The Cause of Cracking in Post-Tensioned Concrete Box Girder Bridges and Retrofit Procedures. 2 the premise that “Those who ig- nore history will be condemned to relive 1” this paper attempts to docu. ment those types of problems that lead to cracking in post-tensioned concrete box girder bridges and have been en- countered in both Europe and the United States, These problems are not limited to those of prestressed box girder bridges, but may occur in other types of struc tures with similar conditions and de- tails. Problems are generally attributed ‘e poor quality control, inadequate de~ sign details, inferior workmanship, or lack of understanding as to how the structure will behave, either through ig- norance or because a particular phenomenon is unknown to the cument stute-oF-the-art, or a combination of all 2 Walter Podoiny, Jr. Bdge Ovion Office of Eraineecng Fedora Highway Adrinistaton Washington, 0.6 these factors, Cracking in posttensioned concrete box girders generally results, in a broad sense, for the following reasons: inade- uate flexural and shear capacity, non- consideration of thermal stresses, insu: Bicient attention to stresses developed by curvature of tendons, improper oF in appropriate construction techniques, Jack of quality workmanship to meet the lolerances necessary for problem free structures, and understrength materials Ieshould also be noted that cracks are not totally avoidable in post-tensioned concrete box girder bridges, since not all Dortions of the structure sre precom- Pressed in three directions and local concrete shrinkage is not always com trollable. Certain cracks may not be structurally serious, while others are. It is, therofore, important for the structur engineer to determine the steucturi ‘significance of a crack and its effect © the serviceability of the structure, In general, in today’s technology it very rare that the triggering mechanis) can be traced to a single source. Each « the sources cited above, when taken it dividually, usually produte stresses overstresses that are minor and withi allowable limits. However, if one or umber of the sources is ignored or it advertently overlooked, a superpositio ofstress can occur such that the capacit ofthe concrete is exceeded and the onl relief the structure has from this ove stress is to crack. ‘Therefore, it can be seen that itis ver difficult to diagnose a specific triggerin mechanism. It generally requires extensive investigative effort, usually b 2 process of elimination, to determine single or small group of probable caus tive factors When serious and/or extensiv cracking distress occurs in a projec there may be a concern for the integrit of the structure. This usually results i delay of the project, investigation, re fit measures, determination of liabi ity and legal involvements, which be comes costly in terms of both time an ‘money. It is hoped that the data pre sented in this paper will help to dissipat the occurrence of these problems to th benefit of both the engineering and cor struction professions, FLEXURAL CRACKING Flexural cracking is associated witl tensile stresses that exceed the tensile capacity of conerete. They are generally found, in continuous girders, at the bot tom of the girder in positive momen areas and at the top of the girder it Regitive moment areas (Fig. 1). In bo Sitders, positive moment flexure crack Will taverse the bottom flange (soffit Width and if severe enough will propa PCI JOURNALIMarch- April 19852racking in 1 Concrete Iges and ures ‘odoiny, Jr. Peering say Administration 36. these factor Cracking in posttensioned concrete box girders generally results, in a broad se: oe e following reasons: inade date lexural and shear capeety consideration of thermal siesses nea ficient attention to stresses developed by corature of tendons, mavoeer ees appropriate construction iechereen lack of quality workmanship to meet the tolerances necessary for problen fee stractnes, and understength netenige TH should alo be noted hat eck not tol avoidable pecticnncred concrete box girder bridges, since not all portions of the structare ane precear pressed im thee direcuone att ea concrete shrinkage is not always con- rollable. Cesta cracks ain yore ‘tructurally serious, while others are. It is, therefore, important for the structural engineer to determine the structural Significance of a crack and its effect on ibe serviceability of the structure. ‘in general, in today's technology itis rave that the triggering mechanism Tan be tmced toa single source. Each of the sources cited above, when take: dividually, wsvally produce stresses or oversteesses that are minor and within allowable limits. However, if one oF a nuinber of the sources is ignored or in- edvertently overlooked, a superposition ‘of stress can occur such that the capacity ofthe concrete is exceeded and the only relief the structure has from this over- stress isto crack Therefore, it can be seen that itis very Jiffcult © diagnose a specific triggering mechanism, It generally requires an extensive investigative effort, usually by ‘ process of elimination, to determine a single or small group of probable causa- tive factors When serious andlor extensive cracking distress occurs in a project, there may be a concem for the integrity of the structure. This usually results in delay of the project, investigation, ret rofit measures, determination of liabil ity and legal involvements, which be: comes costly in terms of both time and money. Tt is hoped that the data pre- sented in this paper will help to dissipate the occurrence of these problems to the benefit of both the engineering and eon- struction professions. FLEXURAL CRACKING Flexural cracking is associated with tensile stresses that exceed the tensile capacity of concrete. They are generally found, in continuous girders, at the bot- tom of the girder in positive moment areas and at the top of the girder in negative moment areas (Fig. 1). In box girders, positive moment flexure cracks will traverse the bottom flange (soffit) width and if severe enough will propa- PCI JOURNALIMarch-Apd! 1985 ‘Synopsis ‘The appearance of distress in the form of eracking in any con- crete structure is one of concer ‘and consternation to all parties in- volved. It is evidence of an unta- vorable stress condition and if ser- ‘ous enough could affect the struo- tute's integrity. Cracking may occur {for a number of reasons but usually Is the result of the interaction of several causative factors. Theso factors taken individually may be minor but when superimposed can resutin distress. ‘This paper presents documenta. tion of problems that have led to cracking in post-tensioned con- ‘rete box girder bridgos in Europe ‘as well as in the United States. it discusses cracking resulting from inadequate flexural and shear capacity, thermal stross cracking, land cracking resuting from tendon ‘curvature and tendon misalign- ‘ment, Also discussed are possible retrofit measures, The intent of this paper is to bring these problems to the atten tion of the engineering and con- struction professions with the hope ‘of precluding their recurrence. fate in the webs. Flexure eracks in the top of the section, in the negative mo- ment area, ocear less often since there is generally 2 moment redistribution that occurs which reduces the tensile stress- es in this area, In segmental box girders, flexure cracks will generally occur in or near the segment joints (Fig. 2). The crack width at the bottom can be on the order of 0.004 to 0.008 in. (0.1 to 0.2. mm). As the cracks propagate up to the top flange, they will become fine microcracks. 83intloction Points Fig, 1. Flexural cracking zones, Flexural cracks can be small (mi- crocracks) and the structure may appear tobe intact, However, the width of these Mlexural cracks can vary and become qanite large, % to % in, (3 to 10 mm), under the effects of oxternal loading, such as dynamic traffic load or thermal sradient In areas near the support the effect of shear will be superimposed upon the flexural stresses producing, after initial vertical cracking, cracks that are in clined and become more and more diag- onal in the webs, which may indicate insufficient shear strength (Fig, 3). This type of cracking will be accom- panied by deformation in the structure, visible and measurable deflection. Cracks of this type pose a risk to the reinforcement, prestress or conven tional, that traverse the crack from coro sion oF from fatigue damage under large and frequent stress variation. Considerable care must be exercised in diagnosing the cause of eracks in this Pattern. Inadequate flexural capacity may Or may not necessarily be the causative factor. Excess tension and subsequent cracking bebind blister an- chorages can produce similar cracking, (this effect will be disoussed in a sub- sequent section). Therefore, cracking of this type may have its origin in inade- cs ‘CRACK PATTERN | \.MOMENT DIAGRAM uate flexural capacity, cracking behind anchorage blisters or a combination of both, Causes of inadequate flexural capacity are varied in origin and itis seldom that a single cause will produce significant cracking. More generally, there are a number of causes which by themselves are insignificant, but when acting in concert with other causes produce sub- sequent cracking. The more prevalent causes are as fol- lows: (@) During Design 1. Inadequate consideration of, or un- dlerestimation of, stresses resulting fom moment redistribution. 2. Underostimation of thermal stresses (expansion or contraction). 3. Lack of consideration of or under estimation of, thermal gradient. 4, Overestimation of initial prestress resulting from optimistic coefficients of friction and wobble. 5. Underestimating relaxation loss is prestressing. 6. Selection of a tendon profile whereby a large variation of prostress eccentricity occurs (Fig. 4), and not checking the stresses at eritical loca- tons joint a Fig. 2. Flexural cracks. vertical bending Poor rH Fig. 3. Flexural cracks. canttever tendone 9 tare Fig. 4, Unverified zone of cracking POI JOURNAL/March-April 1985“T-GRice Parte a, \.MOMENT pIAGRAM beobi at uate flexural capacity, cracking behind ‘chorage blisters oF a combination of Causes of inadequate flexural capacity ce varied in origin and itis seldom that Single cause will produce significant racking. More generally, there are a lumber of causes which by themselves ‘© insignificant, but when acting in yneett with other causes produce sub. “quent cracking, ‘The more prevalent causes ate as fol- ) During Design 1. Inadequate consideration of or un- estimation of, stresses resulting from ment redistribution, 2. Underestimation of thermal stresses ‘pansion or contraction), 3. Lack of consideration of, or under- imation of, thermal gradient «. Overestimation of initial prestress ulting frosn optimistic coefficients of tion and wobble Underestimating relaxation loss in stressing, Selection of a tendon profile sreby a large variation of prestress entricity occurs (Fig. 4), and not cking the stresses at eritical loca sete eme Fig. 2. Flexural cracks. combined vortcat Sending" shear cracke cracks oer support ery Fig. 3. Flexural cracks, ‘continuity tendons cantiover tendons 3 ne sours’ | Pans feelers CLE gopher me Fig. 4. Unverified zone of cracking eee Eee eee CeCe PCI JOURNAL/March-Apel 1985, 85,Fig. 5. Shear eracking. (b) During Construction A. Losses as a result of excessive frie- tion resulting from crushed tendon duets. 2. Displacement of poorly secured tendon ducts which then alters the ec- centricity and also produces additional friction, 3, Lack of isolation from the eonerete oftendon couplers. Ifthe coupler is po- sitioned such that it cannot freely move as the tencion elongates under stressing, the prestress force distribution is al. tered, 4. Failure of strands or wires in aten= don. (c) Excess Permanent Loads L. Underestimnating the weight of con- struction equipment and permanent nonstructural loads (roadway thickness, overlay, utility lines not originally planned, ete.) 2. Accidental displacement of forms before or during concrete placement re- sulting in a greater thickness and heavier deck. The opposite can also 85 point of Inflection (ay faulting te) Occur whereby the thickness is reduced resulting in decreased concrete area to accommodate stress, 3. Underestimation of the voluminal mass of concrete, especially where dense aggregates such as those of basal- tic origin are used, (d) Secondary Stresses and Overloads These are stresses experienced during ‘constriction and service life for which it ‘may not have been designed. L. Differential sottiement of suppotts ‘or movements of pier foundations which modify stresses and/or deformations. 