. 319). In
America, use is reported in South America (de Lazlo and Henshaw, 1954),
Paraguay, Brazil and Chile (Moreno-Azorero and Schvartzman, 1975),
Haiti (Morton, 1981, pp. 378-380), New Mexico (Conway and Slocumb,
1979) and Mexico (Chavez Soto, 1978; Quezada, 1975). Extracts have
82

been shown to cause contractions in uteri of pregnant and non-pregnant

rats, guinea pigs and rabbits (Chavez Soto, 1978). Extracts were aborti-
facient in rats both intramuscularly and orally (Guerra and Andrade,
1978). Extracts as well as two chemicals isolated from rue ~skimmianine,
rutin) have been shown to have uterine stimulant properties (Farnsworth
et al., 1975).
Sambucus mexicanus (not effective)
No folkloric reports and constituents would not be effective for uses
listed. Plant is a diaphoretic (Steinegger and Haensel, 1963, p. 179) but
not useful for hemo~h~e.
Selaginefla pallescens (effective postpartum recovery)
Catalpol has antibiotic properties which would be useful in the post-
partum period.
Struthanthus densiflorus (not effective)
No folkloric reports and chemicals not likely to be effective.
Styrax argenteus (effective level II)
Species of Styrax have been used as emmenagogues and abortifacients
(Farnsworth et al., 1975; Jochle, 1974). Contractions were produced in
rat uterus tissue with saponins isolated from Styrax (Heinrich, pers.
commun.).
Tagetes lucida (effective level I)
Reports of its use as a folk emmen~o~e in China (Kong et al., 1976),
East Africa (Farnsworth et al., 1975), Cuba and Mexico (Morton, 1981,
p. 970; Quezada, 1975).
Turbina corymbosa (effective level IV)
Used as an oxytocic in Mexico, Cuba and elsewhere (Farnsworth et al.,
1975; Morton, 1981, p. 703). Ergonovine is a clinic~ly employed oxy-
tocic (Page et al., 1976).
Zea mays (used magically)
It is bound around the woman’s waist to cool the blood and thus allow
conception to take place.

Conclusions

It should be clear from these data that the residents of San Francisco do
not choose herbal medicines at random. An objective evaluation of the
plants in Table 5 shows that:
37 (64%) contain chemicals which could enable them to produce the
intended effects;
2 (3.5%) have possibly effective chemicals;
5 (8.5%) are used magically;
4 (7%) have no chemical information available at this time;
10 (17%) are not effective.
Thus, out of a universe of over 2500 plants that potentially could have been
chosen, only a handful are, in fact, regarded as medicinal. But, a very high
 83

proportion of these actually contain chemicals which would allow them to

accomplish the effects users seek.
The material offered here provides some insight into the criteria by which
some plants come to be viewed as medicinal. There may well be other
remedies in San Francisco’s botanical universe that are capable of evoking
the same physiological effects as those discussed here. Yet, the folk medical
system requires the satisfaction of certain criteria in order for remedies to
be regarded as useful for the health conditions described. Uteroactive plants,
for instance, must be “hot” and “irritating”; plants used for postpartum
recovery and to treat uterine bleeding must be “cleansing”, “strengthening”,
and/or capable of “closing” the parturient’s open womb and body. Conse-
quently, remedies which are efficacious may be rejected or ignored if they
do not “make sense” within a group’s prevailing theories of disease etiology
and medical therapeutics (Goodwin and Goodwin, 1984). A detailed under-
standing of broader folk medical systems is therefore necessary in order to
understand how the medicinal value of plants and other remedies is recog-
nized.
Nevertheless, there are undoubtedly also a large number of species that
could be perceived as “hot” and “irritating”, or as “cleansing”, “strengthen-
ing”, or capable of “closing” the body, which currently do not have medi-
cinal uses in San Francisco. It may be that the medicinal uses of particular
plants persist because they have been experientially demonstrated capable
of producing the desired effects. This hypothesis requires further investi-
gation. A corollary may be that folk medical systems which have existed in
isolation for long periods will have higher proportions of objectively effica-
cious medicines than those which are of recent origin or have been intro-
duced through syncretism. Stable, isolated systems have the advantage of
longer term empirical experience with the remedies in question. The low
proportion of empirically valid plants used by newly popular Spiritualist
healers in Hidalgo, Mexico, lends preliminary support to this formulation
(Finkler and Ortiz de Montellano, n.d.).
These hypotheses are just first steps in understanding how the medicinal
properties of plants used in one Mexican community for reproductive
health and the management of reproduction are recognized. Future
research on the relationship between these and other medicinal plants and
the broader healing systems to which they belong should continue to
provide useful new data for ethnopharmacology.

Acknowledgements

Support for this research was generously provided by grants to Browner

from the National Science Foundation (BNS-8016431), NICHD (HD-04612),
the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research (no. 3387), and
a UCLA Research Grant from the Committee on Research of the Academic
Senate (no. 3993). Gary J. Martin collected and identified the medicinal
84

plants, Linda M. Hunt and Theresa Ford assisted admirably with the data
analysis, and Cindy Southard prepared the manuscript and the tables.

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