Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Afoot in The Desert: FMFRP 0-53
Afoot in The Desert: FMFRP 0-53
19 October 1990
FOREWORD
1. PURPOSE
2. SCOPE
3. BACKGROUND
5. RECOMMENDATIONS
M. P. CAULFIELD
Major General, U.S. Marine Corps
Deputy Commander for Warfighting
Marine Corps Combat Development Command
Quantico, Virginia
DIsT 1.00005300
2
ADTIC PubHcotêon No. D-1 00
Revised April 1956
AFOOT
IN THE DESERT
by
Aioxzo W. PoND, ?&A.
Chief, Desert Branch
Arctic, De8ert, Tropic Information Center
DESERT 20%
OTHER REAS
96%
FIJLFiT!ON
AND
AREAS
80%
[FiND lIRE II
-
—' K
Contents
Page
Introduction y
Part
I. DESERTS: WHAT AND WHERE THEY ARE 1
Sahara 3
Arabian . 3
Gobi 5
Plants B
Animals 9
Desert Water 12
Desert Food 19
Shelter 23
Desert Fires and Fuel 24
Desert Clothing 24
Desert Travel 25
APPENDiCES 49
In
Personal views or opinions expressed or implied in
this publication are not to be construed as carrying
official sanction of the Deportmentofthe Air Force
or the Air University.
iv
07
j'he man who knows HOW will always have a job, but the man who
knows WHY will always be his boss," is an American proverb. Air Force
Manual 64-5, "Survival," tells you the HOW with details. Afoot in the
Desert tells you the WHY of desert survival. Read and use both.
Many of our long-held beliefs about living in desert cljmates have
been made obsolete during the last few years. Recent scientific studies
on water and heat exchanges in the human body make the old desert
theories about thirst and ancient ideas on desert travel as out of date
today as a Model T Ford or a World War I Jenny aircraft.
Afoot in the Desert is written to bring men in the Air Force up to date
on desert living conditions. It is intended to provide basic information
for escape and evasion in desert regions. It makes available the most
recent, reliable information concerning survival needs of the human
body in the deserts of the world.
There are numerous survival hints for you and me in the way desert
plants and desert aiilmals have adapted themselves to dry climate liv-
ing. Afoot in the Desert shows you some of the lessons taught by plants
and animals which have adjusted to life in dry climates. It gives you
some idea of what to expect if you are forced down in these areas and
find it necessary to live there until you can make it back to home and
sweetheart.
Unfortunately the space available does not permit descriptions of the
beauty, the fascination, and the charm of the world's great deserts.
Neither does it allow for details about the interesting peoples who live
in deserts. However, the information presented will make it easier for
you to land, to live, and to travel afoot in the desert.
it. JEt. 11 I
Typical Sahara landscape. These automobile tracks were made seven years be-
fore the photograph was taken. In that time there has not been enough sand
blowing in this area to hide them. Note that there is not a spear of grass, a bush,
or a tree—no sign of vegetation in this area.
ESERTS are fascinating areas of ma- teristic of deserts as lack of rain and great
D jestic distances and extensive visi-
bility. There is a military proverb that a
distances. Hot days arid cool nights are
usual. A daily minimum-maximum range of
man is not AWOL in the desert as long as 45°F in the Sahara and 25° to 35° differ-
he is in sight of camp, although it may ence between night and day in the Gobi is
take 3 days by jeep to reach him. the rule. The difference between summer
All desert areas •are characterized by and winter temperatures is also extreme in
scanty rainfall and the absence of trees. deserts. Because of these extremes it is
Usually there is no open water in deserts often difficult to keep from freezing in some
but some deserts do have true lakes. Per- desert areas. However, summer daytime
manent desert lakes with no outlets are heat in any desert of the world will make
salt lakes. Fresh water pools may last days your sweat glands run at capacity produc-
or weeks in any desert after unusual rain- tion. You'll need drinking water to main-
storms. However, don't count on them when tain that production.
planning your desert promenade. It may be There are more than 50 important1
15 or 20 years between those rainstorms. named deserts in the world. They occupy
Extremes of temperature are as charac- 1See Appendix 3.