2. Cracks caused in the concrete dar. ing or after setting that result from moving construction loads or shifting of formwork. 3. Faulty concreting sequence that can cause cracking as a result of differ- ential shrinkage. 4. Overload from heavy track traffic and accompanying dynamic effects. 5, Failure to recognize local effects such as, for example, curvature of ten dons or stresses behind anchorages. draped cantilever ten a : fe XI Sasso Fig, 6. Shear forces. SHEAR CRACKING Shear cracks occur in the webs and are perceptibly inclined at approximately a 45 deg angle. They normally manifest themselves in a zone between the sup- Port and an inflection point (Fig. 5a). ‘The web reinforcement traversing these cracks is subject to stress variations which can cause bond failure and fatigue damage. In addition, at the Kimit, the reinforcement can yield. This may result in the faulting of the intrados which is usually not visible to the eye (ig. 5), but can be instrumentally measured, Most of the causes of flexural cracks are also responsible for shear cracks since a change in bending moment au- tomatically changes shear stress:! | Insufficient prestressing 2. Excess permanent loads 3. Secondary stresses 4. Thermal effects Shear cracks can also be initiated by bending cracks or high tensile stresses behind tendon anchorages. The fol- lowing design oversights may also con- \wibute to the formation of shear eracks: PCI JOURNAL March-April 1985point of inflection faulting o) Occur Whereby the thickness is reduced = resulting in decreased con accommodate stress, 3. Underestimation of the voluminal mass of concrete, especially where dense aggregates such as those of basal. tic origin are used. rete area to (d) Secondary Stresses and Overloads ‘These are stresses experienced during construction and service life for which it may not have been designed, 1. Differential settlement of supports ‘ormovements of pier foundations which modify stresses and/or deformations 2. Gracks caused in the concrete dur ing or after setting that result from ‘moving construction loads or shifting of formwork.” 3. Faulty concreting sequence that ean cause cracking as a result of differ: ential shrinkage, 4. Overload from heavy truck traffle and accompanying dynamic effects 5, Failure to recognize local effects such as, for example, curvature of ten- dous or stresses behind anchorages. draped cantilever tendons ¢ SS continuity tendons ‘ t, ' sss + a nraeses! Fig. 8. Shear forces. SHEAR CRACKING Shear cracks oceur in the webs and are perceptibly inclined at approximately a 4 deg angle. They normally manifest themselves in a zone between the sup- port and an inflection point (Fig. 5a), ‘The web reinforcement traversing these cracks is subject to stress variations which can cause bond failure and fatigue damage. In addition, at the Kmit, the reinforcement can yield. This may result in the faulting of the intrados which is usually not visible to the eye (Fig. 5b), but can be instrumentally measured. Most of the causes of flexural cracks are also responsible for shear cracks since a change in bending moment au- tomatically changes shear stress: 1. Insufficient prestessing 2. Excess permanent loads 3. Secondary stresses 4. Themnal effects Shear cracks can also be initiated by bending cracks or high tensile stresses behind tendon anchorages. The fol- lowing design oversights may also con- ‘tibute to the formation of shear cracks PCI JOURNAL March-April 1985 Y 1. Lack of recognition of shear dis- tribution in the webs of multicell gird- ers. The transverse design of the see- tion does not take into account the true flexibility of the cross section. (This ef fect will be discussed in a subsequent section.) 2. Lack of double checking tothe right and left ofa section where a tendon ter- minates. 3, Failure to recognize the effect of in- clination of continuity tendons in vari- able depth girders. Although the vertical component of a single tendon may be smnall, if there sre a large number of ton dons they can oreate a significant shear foree. The total net shear force, V,, is the sum of the following terms (Fig. 6)? I. Shear force due to applied loads equals. 2. Reduction due to vertical compo: nent of draped tendons, where used equals -3P sina. 8. Increase due to inclination of con- tinuity tendons in the bottom ange for variable depth girders equals +2 P sin ra 4. Reduction due to the inelined prin- 7cross-bection typical dlagonal cracks ‘max. opor ing 0.02" (0.6 mm) intermediate diaphragm PARTIAL ELEVATION Fig. 7. Web cracking of center web. cipal compressive stresses in the bottom flange (usually called the Resal effect after the engineer who first studied members of variable depth) equals fetB tan y. Thus: V,=V ~ SP sina + 3P sing ~ f. 8 tany Cracking Produced by Incorrect Distribution of Forces ‘This example is one of a two-cell, variable depth, box girder bridge con- structed by the balanced cantilever method and consisting of five spans of 210, 370, 370, 390, and 230 # (64, 113, 113, 119, and'70 m). External webs are 1S in. (340 mm) thick and the center web is 12 in. (200 mm) thick. Because the bridze was subsequently intended to ‘carry monorail pylons, two intermediate diaphragms were provided at the third oints of each span, as indicated in Fig, 1 Longitudinal prestress was applied by straight tendons in the top flange and 28 vertically curved tendons in the bottom ange. Vertical prestress was applied in the webs to control shear stresses. Dias onal eracking was observed in the center web, only near the intermediate diae phragm, with a maximum crack opening of 0.02 in. (0.6 mm). In addition there was cracking in the bottom flange A complete investigation ofthe prob- lems encountered revealed that erack- sng was the result of the superposition of several adverse effects, any of which aight have been harmless if considered separately: 1. The computation of shear stesses failed to take into account the adverse effect (usually neglected) of the vertical component of continuity prestress iu the bottom flange of a girder with variable depth. The curvature of continuity ten- done distributed in the bottom flange is such that a downward reaction Is p10" duced atthe webs that is additive tothe shear in the web (see above). 2. ‘The distribution of shear stesses was made under the conventional structural analysis assumption that the a) convent bee of trans (b) transver Fig. 8, Transverse sti cross section was rigid and transversel undeformable (Fig. 8). However, de pending upon the stiffness of comp: ent parts of the cross section this a sumption may be erroneous (Fig. 8b Conventional analysis, assuming a rig) undeformable cross section, assumt that a centered loading is evenly di tributed among the webs. In fact, center loading induces a transverse d formation in the top and bottom lang with a displacement of the center we langer than that of the external wet Fig. 9 indicates influence lines for she in the center web and the external we The transverse behavior appears ve different from that of a transversely u deformable section and may produ cracking in the bottom flange as in: cated in Fig. 10. For any particular er section, a more rigorous analysis is ins cated than that usually conducted. 3. The vertical web prestress was p tially lost into the intermediate d hragms, and the actual vertical compr sive stress was lower than assumed. 4. Vertical prestress is usually app PCI JOURNALMarch- April 1985diagonal crack soning 0.02 8 tiaphragm EVATION vertically curved tendons in e om Tenge Veen protease I eb conte shen tense ral ching warcbnecediee owe sch a nar he ened tet 's, with a maximum crack openin, £0.02 in, (0.6 mm). Tn addition tone car creching ae aon 2 complet ovestaneen a po ons eneounered rented ae ae vein theresa oe at ie wail see eter Baer noe ml if ‘idered The computation of shear suse ied to tke into account the neat Fect (usually neglected) of the vertical mnponentofcontinui peer wom flange oft gee eine Dh, The conmtareofconene ale watt mt hte fg Gh hats dowamand seem, ioe ced at the webs that is additive tothe sar in the web (see above), 2 he dba ear ese stil sale tense a a) conventional assumption - of transverse rigidity (b) transverse deformability Fig, 8. Transverse stitfness of a two-coll box. cross section was rigid and transversely undeformable (Fig. 8a). However, de- pending upon the stiffness of compo- nent parts of the cross section this as sumption may be exroneous (Fig. 8b). Conventional analysis, assuming a rigid undeformable cross section, assumes that a centered loading is evenly dis- tributed among the webs. In fact, a center loading induces a transverse de- formation in the top and bottom flanges with a displacement of the center web larger than that of the external webs. Fig. 9 indicates influence lines for shear in the center web and the external web, The transverse behavior appears very different from that of a transversely un- deformable section and may prodace ‘racking in the bottom flange as indi- cated in Fig. 10, For any particular eross section, a 1o0re rigorous analysis is indi- cated than that usually condneted. 3. The vertical web prestress was par- tially lost into the intermediate dia- phragms, and the actual vertical compres- sive stress was lower than assumed. 4. Vertical prestress is usually apphed PCI JOURNALIMarch-Apyil 1985 with short bar tendons and even if equipped with a fine thread they are not completely reliable unless special pre- cautions are taken under close super sion. Even 2 small anchor set signifi cantly reduces the prestress force, and it {is not unlikely that the actual prestress force is only three-fourths or even two-thirds of the theoretical prestress. Cracking as a Result of Indirect Support ‘The ideal position of bearings ata pier is directly under the webs of a box gir- der. ‘The shear from the web is trans ferred directly from the web to the bearings, and there is need only for a simple inside diaphragm designed to transfer the shear stress, due to possible torsion moments, to the substructure However, to avoid spalling the bottom outside comer of the soffit, the edge of the bearing should be a minimum of 2 in, (50 mm) clear of the comer. If a chamfer exists at the comer, the clear distance shonld be measured from the 89‘edge of the chamfer (Fig. La). A more complicated situation arises when the bearings are offset with re- spect to the webs (Fig. 11b). Mild steel reinforcement and possibly prestressing steel must be provided in the cross sec- PYHettt ett (@) INTERNAL WEB, () EXTERNAL WEB. Fig. 9. Shear influence lines. tion immediately above the pier to ace commodate the following: 1. Suspend all shear stresses carried by the web under Point A, where a 45 deg line starting at the bearing edge in. tersects the web centerline (hatched area in the shear diagram), 2. Balance the moment (V x d) in- duced by the hearing effect, Obviously the most severe situation is that where a single bearing is used, or a pairof bearings is sufficiently offset, and that the 45 deg line from the hearing. does not intersect the web centerline (Figs. 11e and 11d). ‘An approach to the determination of the forces involvedis by means ofa truss analogy,*** using trusses with compres sion struts formed in the plane of the webs and diaphragms. Fig. 12 shows the truss analogy for the case of a single bearing at the centerline of the cross section. Where the wob trusses and the diaphragm truss intersect, the web is stressed in the same maaner as ifa load were suspended from the bottom at the position of the diaphragm, Reinforcement requirements should be based upon an ultimate load condi- tion. Suspension reinforcement is re quired to transfer the ultimate load in the web to the diaphragm. The resisting suspension reinforcement in the web should be in addition to the normal shear reinforcement, This suspension reinforcement should, in addition, be distributed in the RM Fig. 10. Cracking pattern in bottom flange. 90 Fig. 11. Position of bearings. hatched area of the intersection zone (Fig. 12¢), such that 70 percent of itis loeated in the web, Tt should be the fall depth of the girder and adequately an- chored. Tn many instances, provisions are made (or should be made) for future Jacking up of the superstructure in the ‘event the bearings require replacement. The design drawings should indicate the intended position of the jacks and the consequences of this temporary re Positioning of reactions should be ac- commodated in the design. THERMAL STRESS CRACKING ‘The current AASHTO Specifications" recognize thermal expansion and con- traction in the design of bridge struc tures, The rise and fall of temperature should be determined for the site of the structure under consideration, In gen- eral, AASHTO requirements for tem PCI JOURNAL/March- Ape 1985fon immediately above the pier vommodate the following?” °° 1. Suspend all shear stresses carried oy the web under Point A, where mie Jeg line starting atthe bearing edge in exsects the web centerline (hatched urca in the shear diagram). 2. Balance the moment (Vx d) ine luced by the bearing efit. Obviously the most severe situation is hat where a single bearing is used. or 2air of bearings is sufficiently offset, hat the 45 deg line from the bearing locs not intersect the web centerline Figs. Lc and 114). An approach to the determination of he forces involved is by means ofa truss pulogy using tosses with compres. fon struts formed in the plane of ‘obs and dlaphragms. Fig. 12 shows the “uss analogy for the case of a single earing at the centerline of the cross 2ction. Where the web trusses aud the iaphragm truss intersect, the web is sessed in the same manner a if load ‘ere suspended from the bottom at the sition of the diaphragm. Reinforcement requirements should = based upon an ultimate load condi- nn. Suspension reinforcement i$ re- aired to transfer the ultimate load in ve web to the diaphragm The resisting 'spension reinforcement in the web ould be in addition to the nonnal ‘ear reinforcement. This suspension reinforcement sould, in addition, be distributed in the aa ae ' Fig. 11. Position of bearings, hatched area of the intersection zone (ig. 12), such that 70 percent of it is Tecated in the web." It should be the full depth of the girder and adequately an- chored. In many instances, provisions are made (or should be made) for future Jacking up of the superstructure in the event the bearings require replacement. ‘The design drawings should indicate the intended position of the jacks and the consequences of this temporary re~ positioning of reactions should be ac- ‘commodated in the design, THERMAL STRESS CRACKING The current AASHTO Speeifications* recognize thermal expansion and con- traction in the design of bridge struc- tures. The rise and fall of temperature should be determined for the site of the structure under consideration. In gen- eral, AASHTO requirements for tem- PCI JOURNALIMarch-Apal 1985, perature rise and fall of a concrete structure about an assumed temperature at time of constraction is as follows: Tempertre Type ofetimate | Rise | Fall Moderate climate | 20°F | oF aero | arc Coldctinate | 35F | as asso | ao ‘The thermal coefficient for normal woight concrete is taken as 6 < 10~ per deg F (108 x 10° per deg C). Thus, by using the equation: eralAt ay where @ = total chango in length 1 a = thermal coefficient of expansion (or contraction) 1s length of a member fiom a reference point t= change in temperature of an aunrestrained member The change in length of an unre- strained member can be determined Where a member is restrained (Bxity of supports or friction in bearings) the thermal expansion or contraction is pre- vented by reactions at the supports which then cause stresses in the mem- ber. This stress is calculated by assum- {ing that the thermal expansion or con- traction first occurs and then forces (reactions) are applied at the restraints to bring the member back to its original length: (©) ANALOGUS TRUSSES From Bq, (1) the strain in the member is determined as: esell=ade ® ‘The change in length of the member er unit of length accompanying the unit stress "s" caused by the restraint is emo @ where E is the compressive or tensile modulus of elasticity. Thus: =sE=aAtors=Eadt (4) (b) CRAGK PATTERN $aiaphagm | whichever produces the largest area f (0) PLAN OF IDIAPHRAGM/WEB REGION Fig, 12, Indirect bearing support. 92 | | evident from displaced bearings and/or ambient tomperat ambient temper: Fig. 13, Thermal response parame From the above, expected movements or stresses can be determined for sup- port conditions and expansion joints and bearings as appropriate can be provided. However, occasionally distress is still damaged expansion joints. Presumably, this distress occurs from unanticipated temperature rise or fall Although the above consideration has been a traditional approach to thermal stresses in bridge structures, bridge en- ineers have relatively recently become aware of another thermal phenomenon, namely, thermal gradient, As a result of the poor thermal conductivity of con- crete, a temperature gradient will occur through the depth of a conerete mem- ber. The gradient is a function of a aumber of variables (Fig. 13) such as solar radiation, ambient temperature, wind speed fluctuations, material prop- erties, surface characteristics, and sec tion shape2oat This type of thermal gradient will cause external restraint forees in stat ‘cally indeterminate structures such as Continuous girders. If ia a continuous bridge the interior supports (points of fixity) are released, the structure will attempt to camber upward, assuming an POL JOURNALIMarch- Api 1965,From Eq. (1) the strain inthe monies” is determined as: e=el=adt @) ‘The change in length ofthe se er unit of length accompanying = unit stress ea *” caused by the restraint ie @) where E is the compressive or tensile modulus of elasticity. Thus: (cE =aAtors=BaAt df girder depth pression ston’ (b) CRACK PATTERN ¢oiaohragm web I me ay Whichever produces tt largest a OF!IDIAPHRAGM/WEB REGION ® ambient temperature os —éWind speed + asphalt properties —iwind speed = ambient temperature Fig. 13. Thermal response parameters. From the above, expected movements fr stresses can be determined for sup- port conditions and expansion joints and bearings as appropriate can be provided, However, occasionally distress is still evident fiom displaced bearings andor damaged expansion joints. Presumably, this distress ocouss fom unanticipated temperature rise or fall. Although the above consideration has een a traditional approach to thermal stresses in bridge structures, bridge en- sgineers have relatively recently become aware of another thermal phenomenon, namely, thermal gradient. As a result of the poor thermal conductivity of con- crete, a temperature gradient will occur through the depth of a concrete mem- ber. The gradient is a function of a number of variables (Fig. 13) such as solar radiation, ambient temperature, ‘wind speed Quctuations, material prop- erties, surface characteristics, and sec- ton shape #101 ‘This type of thermal gradient will ‘cause external restraint forces in stat- {cally indeterminate structures such as continuous girders. If in a continuous bridge the interior supports (points of fixity) are released, the structure will attempt to camber upward, assuming an PCI JOURNAL March-April 1985 increase in temperature of the upper surface with respect to the lower sur- face, Since the structure is restrained from cambering freely, restraint mo- ments and shears are produced (Fig. 19) In prestressed concrete structures there may be zones, under dead load plus prestress, where there is a low compressive stress reserve and the stresses due to restraint forces can easily reach values that exceed the tensile strength of the concrete. This usually leads to vertical eracks very close to in- termediate supports. Cracking as a re- sult of thermal gradients have been re- ported! and is considered to be one of four prime causes of cracking in pre- stressed concrete bridges.* In some ceases the thermal gradient stresses can be larger than the live load stresses ‘These eracks can be further enhanced or aggravated by strosses resulting, from bearing pressure at the supports or ra dial tendon stresses fom curved ten- dons in the support area® ‘The magnitude of the restraining forces is a function of the thermal sra- dient assumed and can be linear or nc linear. Several countries recognize the existence of thermal gradient and make 93FREE DEFORMATION te Se ih et M = Ply RESTRAINT FORCES AND MOMENTS Fig. 14. Moment caused by thermal gradient, recommendations for their considera: tion in design. Most of these recom. mendations require different shaped gradients and intensities to be evaluated (Fig. 15). However, it should be noted that they are influenced by local meteorology and construction practices, The New Zealand gradient" (Fig 15a) is a fifth power parabola for a depth of 1200 mm (48 in.) with the tempera: ture(T) at the concrete surface related to an asphalt thickness (d) in mim. This curve is used for webs and that portion of the deck not above an enclosed cell, ie, deck flange cantilevers For decks above an enclosed cell @ linear curve is used of 5 — 0,05i°C per 100 mn 4 in.) thickness with the temper. ature (7) at the top surface. A linear temperature increase from 0°C to 15°C is used over the bottom 200 mm (8 in.) thickness of the section For structures shallower than 1400 mm (56 in.) the two parts of the solid curve are to be superimposed. For box girders the transverse effects are ob- tained by using the dotted curve, On a bridge which is to be surfaced, the tem- porary unsurfaced condition is to be checked by using a value for (T) of 27°C. ‘Thermal gradient curves used in En. gland’ are indicated in Fig, 15b for deck warming and deck cooling. These 4 caumves assume a thickness of surfacing of 40 mm (1.6 in.) for Groups 1 and 2 loading and 100 mm (4 in.) for Groups 3 and 4. For other thicknesses of surfac- ing, the values of (T) are adjusted ac: cording to proscribed tables that are resented in the British Code of Prac: tice In Australia’ the thermal gradient carve takes the shape indicated in Fig, 150. In France’ (Fig. 15d) a linear vari tion is used with a 10°C gradient used in combination with dead load, shrinkage, and creep. A S°C gradient is used with all loads (including live load and ime pact). Currently in the United States there are no general eriteria for thermal gr dient, although @ recommendation is presented in Ref. 16. However, the Na tional Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) has a current Project 12.22 titled “Themmal Effects in Com crete Bridge Superstructures” that wil hopefully result in recommendations to be used for United States practice The effects of thermal gradient are usually computed by assuming the gra- dient to be constant throughout the bridge superstructure length, which is not necessarily the case. Fig. 16 indi- cates the results for the case of atypical span fixed at both ends (the ease of @ long structure with many identical spans). The stress at the bottom fiber depends upon the following two factors 1 Variation of height between spat center and support (ratio hy). 2. Position of the center of gravity within the section (ratio /h). ‘The stress increases rapidly when the Variation in depth is more pronounced. For normal proportions the elfect of ge dient is increased by 50 percent in vari able depth girders compared to constant depth girders? Another source of thermal stress (strain) related cracking is that associ ated with heat of hydration, subsequent cooling and shrinkage. Heat of hydra tion is a chemical process that is a fanc- (a) NEW ZEALAND ane 4 rome cies ngrasns io (b) ENGLAND = (©) AUSTRALIA Fig. 15. Thermal gradient diagrams of vari — PCI JOURNAL/March- Apr 1985,curves assuine a thickness of surfacis, of 40 mm (1.6 in.) for Groups 1 and'§ ledding and 100 mm (4 in.) for Groups 3 and 4. For other thicknesses of surfac. ing, the values of (T) ate adjusted cording to prescribed tables that are presented in the British Code of Pa. tice. In Australia? the thermal gradient curve takes the shape indicated in Fig. 150. In France! (Fig, 15d) a linear var tion is used with a 10°C gradient used in ‘combination with dead load, shrinkage, and ereep. A °C gradient is used with all loads (inluding live load and im, pact) Currently in the United States there are no general criteria for thermal gia. (a) NEW ZEALAND stones Ba ayereyiiz00s S008 reson dient, although a recommendation ts resented in Ref. 16. However, the No tional Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) has a current Project 12-22 titled “Thermal Effects in Con crete Bridge Superstructures” that will hopefully result in recommendations to be used for United States practice, The effects of thermal gradient are asually computed by assuming the gra ngpoane (ot mgeuriecng Jient to be constant throughout the s ly oridge superstructure length, which is ot necessarily the case. Fig. 16 indi. vates the results for the case of a typical pan fixed at both ends (the case of a ong structure with many identical pans). The stress at the bottom fiber lepends upon the following two factors, 1. Variation of height between span tenter and support (satio hy) 2. Position of the center of gravity () ENGLAND < 92 208] BE (deck warming) cooling) ae within the section (ratio o/h,). ‘The stress increases rapidly when the ariation in depth is more pronounced “or normal proportions the effect of gra ent is moreased by 50 percent in va ble depth girders compared to constant epth girders.