2 AFOOT IN THE DESERT
T: d3!:T :tT
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-
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De5ert travelers crassing a sand dune in western Algeria. Only about 10% of
the Sahara is sand dunes. Hundred-year-old mops of this area indicate the
open spaces between the dunes and are accurate enough for present use.
'
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nearly one-fifth of the earth's land surface2 rocky mountains rising 11 thousand feet
but only about 4 percent of the world's above sea level, and there are a few depres-
population lives there. sions 50 to 100 feet below sea level.
Those areas dignified by the term "desert" The change from plain to mountain is
vary greatly. There are salt deserts, rock abrupt in the Sahara. Mountains generally
deserts, and sand deserts. Some are barren go straight up from the plain like jagged
gravel plains on which there is not a spear skyscrapers from a city street. Sharp-rising
of grass, not a bush nor cactus spine for a mountains on a level plain are especially
hundred miles. In other deserts there are noticeable in many desert landscapes be-
grass and thorny bushes where camels, cause there is no vegetation to modify that
goats, or even sheep can munch and nibble abruptness. Because of the lack of trees or
a subsistence diet. bushes even occasional foothills appear
In this study references are most often more abrupt than in temperate climates.
cited from two deserts of climatic extremes,
ARABIAN DESERT
a north temperate desert and a near tropic
desert. Other deserts fall in between these Some geographers consider the Arabian
extremes. Check your latitude when you Desert as a continuation of the Sahara. It
compare these statements with your own covers most of the Arabian Peninsula ex-
particular desert. cept for fertile fringes along the Mediter-
Anywhere you find them, deserts are ranean, the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea and
places of extremes. They are extremely dry, the valleys of the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers.
extremely hot, extremely cold, extremely Along much of the Arabian coast line the
free of plants or trees or lakes or rivers. But desert meets the sea.
most important in any desert, it is an ex- There is more sand in the Arabian Desert
tremely long time between drinks unless than in the Sahara and there are fewer date
you carry your water with you. grove oases. These are on the east side of
the desert at Gatif, Hofuf, and Medina. Also
SAHARA there is some rain in Arabia each year in
The Sahara is the largest desert in the contrast to decades in Sahara without a
world, as well as the best known. It stretches drop. Accordingly Arabia has more wide-
across North Africa from the Atlantic Ocean spread vegetation. Nomads find scanty pas-
to the Red Sea; from the Mediterranean ture for their flocks of sheep and goats over
and the Sahara Atlas Mountains in the large sections. They depend on wells for
north to the Niger River in tropical Africa. water. When unusual dry seasons threaten
Three million square miles of level plains starvation to flocks these nomads move to-
and jagged mountains, rocky plateaus and ward the fertile fringes of the desert. Ills-
graceful sand dunes! Thousands of barren torically the Arabian Desert . has been the
miles where there is not a spear of grass, human reservoir from which people have
not a bush or tree, not a sign of vegetation! pushed into more fertile regions. In drought
But Sahara oases, low spots in the desert years the border farmers still have to con-
where water can be reached for irrigation, tend with nomad encroachment.
are among the most densely populated The Arabian Desert differs in one great
areas in the world. Date groves and garden respect from the Sahara. In Arabia there
patches supporting 1,000 people per square is oil. Aramco, or the Arabian American Oil
mile are surrounded by barren plains de- Company, has established modern com-
void of life. munities on the edge of the desert. They
Only 10 percent of the Sahara is sandy. have drilled many water wells over the area
By far the greater part of the desert is flat for use of the nomads and their flocks..