® Another source of thermal stress rain) related cracking is that associ S| ted with heat of hydration, subsequent oling and shrinkage. Heat of hydra: “® on is a chemical process that isa fune- (©) AUSTRALIA PCI JOURNALMarch-Apri! 1965, (¢) FRANCEaA i ee j | range} L. Cp/hg*0.65 EP aso} ~ ee gt PE Colhig= 0. 24 £ 220-P50 psl__ for constant 3. 200 rT Tr SSbRP SREP actin 33 | f= EglaaTCy/hg ge. 150 = + 3 160 gai | @=coetticiont of £ congfant depth thermal expansion 3¢ ‘aT=temparature se 19 aradient g. NOTE: For other modu | Ge"5.000,000 psi / Stress by "76,000,000 14 1045 2053.5 M/hy aT = 18% ELEVATION OF SPAN ‘SECTION AT CENTER Fig. 16. Effect of thermal gradient on box girder decks. tion of the type and amount of cement, thickness of concrete members and temperature of aggregate, mixing water and surrounding atmosphere. As a result of heat of hydration and shrinkage, especially between thick and thin por. tions of a cross section, large residual stresses can be produced which exceed the tensile strength of “green” concrete, Thin parts of the cross section will cool faster than adjoining thick parts Droducing residual tensile stress and cracking. There is always a potential of cracking when s thin member is at- tached to a relatively Jarger member. The thinner member will always be subjected to a faster rate of temperature change (cooling), larger ereep and shrinkage than the larger member and thus the thinner member will crack? In box girders with thick webs rela. tive to the thickness of tie bottom flange, 96 the bottom thin flange will coo! faster and atteraptto shrink ata faster rate than the webs and is therefore being re- strained. To relieve tensile strains, pro dluced by restraint of the webs, the thin bottom flange has ao other altemative but to crack (Fig. 17). In a transverse section, large differences in thickness can produce restraining moments which ean produce horizontal eracks in the webs (Fig. 17b), AA similar thermal stress (strain) in- duced cracking can oceur in staged con struction whereby the cross section is constructed in two or more pours Te cuiring construction joints, When fresh young coucrete is placed against hard ened older concrete there is a danger of cracking. Initially, the fresh concrete will have an increase in temperature r= sulting from heat of hydratiou, then when cooling occurs the new concrete is Plan (@) CRACKS IN THIN BOTTOM FLANGE Fig. 17. Thesmal shrinkage cracking, top flange 8rd stage casting casting forms stilt in place: bottom flange Ist stage casting SECTION Fig. 18. Web shrinkage racks, | Nestained from shrinking by the older concrete Usually, because of jasuffcient Jon- situdinal reinforcement and/or lack of fullicient bond development between © feinforcement and the young con. rete, there is insufficient capacity for © younger concrete to resist the re- “POI JOURNAL/March-Apeil 1985|. Coshg= 0.65 60 for constant depth and inertia, fat Egle anicging coefficient of Thermal oxpar | OT+temperature gradient NOTE: For other moduli tpl 000 T= 18% hy GRA ESGREH SECTION AT CENTER x girder decks. te bottom thin flange will cool faster ad attempt to shrink ata faster rate than te webs and is therefore being re- rained. To relieve tensile strains, pro- aced by restraint of the webs, the thin >ttom flange has no other alternative at to crack (Fig. 174). In a transverse ‘tion, large differences in thickness 1m produce restraining moinents which mn produce horizontal eracks in the ebs (Fig. 176), A similar thermal stress (strain) in reed cracking can occur in staged con- swotion wheseby the eross section is structed in two or more pours re- tiring construction joints, When fresh lung conerete is placed against hard- ed older concrete there is a danger of scking. Initially, the fresh concrete Whave an increase in temperature re- Iting from heat of hydration, then 2en cooling occurs the new concrete is Plan (@) CRACKS IN THIN BOTTOM FLANGE Fig. 17. Thermal shrinkage cracking, top flange 3rd stage casting eS (2) HORIZONTAL CRACKS IN WEBS. cracks in the webs wed 2nd stage casting forms sill in place bottom tange Ist stage casting SECTION Fig, 18, Web shrinkage cracks, restrained from shrinking by the older concrete, Usually, because of insufficient ton Situdinal reinforcement andior lack of sufficient bond development between the reinforcement and the young con- crete, there is insulficient capacity for the younger concrete to resist the re PCI JOURNALMereh Apa 1685 ELEVATION stint to shrinkage produced by the older concrete and cracking of the younger concrete will oceur. I'the forms are left in place too long, they will pre- sent a large surface area of friction that will also hamper the shrinkage of the new concrete and thus cause cracking (Fig 18)! 97seament Ay -seament 8 (a) ELEVATION construction joint tee oi (b) CONSTRUCTION STAGES Fig, 19. Klement Gottwald Bridge. As an example of temperature varia- tion in a box girder bridge, data extract ed from Ref. 17 is presented here to illustrate the point. The research effort involved the instrumentation and tem- perature data collection in two adjacent segments near the midspan of an inter- iorspan (Fig. 198) during construction of the Klement Gottwald Bridge over the Nusle Valley in Prague, Czechoslovakia Segment A had been previously eastand Segment J is the segment being con structed. Segment lenath is 115 f (5 rm) and is cast in three stages as indi- cated in Fig. 19b. Concrete temperature data obtained in December 1969 was influenced by the following, factor: 1. Extremely cold ambient tempera- ture. The temperature was below °C and in the final phases of data collection the temperature was often below ~20°C. 2, Preheating of the concrete mix, be: cause of the low ambient temperature. Hot water was used in preparing the mix such thatthe average mix temperature at 98 placing wa approximately 35°C. Blown hot air was used as a protection against freezing; however, the distribution was ‘These conditions are far from normal and the results have to be considered as extreme, nevertheless, the results are indicative of thermal distribution in this type of cross section. emperature distribution during com struction of Segment B is indicated in Fig. 20. Fig. 20a shows the temperature distribution 10 hours after casting Stage 1L. Note that the bottom flange has a thickness of 11.8 in. (300 mm). Fig. 208 shows the temperature distribution 20 hours after casting Stage 2 (44 hours after casting Stage 1). The web thickness is 236 in. (600 mm). At this point in time the temperature at Point “a” was 386°C, Fig. 20e indi cates the temperature distribution 24 hours after casting Stage 3 (7 days after casting Stage 2). The temperature at Point "b” was 51.1°C and the temper ture immediately above this point, Poiat Fig. 20. Temperature distribution “c", on the surface of the deck, is ap- Proximately 20°C andthe temperature in the bottom portion of the web and the bottom Mange is batow OC. The temperature distribution with Sine for Points "8" and" with respect {© placing Stage 2 is shown in Fiz: 21 se curves indicate, 25 would be ex- ected 3 heat dissipation at the surface (Point “c") as compared with the heat dissipation stan internal position Point 'b”). A comparison of the two curves in- dicats a maximum gradient between ‘ints “b” and “c” at 15 hours after PCLJOURNAL/March-Apr 1985,acing was approximately 35°C, Blown ot air was used as a protection against eezing; however, the distribution was These conditions are far froma normal ad the results have to be considered as ctreme, nevertheless, the results axe ‘dicative of thermal distibution in this ‘pe of cross section, ‘Temperature distribution during con- ruction of Segment B is indicated in ig. 20. Fig. 20a shows the temperature stiibution 10 hours after casting Stage Note that the bottom flange has a ickness of 11.8 in. (300 mm), Fig. 20 vows the temperature distribution 20 >urs after casting Stage 2 (44 hours ter casting Stage 1). The web thickness 23.6 in. (609 mun). At this point in time the temperature Point “a” was 386°C, Fig, 20¢ indi- tes the temperature distribution 24 vars after casting Stage 3 (7 days after sting Stage 2). The temperature at vine “b” was 51.1°C and the temper ‘e immediately above this point, Point 20-30 Fig. 20, Temperature distribution %", on the surface of the deck, is ap- broximately 20°C and the temperature in the bottom portion of the web and the bottom flange is below °C, The temperature distribution with time for Points “b” and “e” with respect to placing Stage 3 is shown in Fig. 21 These curves indicate, as would be ex ected, a heat dissipation at the surface (Point “c") as compared with the heat issipation at an internal position (Point '6"). A comparison of the two curves in- dicates a maximum gradient between Points “b” and “c” at 15 hours after PCI JOURNAL/Mareh-Apni 1985 20 ' (a) STAGE 1 (b) STAGE 2 (e) STAGE 3 all values are in %. casting Stage 3 as 32.2°C for a vertical distance of 28.7 in. (730 mm) between the two points ‘Time-temperatare distribution along the centerline of the web in the lon= situdinal divection is shown in Fig. 22 The heavy dashed line indicates the joint between the previously cast Seg- ments A and B. The eurves show, be. tween the points of0.5t01.2 m (1.6104 f) from the end of the segment, the influ- ence of the locally effective hot air heating of the segment and also its poor heat distribution 99fe at point *b = temperature of concrete at point "o” 1 (hours) 108. -aof || | ‘air temperature inside box external heating Fig. 21. Temperature distibution with time (Points b and c). ‘These curves are also noticeably in- fuenced by the low temperature of the previously cast Segment A and the cool ambient temperature, The maximum temperature gradient decreases gradu- ally after the first few hours of hydration heat development. This gradual de- crease in gradient is due initially to the heating up of the adjacent segment and Inter on to decrease in heat of hydration and cooling of the web of the segment, Thin members cool at a faster rate than thicker members which, therefore, create considerable tensile stress, When fresh concrete is cast against old con- crete there is @ potential for cracking in the younger concrete which, when sub- sequent cooling occurs, is hampered from shortening by the older concrete. ‘This usually occurs during the first few cool evenings when the strength of con: crete is low and low tensile stresses can cause cracking. At this point, because bond is not sufficiently developed, reinforcement cannot prevent opening of the cracks. Restraint forces due to temperature differeaces must be minimized to the extent possible by avoiding large differences in thickness 100 of contiguous members and proper cur ing procedures. There are basically two methods of heat curing concrete: (1) preheating the fesh concrete before placement in the forms and (2) heat curing the concrete after consolidation inthe forms In the first case the concrete Is pre- heated to about 85 to OU'F (80 to 35°C) This operation is achieved in several ways 1. Steam heating the aggregates — a simple solution that presents the disad- vantage of changing the aggregate water content. 2, Heating the water ~ a solution that has limited efficiency, because of the small proportion of water in comparison with the other components (witer at L40°F raises the concrete temperature by approximately 20°F) 3. Direct heating of the concrete mix by injecting steam into the mixer itself — the best solution and the one most easily controlied. To avoid heat loss, the forms are gen: erally insulated and some source of radiant heat is installed inside the 5e8° meat ‘segment A. —t segmont B Te 60. 50) 40} 20} 20 10) o4 ' ' 1 Pioint i | ly l extern hoatin Fig, 22. Longitudinal temperatu In the second case, the concrete is heated in its form inside a thermal con- tuiner in which low pressure steam is sirclated. The heat curing eyele should “include (Fig. 25) 1. An initial curing period of 2 or 3 hours, during which the concrete is kept ‘tthe ambient temperature 2. An increase in temperature at alow rate of less than 36°F (20°C) per hour. 3. A period, depending on the con- J erete strength to be achieved, during ‘which the temperature is held constant and below 150°F (65°O, 4.4 period during which the conerete ‘cooled at arate similar to that used for the temperature increase. ‘similar form of cracking occurs at a flosure pour either at midspan in bal- faved cantilever construction or lon- Bitudinal closure pours between the tips adjacent box girder flanges (Fig. 24). the closure pour concrete hardens, units being connected may undergo deformations solar hea) us discussed | Previously or by transient moving con- struction loads and/or as a result of wemal shrinking, as discussed previ ‘sly, The prestressing may not close SPCLJOURNAL Marci Aod 1985of concrete at polnt "b* ature of concrete at point *e” lao. t (hours) le box 16 (Points b and 0). contiguous members and proper cure 1g procedures. There are basically two methods of eat curing concrete: (1) preheating the esh concrete before placement in the ms and (2) heat curing the concrete ter consolidation in the forms In the first case the concrete is pre- vated to about 85 to 90°F (30 to 35°C), ais operation is achieved in several ays: 1. Steam heating the aggregates — a nple solution that presents the disad- ntage of changing the aggregate water ntent. 2. Heating the water — a solution that s limited efficiency, because of the sall proportion of water in comparison th the other components (water at OF raises the concrete temperature approximately 20°F), 3. Direct hgating of the concrete mix injecting steam into the mixer itself the best solution and the one most sily controlled, To avoid heat loss, the forms are gen- ally insulated and some source of fiant heat is installed inside the seg ant Lssgas In the second case, the concrete is heated in its form inside a thermal con- tainer in which low pressure steam is ‘The heat curing cycle should 23) 1, An initial curing period of 2 or 3 during which the concrete is kept atthe ambient temporature, 2. An increase in temperature at a low rate of less than 36°F (20°C) per hour. 3. A period, depending on the con- crete strength to be achieved, during which the temperature is held constant and below 150°F (65°C), 4A period during which the concrete is cooled at a rate similar to that used for the temperature increase, A similar form of eracking occurs at a slosure pour either at midspan in bal- anced cantilever construction or lon- situdinal closure pours between the tips fagjncent box girder Manges (Fig, 24). As the closure pour concrete hardens, ‘the units being connected may undergo deformations (solar heat) as discussed Previously or by transient moving con- Struction loads and/or as a result of thermal shrinking as discussed previ- ously. The prestressing may not close PCI JOURNALMareh- April 1085 from placing of concrete 27” Fig. 22, Longitudinal temperature distribution in web (Stage 2). these cracks, which ean cause a devie- tion of the isostatic lines of compression toward the uncracked zones, altering the prestressing distribution in the section under consideration resulting ia insuffi- cient bearing strength, ‘To avoid this situation the members being joined must he rigidly held in po- sition. Normally, in east-in-place bal- anced cantilever construction a form traveler is used to clamp the two can- tilever tips rigidly in place. For precast segments or for longitudinal closure pours between flange tips an extemal rigid clamping device must be employed (strongbacks), In addition Proper curing procedures must be employed to control shrinkage stresses, Another difficulty during curing is that resulting from large temperature differences between the curing envi ronment of the segment being cast and the outside environment of the east against segment (Fig. 25). [fa tempera- ture gradient exists across the cast. against segment, its shape will change. The segment will retum to its original shape when the temperature gradient falls back to zero,4 * PRE-HEATING ALTERNATIVE 212-) temp. <150°F(65°C) FORM STRIPPING 28 8, oe Be ee = ze a is & B a2 3 Fe # Fig. 23. Heat treatment cycle, detachments time Ta hours cracks A | PLAN. SECTION Nae <} flange movements eure segment aera ete aT movements Fig. 24. Closure pour cracks. ‘segment conjugate = geet ce at oF f Henath | Fig. 25, tet of improper curing of seg i This will result in match cast surfaces that are not necessarily parallel full length. This condition is evidenced in the top slab joints; the joints will be fight at the curbs and a small gap may be noticed at the center. The problem becomes cumulative if this condition ® exists for subsequent castings. With the tremendous prestressing foree, the seg- ments develop longitudinal cracks as segments are seated against each This also results in an unaccounted [f variable when evaluating the bridge camber. For match-cast segments, it is important to enclose both the cast ) Mtinst segment and the segment being };_ cast in an isothermal enclosure. This will prevent longitudinal thermal gra PCI JOURNAL/March-Aexil 1985,amp. <150°F(65°C) FORM STRIPING ‘time "in hours. [ / Slosure pour cee 14 ox wre sogmont closure seg 3 ad sgt seanont l = vf ot tien [oe wiath 8 Fig. 25. Effect of improper curing of segments in short-ine casting, This will result in match east surfaces that are not necessarily parallel full length. This condition is evidenced in the top slab joints; the joiats will be fight at the curbs and a small gap may be noticed at the center. The problem becomes cumulative if this condition exists for subsequent castings. With the tremendous prestressing force. the seg- ‘ments develop longitudinal cracks as the segments are seated against each other. This also results in an unaccounted variable when evaluating the bridge camber. For match-cast segments, itis important to enclose both the cast against segment and the segment being east in an isothermal enclosure. This will prevent longitudinal thermal gra POI JOURNALMarch Apri 1985 dients being set up which could lead to horizontal curvature of segments and consequent lack of matching in the structure. This effect is particularly sig: nificant for segments with high width to Tength ratios (in excess of 6) 2 CRACKING AT OR NEAR ANCHORAGES Certain anchorage positions, such as an anchorage blister on a thin ange as shown in Fig. 26, should be avoided. Wherever possible, anchorage blisters for continuity tendons should be placed in a fillet between the web and fange where the transverse section has the largest rigidity. Ifthis type of detail can- 103,tendon anchorage blisters, Fig, 26. Anchorage blister position to be avoided segment joint web _- +——H 4 : x = 8 ons anchorage|_—~] blister Fig. 27. Cracking at anchorages. anchorage web tendons cracking 1 in joint web eens =~ segment joints Fig, 28. Cracking in joint behind anchorage. 104 not be avoided, then particular attentior K.: must be paid in design and constuction to the zone concerned.» EB! Cracking will originate in the botto 2 flange behind continuity anchorage blisters and propagate forward towarc the webs, along line forming 30 to 48 deg angle with the longitudinal axis o the girder (Fig. 27) the rg face ofthe blister is located in close proximity to « seginent joint, cracking may develop it the joint (Fig. 28) In some situations the diagonal or herringbone cracks in the bottom flange continue to propagate % the webs forming a 30 w 45 dex angle with a horizontal axis (Fig. 29). Ifthe crack reaches a segment joint the web it may cross the joint, but usa ally travels vertically up the joint to « point below the top flange where it may continue vertically in the joint, resume diagonal path in the web proper, o cease to propagate. Obviously, the shea Fig, 28, anchorage cracking propagatin PCI JOURNALMarch- April 1985tendon anchorage blisters to be avoided, ‘ment Joint tendons. web tondons web ~ ~ segme joints horage. notbe avoided, then particular attention must be paid in design and construction to the zone concemed 244 Cracking will originate in the bottom flange behind continuity anchorage blisters and propagate forward toward the webs, along a line forming a 30 to 45, deg angle with the longitudinal axis of the girder (Fig. 27). Ifthe rear face of the blister is located in close proximity to a segment joint, cracking may develop ia the joint (Fig, 28). In some situations the diagonal or herringbone cracks in the bottom flange continue to propagate to the webs forming a 90 to 45 deg angle with a horizontal axis (Fig. 29). Ifthe crack reaches a segment joint the web it may cross the joint, but usu- ally travels vertically up the joint to a point below the top flange where it may continue vertically in the joint, resume a diagonal path in the web proper, or cease to propagate. Obviously, the shear capacity of the webs will be reduced and failure of the structure may be im- minent® It should be noted that this type of cracking is not symptomatic with anchorage blisters; the same cracking pattem has been observed with anchor ages embedded in the flange, i.e,, no blisters. tis possible that this typo of cracking. from continuity tendon anchorages in the bottom flange may join with simi- lar cracks originating from cantilever tendon anchorages in the top flange (Fig. 30). In this situation, the center portion of the span may become an in- verse “key-stone” (Fig. 31) and im mediate measures are required to pre- vent collapse of the structure.’ This situation occurred in a box girder constructed by incremental Jaunching?® (Pig. 39). Permanent prestress was achieve. by straight tendons placed in the top and bottom flanges, as required Fig. 29. Anchorage cracking propagating to web, PCI JOURNAL/March-April 1985 105by the distribution of moments. During launching an additional uniform pre~ stzess was applied to the constant depth single box section, which produced an average compressive stress of 520 psi (3.6 MN/m’), Neat each pier there was a vertical prestress designed to reduce web diagonal stresses to allowable val- During launching a diagonal crack appeared through both webs between the blisters provided ia the box for an- chorage of top and bottom tendons. The comesponding shear stross was 380 psi (2.67 MNim’), and there was no vertical restress in that zone, The principal tensile stress at the centroid of the section was 200 psi (LA MNimn‘), which is far below the eracking strength of plain conerete. In fact, the webs of the box section were subjected to additional tensile stresses due to the distribution of the large concentrated forces of the top and bottom prestress, The truss analogy shown in Fig. 32 indi- cates clearly that such tensile stresses are superimposed on the normal shear and diagonal stress due to the applied dead load and may therefore produce cracking. This could have been pre- vented by extending the vertical pre- stress in the webs further out toward midspan. The cause of this type of cracking is the application of a tendon force to a small area of slab, in its plane, compress: ing the slab forward of the force in ¢ zone of radial compression stresses that cause tensile stresses behind the point of application of the tendoa force (Fig, top tendon flange crack’ W2 flange crack bottom tendon Fig. 90. Insufficient lap between anchorages. Fig. 31. Symmetrical cracking causing invert 108 flange cracks web cracks flange cracks cey-stone.” inital load 490 k/tondon SECTION A-A Fig. 82, Web cracking under high prestress 39). Among the parameters that can produce this type of cracking are the following: 1, Termination of numerous con- tinuity tondons in a single section, par- ticularly when the joint behind the chorages is not compressed by other tendons and when passive longitudinal reinforcement does not traverse the Joints between segments or is inade- ‘uate, 2. Insufficient horizontal offset be- tween tendon anchorages in the top and bottom flanges (Fig. 30) Ifthis type of eracking and/or failure is to be inhibited, the desiga, detailing, and placementof reinforcement in these highly stressed zones must be carefully considered, Location of blisters must be considered and there must be sufficient longitudinal reinforcement bebind the blister or anchorage and sufficient transverse reinforcement abreast of the ‘anchorage to accommodate the initial F-~POI JOURNAL/March- Apa 1985:webs of the box section were subjeo tp addtional teste stresses de ad distribution of the large ceneentatey forees of the top and bottom prestras The truss analogy shown in Fig. 39 he cates clearly that such tensile stresey xe, superimposed on the normal shest and diagonal stress due to the applica ead load and may therefore produce wracking. This could have been pee sented by extending the vertical pre. tress in the webs further out towne nidspan, The cause of this type of cracking is he application of a tendon force te 2 tall area of slab, init plane, compress, tg the slab forward of the force in one of radial comprossion stresses thar ause tensile stresses behind the point f application of the tendon foree (Fig don 5 bottom tendon anchorages. average Sempreasion gnc Spo pst Shreve bottom Fondon diagonal crack SECTION A-A through crack in both Webs" I Load 490 k/tond TRUSS ANALOGY Fig. 32. Web cracking under high prestress force. 