gravel plain from which the sand has been Oil is carried across the desert in great
blown away and piled up in the low places pipelines which are regularly patrolled by
where the dunes are located. There are planes. Pumping stations are located at in-
218 percent, according to Prcston E. James, Geography of Man. tervals. All these evidences of modern civili-
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zation have increased the well-being of the historic animals to science. In spite of these
desert people and have increased your obstacles, you can drive an automobile al-
chances for a safe journey afoot. However, most anywhere in the Gobi.
the desert of Arabia is rugged and native For a hundred miles or so around the rim
Arabs still get lost and die from dehydra- of the desert there is a band of grassland.
tion. In average years the Chinese find this pro-
ductive farm land. Year by year they push
GOBI the Mongol herdsman farther and farther
A few years ago, the Gobi, one of the great toward the true Gobi.
-
In drought years
deserts of Central Asia, attracted popular agriculture, retreats.
attention because of the expeditions led by As you get deeper into the Gobi there is
Dr. Roy Chapman Andrews and his dis- less and less rainfall; soil becomes thinner,
covery of dinosaur eggs. Today attention and grass grows in scattered bunches. This
is again drawn to it because of its strategic is the home of the Mongol herdsman. His
location between China and the USSR. wealth is chiefly horses, but he also raises
Some people use the term "Gobi" to cover sheep and goats, camels, and a few cattle.
all the desert regions between China and Beyond the rich grassland the Gobi floor
Russia. As used here, "Gobi" means that is a mosaic of tiny pebbles which often glis-
basin or saucer-like plateau north of China ten in the sunlight. These pebbles were once
which includes Inner and Outer Mongolia. mixed with the sand and soil of the area,
On all sides of the Gobi there are moun- but in the course of centuries the soil has
tains which form the rim of the basin. been washed or blown away and the pebbles
Many of them slope gently on the desert side left behind as a loose pavement.
but are abrupt and steep away from the What rain there is in the Gobi drains to-
basin. The basin itself slopes so gently that ward the basin; almost none of it cuts
much of it appears like a level plain. There through the mountain rim to the ocean.
are rocks and buttes and numerous bad- There are some distinct and well-channeled
lands or deeply gullied areas in the Gobi. watercourses, but these are usually dry.
The latter are the fossil hunting grounds Many of them are remnants of prehistoric
which have given so many species of pre- drainage systems. In the east numerous
- -.- I-- - -
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A Sahara sand dune. Note thot the prevailing wind direction is from 'eft to right.
6 AFOOT IN THE DESERT
shallow salt lakes are scattered over the parts in the deserts of Africa or Asia. The
plain. They vary in size and nuniber with guliled badlands of the Gobi resemble simi-
the changes in rainfall of the area. lar formations in both southwest United
Sand dunes are found in the eastern and States and the Dakotas, but our desert
western Gobi, but these are not as pro- rivers, the lower Colorado, lower Rio Grande
nounced a feature of Mongolia as they are and tributaries, such as the Qua and Pecos,
of certain sections in Sahara. The Gobi of indicate a more regular supply of water than
Asia is not a starkly barren waste like the is found in Old World deserts. The Nile and
great African desert. Everywhere there is Niger of course are in part desert rivers but
some grass, although it is often scanty. get their water from tropical Africa. They
Mongols live in scattered. camps all over are desert immigrant rivers (like the Colo-
the plains instead of being concentrated in rado, which collects the melting snows of
oases. the eastern Rockies) and gain sufficient vol-
ume to carry them through the desert
SOUTHWEST UNITED STATES country.
The fiat plains with scanty vegetation The scattered population of Navajo,
and abruptly rising buttes or mountains of Apache, and Papago Indians who live in
our southwest are reminders both of the our southwest desert regions reminds one of
Gobi and of the Sahara. But the spectacular the scattered population of Mongolia. In
rock-walled canyons along the San Juan general our southwest deserts have more
and Colorado Rivers (such as those around varied vegetation, greater variety of scenery,
Rainbow Natural Bridge) have few counter- and a more rugged landscape than either
- -I. -
Typical camel pa5ture in the Gobi. in Mongolia the horizon is far distant. Grass is
sometimes scanty and the desert surface paved with tiny pebbles. Camels are
the principal beasts of burden in the Gobi and are raised far use on long cara-
van lourneys from China to Central Asia.