39).4 Among the parameters that can produce this type of cracking are the following? 1. Termination of numerous con- tinuity tendons in a single section, par- ticularly when the joint behind the an- chorages is not compressed by other tendons and when passive longitudinal reinforcement does not traverse the Joints between segments or is inade- quate, 2. Insufficient horizontal offset be- ‘ween tendon anchorages in the top and bottom flanges (Fig. 30) If this type of eracking and/or failure is to be inhibited, the design, detailing, and placement of reinforcement in these highly stressed zones must be earefully considered. Location of blisters must be considered and there must be sufficient Jongitudinal reinforcement behind the blister or anchorage und sufficient ‘transverse reinforcement abreast of the anchorage to accommodate the initial PCIYOURNALMareh-Apri 1985 tendon forces. In a recent failure of this type, after epoxy injection of the racks, additional external post-tensioning was Provided to close-up and induce com. pression in open segment joints and cracks. CRACKS RESULTING FROM VERTICAL CURVATURE OF SOFFIT TENDONS This type of distress is associated with variable depth girders and oceus in the Positive moment area. It is manifested by longitudinal eracks occurring in the bottom flange, at the juncture of the bottom flange and web, and possibly in the web (Fig. 34). Tendons for continuity or positive moment prestress may not, or even should not, always be located in the fil- let between web and bottom flange They may be located in the bottom 107vr NS A/S yatension PIERS KEEN compression VT. "Aension Fig. 93. Stross pattem at anchorage. flange proper. When a variable depth girder is used, the bottom flange has a curvature in the vertical plane, which must be followed by the prestressing, tendons (Fig, 35) Unless careful consideration is given to that fact at the concept and detailed sign stages, difficulties are likely to develop. This is indicated in Fig, 35, which shows the free-body diagrams of stresses in the bottom flange due to the curvature. Curvature of a tendon in- duces @ downward radial force, which must be resisted by transverse bend- ing of the bottom flange between the Longitudinal compressive stresses in the bottom flange similarly induce an upward radial reaction in the flange, ‘counteracting at leastin part the effect of the tendons. Unfortunately, when the fall live load and variable effects, such as thermal gradients, are applied to the superstructure, the longitudinal stresses vanish and consequently the partial ne- gation of the effect of tendon curvature islost, Therefore, the effect of tendon enr- vature adds fully to the dead load stess- es of the conerete flange. The corre- sponding flexural stresses may be four to five times greater than the effect due to dead load only, and if sufficient forcement is not provided for this elfect, heavy cracking is to be expected and 108 possibly failure, Practically, this situa: tion may be aggravated by tendon cusps associated with tendon profile deve tions which will be subsequently dis: cussed (see Fig. 57), As a numerical example (Fig. 36) of secondary stresses due to vertically curved prestressing tendons, assume the following® Longitudinal radius of curvature = 1000 fe (304.8 mm) Weight of bottom stab = 100 psf (4.8 kim’) Compressive stress: Unloaded bridge = 2000 psi (138 lem) Loaded bridge = 0 ‘Tendon capacity = 280 kips at 10 in spacing (1.25 MN at 0.254 m) The radial load resulting from pre stress compression is then determined NIR = f-tiR = (2000) (8) (12/1000 = 200 psf (9.6 kNimn!) The tendon radial load is; FIR = 250,000/(10/12) (1000) = 340 psf (16.3 kNim) ‘The total loads on the bottom flange (1) During construction (dead load) = 100 psf (4.8 kN/m’) @) Unloaded bridge 100 ~ 200 + 340 240 psf (11.5 kNim*) (3) Loaded bridge 100 + 940 140 psf (21 KNim*) Bending moment Swhle = 9 fekips/ft (£0,000 N-m/m) Stress in the bottom flange (uneracked section) f= MS (9000) (12)(12 « 54) = 840 psi (5.8 Nic’) Atthis stress level the tensile strength of the concrete wonld be exceeded, pro- ducing the longitudinal cracks depicted in Fig. 34. bottom flange cracks S~ Fig. 34. Cracking from curved sottfit aad PARTIAL ettect of compressive stres FREE BODY Fig. 98. Vertically curves tendon,ssibly failure. Practically, this situ, may be agaravated by tendon cusp eclated with tendon profile devig as which will be subsequently die, sed (see Fig. 57), \s a numerical example (Fig, 36) of ondary stresses due to vertically ved prestressing tendons, assume thy owing? -ongitudinal redius of curvature = 1000 8 (304.8 mm) Veight of bottom slab = 100 pst 48 Ning ‘ompressive stress: ‘nloaded bridge = 2000 psi (13.8 Jens) oaded bridge = 0 ‘endon capacity = 280 kips at 10 in, spacing (1.25 MN at 0.254 m) he radial load resulting from pre- 88 compression is then determined MR = {1m = (2000) (6) (12/1000 ~ 200 psf (9.6 kN/m*) hhe tendon radial load is: = 280,000/(10/12) (1000) ~ 340 psf (16.3 kN/m*) ve total loads on the bottom flange ) Daring construction (dead load) = 100 psf (4.8 kN) ) Unloaded bridge = 100 ~ 200 + 340 = 240 psf (11.5 kNim!) Loaded bridge = 100 + 340 = 440 psf (21 kN/m*) nding moment wP ND = 9 fekips/ft (40,000 N-m/m) ‘ess in the bottom flange uncracked section) f= MS (9000) (1212 x 84/6) = B40 psi (5.8 MNimn*) this stress level the tensile strength Peonerete would be exceeded, pr vg the longitudinal cracks depicted 6.34. Possible web cracks ped bottom Hanae cracks Fig. 34. Cracking from curved sot tendons, corner crack. “longitudinal tendons tad itt PARTIAL CROSS-SECTION unit load N/R co effect Compressive sire: FREE BODY DIAGRAM Fig. 35. Vertically curved tendon, OI JOURNAL/March- April 1905 103Assumed Longitudinal Radius 1,000 ft. Fig. 36. Numerical example. PULLOUT OF HORIZONTALLY CURVED TENDONS A problem has occurred relatively re- cently with small radius horizontally curved, post-tensioned box girder bridges: The problem has occurred at ‘wo known sites during construction. It concems the lateral force produced in the webs by the tensioning of horizon- tally curved longitudinal tendons. The first example? is a continuous, cast-in-place, post-tensioned conerete box girder bridge, with three spans of 176, 234, and 176 ft (53.6, 71.3, and 53.6 m) with slightly over half of the eastern 176 & (53.6 m) span aligned on a hori- zontal curve with a 250 ft (76 m) radius (Fig. 37). This 176 f (53.6 m) curved span has three 12 in. (0.305 m) thick in- termediate diaphragms, located at each quarter point of the span, In cross section (Fig. 38) the superstructure is a two-cell bor with top, flange width of 34 it (10.4 ml, a bottom flange width of 23 fe (7m), and a depth of ‘Las Lomas Bridge — Causes of Sractural Fail we," Report #9 Department of tho Army, San Frascitco Distt Compe af Engineers, T-Y. Lin International, August 1979 (Cgulbliohod, 110 40° typ. 7-12-12" dia, tendons typ. ae 9 f (2.74 m). The top flange varies in thickness transversely from 8% to 12 in (0.22 to 0.305 m). The bottom flange varies in thickness longitudinally from 7% in. (0.19 m) at midspan to 14 in. (0.356 m) at the piers, The bridge was post-tensioned with 12 draped tendons, which are continu ous throughout the entire length of the stricture. Four bundled tendons were placed in each web andall tendons were Jacked from both ends at the abutments The first failure (Fig. 39) occurred during presiressing operations when the ‘twelfth and last tendon, located in the north web along the inside of the curve, ‘was near its full prestress. A loud noise, described as a “bang,” was heard and all four tendons in that web broke away from the web for almost the entire length of the curved east span, tearing the curved reinforced web along the profile of the tendons, Two days lates, the cast quarter-span length of tendons im the south web, along the outside of the curve, suddenly broke out of the concrete web, again making a loud noise. An immediate inspection of the structure indicated that the horizontally carved tendons, exerting a radial how zontal pressure, had overloaded the reinforced concrete webs. This overload. 712 14" Fig. 38. Typical cross section. YOURNALMarch-April 1965,nal Radius 000 1, ' (2.74 m). The top flange varies in hickness transversely from 856 to 12 in 0.22 to 0.905 m). The bottom flange aries in thickness longitudinally from % in. (0.19 m) at midspan to 14 in, 9,356 m) atthe piers. The bridge was post-tensioned with 2 draped tendons, which are continu. us throughout the entize length of the tructure. Four bundled tendons were laced in each web andall tendons were tcked from both ends at the abutments, The first failure (Fig. 39) occurred uring prestressing operations when the welfth and last tendon, located in the orth web along the inside of the curve, vas near its full prestress. A loud noise, escribed as a “bang,” was heard and all yur tendons in that web broke away ‘om the web for almost the entire ngth of the curved east span, tearing e curved reinforced web along the rofile of the tendons. Two days later, east quarter-span length of tendons the south web, along the outside of © curve, ytddenly broke out of the merete web, again making a loud An immediate inspection of the ructure indicated that the horizontally ved tendons, exerting a radial hor! otal pressure, had overloaded the- inforced conerete webs. This overload Fig. 98. Typical cross section. PCI JOURNAL/March- April 1965Pier 2 a Bulled out tendon: Pulled out tendons pa location of failures Fig. 40, Zones of web failure. Semmes d 112 age os ‘sharp angie change tension vt ¥ an large rac tearing fore Fig. 41, Progressive failure along tendon had caused the concrete to fail, llowir the tendons to straighten out and pu away from the webs (Fig. 40). The fai ure was particularly evident in the ina (north) web, where the tendons he pulled well clear of the concrete. In th outer (south) web the failure (inside th box) had not progressed past the fir quarter-span diaphragm. The cent web was undamaged. Additional obse vations indicated that the tendons we continuing to pull away from the wet and that failure had progressed sever more feet towards the abutment and th pier (Fig, 41). The second example* occurred on ¢ interchange ramp (Fig. 42). This stra ture is a post-tensioned, cast-in-plac continuous, two-cell concrete box gi der, constricted essentially on a cur’ with a radius of 540 f (164.6 m). Tl structure, between expansion hinge experienced concrete spalling at cracking during construction on t] south web of the box along the curve indicated in Pigs. 43 and 44. During the first post-tensioning ope ations, four tendons ont of six in ea web were fully posttensioned, th noise was heard and cracking and spc ing were observed along the south we “"Kapiolant Interchenge On-Ramp Project £ HI-(S7:34," Design Reviews Interim Repor Deparment of Transportation, State of Haw TY. Lin Intemational, Apel 1088 (Unpublishe PCI JOURNALMarch-April 1985‘ourtesy of T. Y. Lin, 'd out tendons 2 Plan ilures tearing force Fig. 41. Progressive failure along tendon, had caused the concrete to fal, lowing the tendons to straighten out and pull away from the webs (Fig. 40). The fail- ‘ure was particularly evidentin the inner (north) web, where the tendons had pulled well clear of the concrete. In the ‘ater (south) web the failure (inside the box) had not progressed past the first quarter-span diaphragm. The conter web was undamaged. Additional obser- vations indicated thatthe tendons were continuing to pull away from the webs, and that failure had promessed several snore feet towards the abutment and the pier (Fig. 41) The second example occurred on an interchange ramp (Fig. 42). This struc- ture is a post-tensioned, castin-place, continuous, two-cell concrete box ai der, constructed essentially on a curve with a radius of 540 ft (164.6 m). The structure, between expansion hinges, experienced concrete spalling and cracking during construction on the south web of the box along the curve as indicated in Figs. £3 and 44 Daring the first posttensioning oper ations, four tendons out of six in each web were fully post-tensioned, then noise was heard and cracking and spall- ing were observed along the south web, ‘Kapiolan Interchange On-Ramp Project No LHI-AST)2g” Design Review: Interim Report to Departnent of Transporation, Sue of Hewall, ‘7. Lin Iterational, Apel 1682 (Uspublishe}. PCI JOURNALMarch April 1985 original curved tendon path pulled out portion tension / “ distributed radial force After that, most of the tendons were re leased except two tendons along the north web and one tendon slong the center web which were not released, It should be pointed out that a review of the construction documents and th: construction method for both structures revealed no serious discrepancies be- tween the construction method as com- pared to the construction documents and specifications. Further, the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges* does not provide guidance for the design of curved ost-tensioned box girders. In both these structures, there was a combination of relatively sharp eurva- ture, thin conerete cover over the ten dons and the bundling of a number of large sized tendons close together. ‘These failures are somewhat unique in that the problem would not have 5 faced in the case of a flatter curvature, thicker concrete cover over the tendons, for adequate spreading of the tendons into individual ducts as compared to bundled ducts. ‘The analysis of the failure of these structures can be divided into three separate actions (Fig. 45) which need to be considered in design: 1, The global or overall girder action of the bridge together with its support- ing piers and abutments, 2. Regioual beam action of each web 13,Fig. 42, Plan, elevation and section. supported at the top and bottom flanges as abeam. 3. Local slab action of the concrete cover over the tendons. tis important from both the analysis and the design viewpoint to look into all three of these actions and their effect on both the conerete and the reinforcement in the webs of the boxes. One point concerning global action of the girder is the restraining effect of the piers and the bridge bearings. A curved bridge tends to shrink along certain di- rections, depending on the flexibility of the piers, while the movement of the bearings may be restrained to take place along a different direction. Thus, sec- ondary moments in the horizontal di rection are produced in the girder of these two structures, Ithas been determined that such 114 Stresses are not a major factor. Thus, itis believed that the global action for both of these structures had only minor ef fects on the failnres experienced, and were not quantitatively considered, Regional action considers each web as a beam supported at the top and bottom flanges. This beam (Fig. 46) is acted upon by the radial force from the texr dons. The radial tendon force produces shear and bending in the web, as it spans vertically. The bending moment and shear ia the web are also influenced by the fact that the web concrete Is under longitudinal compression from tendon prestress, This precompression has an arching ‘effect which partly counteracts the T= dial force from the tendons, thus reduc ing the bending moment produced by the tendon force. In other words, the Fig. 43. Failure of south web. tendeney to push radially inward by the curved tendons is counteracted to some degree by the tendency to push radially ‘outward by the conerete. This is shows Fig 44. Web spating {courtesy of ‘Glarence R. Yamamoto). PCI JOURNALIMarch-Aprl 1985fessos are not a major factor. Thus, itis Keved that the global aetion for both these structures had only minor ef ts on the failures experienced, and -re not quantitatively considered Regional action considers each web as. veam supported at the top and bottom ges. This beam (Fig. 46) is acted on by the radial force from the ten- as. The radial tendon force produces var and bending in the web, as it wns vertically. The bending moment 4 shear in the web are also influenced the fact that the web concrete is der longitudinal compression fram don prestress, ‘his precompression has an arching sct which partly counteracts the rm {force from the tendons, thus reduc the bending moment produced by tendon force. In other words, the ski Fig. 43. Failure of south web. tendency to push radially inward by the curved tendons is counteracted to some degree by the tendency to push radially. outward by the concrete. This is shown Fig. 44, Web spalling (courtesy of Clarence R. Yamamoto). PCI JOURNAL/Marci-April 1965, halrline of large cracks pails schematically in Fig. 47. condition of equilibriui is often taken for granted s0 that the local and regional effects of these forces are not nomnally calculated, in spite of the fact that they may be far from being bal- anced, depending on the degree of cur- vature and amount of prestress tendon pressure occuring locally or regionally ‘The inward pressure from the tendons is often much higher than the outward ra- dial arch pressure from the concrete Such a force imbalance has been re- sisted without failure in thousands of structures constructed, although some of them may be on the verge of failure and not detected ‘The stisrups in the beams are de- signed, as usual, to resist the vertical web shear at the ultimate range. Gener ally, the webs of the box do not crack ‘under normal loadings and the stirrups are soldom called into action. On the ‘other hand, at ultimate load, where the hbeam webs do crack, then the stirrups are called into full action. At that time the stizrups may or may not have excess capacity to serve as the beam flexure reinforcement for the web in the vertical direction. Teappears that the stirrups should be 15Provided to take ultimate web shear first ‘and to resist the web-beam action in ad~ dition. In the second failure example, where #5 stirrups at 12 in. (0.305 m) centers were provided, they were over stressed in beam action alone, even without their service as shear stirrups. Local slab action is probably the most fmportant item that actually caused the failure in both of these structures, The local slab action can be studied in dif. ferent ways. First, consider the cover as 2 slab 2 in. (50 mm) thick (reinforced with #5 bars along the inside face only) acting as a two-span continuous beam. with a central support furnished by the concrete between the two sets of bun- dled tendons, as shown on the left of Fig. 48. This can be analyzed as a plain con- ‘erete beam acting in shear and in flex- ure. However, there is a tendency for concrete to shrink against the more rigid duets. As a result, the tensile strength of the concrete can be entirely lost, both in the support area between bundled ten- dons and maybe in the 2 in. (50 mm) slab, itself. Since it is not considered good practice to design plain concrete to take tension, this analysis has very little meaning, The second analysis, shown to the right in Fig. 48, assumes that the con. crete has cracked and is unable to sup. ply tension for the support area between the bundled tendons, If this is the case, the slab will act as a single span fixed at the ends; however, the reinforcement is in one plane on the inside face only. This can offer very little resistance to the radial force from the tendons, both in bonding and in shear, The stresses are exceedingly high. An extraordinarily high percentage of reinforcing steel would be required to resist such moments. Unfortunately, the tendons were Ued to the stirrups on the Inside of the curvaturo; thus the stirrup reinforcement is in position next to the tendon ducts such that it does not func: tion to resist positive moment produced by the radial forces. Therefore, the con- rete cover essentially is a plain con- crete slab and its resistance is nil The order of magnitude of the stress produced by the three causes discussed, Girder Action cee GLOBAL, REGIONAL Beam Action LocaL Slab Action Fig. 48. Box girder actions due to horizontally curved tendons. 116 eee 7 radial force ro tendons Fig. 46. Vertical span: concentrated force |— from tendons system Fig, 47. Moments in vertical span of ne POI JOURNAL March-April 1985vractice to design plain concrete to ake ension, this analysis has very ete reaning. The second analysis, shown to the ight in Fig. 48, assumes that the coc, rete has cricked and is unable son ly tension for the supportarea betwory 2e bundled tendons, If this i the ease 2e slab will act asa single span Sed st 1e ends; however, the reinforcement.e me plane on the inside face only his ean offer very litte resistance te force from the tendons, both and in shear. The stresses e exovedingly high, An extraordinarily high percentage of ‘nforeing stecl would be required to sist such moments. Unfortunately, the dons wore tied tothe stirrups on the side of the curvature; thus the surrup inforcerment is in position next to the don duets such that it does not fume, ‘a to resist positive moment prodused the mdial forces. Therefore, the con Ae cover essentially is a plain com ste slab and its resistance is nil The order of magnitude of the stress rduced by the three causes discussed, ation stved tendons. —— ee ge Flange 77>. Bbttom Flange | SS--4 web Spanning Vertically Fig, 48, Vertical span of web, distributed force from arch compression ncentrated force | cone ole from tendons System tendon force aren total action Fig. 47. Moments in vertical span of web. "7 PCI JOURNALMarch- April 19652 span loading 1 span loading Fig, 48. Slab action Fequired web thickness 12% 13" 4) tat 485 + o a 2 4 6 8 1 2 14 16 18 = Aq (htt per web) Fig. 49. Chart for determining web reinforcement (45 stirups) 118 w Pele required web thickness as ie aa standard detail ae « as98 a. ag ie cy Ae . 5.29" 3 ot ay os | Perper eee 3.39" i ng a standard Fig, 51. Tendon placement de PC JOURNALIMarch-Apel 1985knees 12° 13” at a8 Taxol wae tier tat « 2.296 han 4 zi Nie. sy won 3 aed tt iat | 4x sen i 1 span loading ¢ ne GD F = Fy, (hitt per web) a Fig. 50. Char for determining web reinforcement (#6 stirrups). I SKE DNS NN 12 "14 46 [b+ (Kitt per web) standard derail “A” vent (#6 stirrups), - Fig. 51. Tendon placement details. PC! JOURNALMarch- Apri 1965when compared to the allowable stress- es in concrete or its reinforcement is approximately as follows:* 1, For global secondary horizontal stress Tt. 10 percent 2. For regional bending stress Sto 50 percent 3. For local slab bending stresses 10 to 200 percent OF course, every case is different and could fall outside of these ranges. But the percentages cited present some rea- sonable order of magnitude. Another important factor in the above is the bundling of the large tendons. It appears that bundled tendons should not be used for horizontally curved bridges with a radius under 700 fe (213 m), unless proper design considerations are implemented. It therefore appears that, for both these structures, the local slab action was the primary cause of failure, but the regional beam action could have been a contributory cause, and could by itself have overstressed some of the stinups, even if not to the point of failure. The global action had a relatively small ef fect upon these failures. In the design of curved post-ten- sioned concrete box girders the designer must consider the lateral prestress force, In recognition of this problem the Cali fornia Departmeut of Transportation (CALTRANS) has prepared and imple- mented design guidelines. They have prepared charts and details to be used as a check of girder webs for containment of tendons and adequate stirrup rein- forcement to resist flexural bending, Asan example, assume that the design of the girder requires a prestress jacking forve (P,) of 2900 kips (12.9 MN) per web, a radius of curvature (B) of 300 (914 m), and a vertical inside height of web (he) of 6.83 ft (2.08 m). By dividing ‘sPatvatecorespondence with Dr. Yin ‘Memo t Designers “Curved Fost Tensioned Bridges" 1191, Galforais Depart of Trans: poration, November 1982. 120 the jacking force (P,) by the radius (R), « lateral prestress force (F) of 9.67 kips per fe (14 kN/m) is obtained. ‘The first step is to enter the chart (Fig, 449) with this value (F) on the horizontal axis of the graph and travel vertically upward until the ordinate (he) of web height is reached. The chart then indi. cates that a web thickness of 12 in, (0.305 m), #5 stireups at 9 in. (228 mm) spacing, and tendon placement detail “A” as opposed to a standard detail” is required, A similar set of curves (Fig. 50) has been prepared for #6 stimups. In cases, that specify final prestress force (P,) rather than jacking prestress force (P) it may be assumed that P, is equal to 1.25 P;, Up to a lateral prestress fore pres- sure (F) of 72 kips por & (10.5 kN/mn), shown by the vertical dashed line, the chart indicates a “standard” tendon placement. Above this value, Detail “A” is required The “standard detail” indicated at the loft of Fig. 51, as the name implies is a standard detail for bundled tendons. Detail “A”, at the right of Fig. 51, indi- cates that the tendons are stacked verti= cally and placed against the outside sti tup with respect to curvature, This is done to provide a greater thickness for local slab action and to put the inside stirrup in a position to participate as ac- tive reinforcement in the slab action. Further, Tendon Detail “A” requires #4 ties between the stirrups and adja- cent to the bundled tendons, and ahoop around the bundled tendon hooked to the outside stirrup (Fig. 52). ‘This then ‘mobilizes the outboard stirrup and the central concrete area behind the inboard stirrup in participating to resist the pull- out ofthe tendons. The application of the California Suidelines is based upon the following assumptions: 1. The girder web is assumed to be a beam with a length equal to the clear distance between top and bottom flanges. Fig, 52. Tendon placoment Detall”A”. 2. The lateral prestress force is ¢ sumed acting at midheight of the web 3. The momeut is calculated by sb ple beam formula reduced 20 perce for continuity between web and flang with a 1.0 load factor applied. 4. The shear and bending stresses the web stimps are adtve, Howey for the purpose of these desiga aids stipe are considered capable of hi dling these stresses independently the following reasons: (a) The ultimate moment is culated for the maximum © dition of the lateral prestr force (F) acting at midheigh the web span. This occurs only two points in a span « to tendon drape. (b) The jacking force, P,, is usec the calculations of ultim moment, and at the time 1 applied, the structure is s ported on falsework. When falsework is removed and tical shear forces act, the » stressing force has been duced by losses. PCI JOURNALMarch-Apd 1965the jacking force #,) by the mdius (i, lateral prestross force (F) of 867 kit EOSIN ie abtamed PB ‘The fist step isto enter the chart (Fig 49) with this value (F) on the horizontal xis of the graph and tavel verscally apward until the ordinate (h,) of eh aeight is reached. The chart then nat bates that a web thickness of 12 ta 0.305 m), #5 stizups at 9 in. (228 rnmj spacing, and tendon placement detail “A” as opposed to a “standard deta -equired: A Similar set of curves (Pig. 50) has een prepared for #6 stirups. In cases hat specify final prestress force (P,) ather than jacking prestress force (P), ¢ nay be assuined that Fis equal to 125 ‘r Up to & lateral prestress force pres. awe (F) of 7.2 kips per ft (0.5 kNia), own by the vertical dashed line, the chart indicates a “standard” tendon 2lacement, Above this value, Detail "A" s required, The “standard detail” indicated at the ft of Fig. 51, as the naine implies is 2 tandard detail for bundled tendons Detail “A”, atthe eight of Fig. 51, ates that the tendons are stacked vert ally and placed against the outside stir up with respect to curvature. This is ‘one to provide a greater thickness for deal slab action and to put the inside timp in a position to participate a ac. ve reinforcement inthe slab action, Further, Tendon Detail “A” requires 4 ties between the sticups and adja: cnt the bundled tendons, and a hoop round the bundled tendon hooked to 2e outside stimup (Fig. 52). This then tbilizes the outboard stisrup and the antral concrete area behind the inboard dup in pargcipating to resist the pall atof the tendons. The application of the California xidelines is based upon the following samptions 1. The girder web is assumed to be a 2am with a length equal to the clear istance between top and bottom wnges: | | atenenatsed oaees etoile 46x 195° band (of each airrep. eck eround sires legn- alternate aides for 135°hcok Plece one above top dact end one Selon bottom doch. oteuve er soete doer | | a BS Fig. 52. Tendon placement OetailA” 2. The lateral prestress force is as sumed acting at midheight of the web. 3. The moment is calculated by sim- ple beam formula reduced 20 percent for continuity between web and flanges with « 10 load factor applied. 4 The shear and bending stresses in the web stirrups are additive, However, for the purpose of these design aids the stirups are considered capable of han- ling these stresses independently for the following reasons: (@} The ultimate moment is cal- culated for the maximum eon- dition of the lateral prestress force (F) acting at midheight of the web span. This occurs at only two points in a span due to tendon drape (b) ‘The jacking force, Py, is used in the calculations of nltimate moment, and at the time P, is applied, the strcture is sup- ported on falsework. When the falsework is removed and ver tical shear forces act, the pre stressing force has been re- duced by losses. POI JOURNALIMaret Apr 1985 Betton slob reinforcement Beh to stirep leg on insite of curve It appears that these guidelines should be incorporated in the design of horizontally curved post-tensioned girders which have a radius of approxi- mately 700 ft(213 m) or less. OTHER CRACKING MODES ASSOCIATED WITH CURVED TENDONS. Cracks have occurred in thin webs following the profile of curved tendons at some distance from the anchorage. This type of cracking appears in con- struction, during tendon stressing, and later stabilizes. Nevertheless, these cracks ean lead to corrosion of the ducts and eventually the tendon. If moisture penetrates these cracks and snbse- gnently freezes, spalling can occur. Al- though this type of cracking occurs in thin webs, it can occur in thin flanges where there is horizontal curvature of the tendons. ‘This type of crack usnally occurs where there is significant tendon eur vature and mnlti-strand tendons. Where 121there is tendon curvature, a uniform lat- eral pressure is set-up that is normal to the tendon axis and in the plane of cur. vature. This laterally distributed pres- sure may cause cracking along the ten- don profile at a prestress force lower than that required to initiate cracking at the anchorage zone. ‘The strands in a multi-strand tendon, as it is being tensioned, tend to flatten out toward the inside of the tendon cur- vnture. ‘This action then creates large Jateral forces on the duct and side cover resulting in cracking and/or spalling, ‘The failure mechanism is Wustrated in Fig, 53.828 bundle ina vicinity of sharpest curvature To preclude this type of eracking or failure, confinement reinforcing is re- quired in the area of tencion curvature. A very excellent research program was conducted at the University of Texas at Austin concerning this phenomenon, along with eracking at the anchorage Zone proper, and is presented in Refs, 19 through 23. An empirical design method to control cracking along the tendon profile is given ia Ref 23. Another type of cracking is associated with the anchorage of external tendons in a diaphragm. The general arrange ment of external tendons ia a segmental box girder bridge is illustrated in Fig. t | (2) UNSTRESSED TENDON (b) TENDON AT STRESSING LOAD ing out™-of tendon, Packing in large radial forces due to Sitar (c) FAILURE side face rupture at Bolnt of sharpest Fig. 53. Mutistrand failure in a curved tendon. Fig, 84. External tencion configuration. = Fig. 55. Diaphragm ora 54. The extemal tendons pass thro. the diaphragm alongra vertically cury profile and are anchored in the ¢ Phragm face which produces @ rac bressure as indicated in Fig. 55a. A result, a tensile stress ficld is set: above the tendons (Fig. 55b) simila the tension stross eld bohind en chorage blister. This tension field r then cause a laminoc crack above tendons POI JOURNAL/March-Aprd 1985To preclude this type of crackin fale, confinement rcescng et guired in the area of tendon curvature 4 very excellent research prosram wae conducted at the University of Texas at Austin concerning this phenomersa along with cracking at the anchorage zone proper, and is presented in Ref 49 through 23. An empirical design method to control cracking along the tendon profile is given in Ref, 23 Another type of cracking is associated with the anchorage of external tendons 2 a diaphragm. The general arange, nent of external tendons in a segmental >ox girder bridge is ilustrated in Fig, RESSED TENDON VAT STRESSING LoaD adial forces ting out “SF enacn inflate cracking in Of sharpest curvature ) FAILURE,+ side face rupture at ot Dest Sirvatars narPest rved tendon, as deviation\b Fig. 54. External tendon configuration. = locks ee ost-tensioned tendons. irpoiyethylone ducts ae (a) fh ON “ z ; © laminar crack V4 () Fig, 85, Diaphragm cracking from tendon curvature. 54. The external tendons pass through the diaphragm along a vertically curved profile and are anchored in the dia- phragm face which produces a radial pressure as indicated in Fig. 55a. As a result, a tensile stress field is set-up above the tendons (Fig. 55b) similar to the tension stress field behind an an- chorage blister. This tension field may then cause a laminar erack above the tendons. POI JOURNAL/March- Api 1985 In addition, a splitting crack may de- velop as a result of multi-strand com- paetion in the zone of curvature as dis- cussed above. It appears that the lain nar erack either by itself or in conjune- tion with the splitting erack, over a pe- riod of time will propagate to the surface and produce spalling. Spalled areas of the deck have been as large as 3x3 fe (1 x Im). The spalled surface in two prof ects were located generally over the 123Fig. 58. Cracking at an access opening, tensile zone B in Fig, 55 b, This is probably associated with the fact that there is less cover over the ten dons in Zone B and that Zone B repre~ sents the jacking end of the tendons and thus a larger prestress force, Zone A is associated with the dead-end anchor. ages. It appears that te reinforcement should be provided to not only confine the splitting crack but also to provide reinforcement to resist the tension gen- erated above the tendons. Diaphragms can be elements of a bridge that have a highly complex strese field. This is particularly true if, in ad dition to vertically curved longitudinal tendons, there exist transverse tendons in the top flange and straight or curved tendons in its plane to accommodate tor- Sion. A finite element method of analy. sis should be utilized to evaluate the state of stress in these members, ‘Where longitudinal tendons are flared or deflected around access openings ina bottom flange, there fs a potential for se~ ere cracking to occur as illustrated in Fig. 56. The flange in front of the open. ing is literally being tom or ripped apart 48 a result of the tension ereated by the tendon curvature.! CRACKING AND SPALLING FROM TENDON MISALIGNMENT Longitudinal duets at the segment Joints are usually placed at their proper 124 Dosition, being held in position by the bulkhead form or by the position of ducts in the segment cast against, How. ever, if flexible tubing is used with on insufficient number of supporting chairs or ties, or if they are deflected down ward by the weight of the wet concrete being placed, or by workmen walking in the fresh concrete, the duct profile will have an angle break or cusp at each Joint. In addition to the increased fric- tion losses, there is a potential danger of local spalling and bursting of the intra- dos of the bottom ange (Fig. 5Ta).234 Cracking may also appear in the top of the Bange midway between the segment Joints. Depending on the spacing be- tween adjacent tendons and therefore the area of concrete between tendons to resist the tension developed, a laminar crack may develop (Fig. 576). Laminar eracking may then propagate to a spalling failure during further ten~ sioning of the tendon (Fig, Ste) which will produce a deformation in the rein- forcing steel and displacement of the tendon, In some instances, spalling has occurred during water pressurization tests or during grouting, especially when all tendons in a group are tested or srouted simultaneously (Fig. 57d), Oceasionally, because of the wrong height chairs or mislocation, the profile will be inadvertently placed in an in- verted profile as shown in Fig. 57e. Ob- viously, the eracking and/or spalling pattern will be inverted from that shown in Fig, 57a, ays joint crack of spalling. @ laminar cragi (oy @ Joint cracks ¢ © Fig. 57. Effects of misalignment of ter ‘This problem can be avoided by the use of rigid duets properly positioned and securely tied to the reinforcing cage, use of a rigid mandrel placed in- side of the duct during casting, and pro- viding work bridges for workmen so that they do not walk in the wet concrete. Ina recently seported example*# of this type, a 16 x 32 f (5 x 10 m) area of ‘the upper postion of a deck slab lami- ‘ated and spalled. Investigation of the PCI JOURNALIMarch-Apil 1985