DESERTS: WHAT AND WHERE THEY ARE
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Typical desert vegetation in the Khorasan of Iran. Dried stalks ot annual plants
like this are excellent for a quick, hot fire.
ANIMALS camel and the gazelle. Apparently the desert
A few animals have been able to adjust antelope or gazelle is able to get enough
their body processes to desert conditions, moisture for its needs from the grasses or
The best known of these, of course, are the other vegetation it eats. There are no records
10 AFOOT IN THE DESERT
ing depends on his surroundings. In winter
Ct' temperatures when the pasturage contains
some moisture, his water needs are low.
Under ideal pasture conditions in the winter
camels have been known to go 4 months or
longer without drinking. However, camel
men say that their charges drink about as
much water per year as other beasts of
equal size. They may drink as much as 6
gallons per day on tot days.
Until recently it was believed that camels
stored water in the linings of their multi-
ple stomachs. In 1954 Dr. Knut Schmidt-
Nielson carefully studied the camel's drink-
ing habits in the Sahara. He also dissected
several specimens. He found that camels do
not store water. Instead they have adapted
to desert conditions by a wide body tem-
perature range, by the rigid conservation
of body moisture, and by their tolerance of
a very high percentage of dehydration.
A healthy man's body temperature varies
less than 2°F. The camel's daily range is
12.6°F, more than six times as great! The
camel's body temperature may be down to
Adult gazelle frem Algerian Sahara. Various 93.2°F in the morning, and reach 105.8°F in
species of these swift animals are found in most the heat of the day. With that range, he
deserts. Hunters and scanty vegetation in 5a- doesn't need to start sweating as soon as
hara and Arabia keep down the population of other animals.
gazelles. In the Central Gobi of Mongolia large
bands of such animals are common. In late sumS The camel's woolly coat helps conserve
nier herds sometimes include many thousands his sweat by keeping the hot desert air
of females and young while the bucks keep to away from his body and by letting his sweat
themselves. evaporate most efficiently. Another impor-
tant water-saving adaptation the camel has
to indicate that these pretty creatures ever which man lacks is his ability to eliminate
drink water. In both Sahara and the Gobi body wastes in a highly concentrated urine.
they live where there is no open water. They When the camel must sweat he can dehy-
do have to eat, however, so you will not find drate up to 30 percent of his body weight,
them where all vegetation is lacking. several times man's safe dehydration limit.
Camels on the other hand, have adapted In short, the camel uses his water more
to an irregular supply of water, not to its efficiently, and can go deeper into water-
absence. In Sahara native herdsmen start debt than man.
training camels when they are calves to take After a period of dehydration the camel
water at intervals of about 4 days. Then, drinks enough water to pay off the debt or
when they are full grown, they can go 6 or replace that used by his body since the last
8 days without a drink. There are records drink. The water he drinks is absorbed
of camels going 10 days without water even quickly so that his body fluids and tissues
when working in summer heat. But what- are brought back to normal water content
ever the period of drought a camel under- in a few hours. He drinks only enough to re-
goes, it must make up for in the end. store his body's weight, and stores absolute-
How long the camel goes without drink- ly no surplus, against future needs.
THE ADAPTATION OF LIFE IN THE DESERT 11
The green, odorous liquid in the camel's Like the camel, but within narrower limits,
stomachs, which some desert travelers have man can restore his body weight quickly
used as a last resort, is composed of partly after a period of dehydration by drinking
digested vegetation and digestive juices. large quantities of water.
It contains moisture and nourishment for Some rodents and other small animals
the man who can stomach the stuff, but it have also learned to live in deserts. These
is not excess or stored water. Nevertheless conserve their moisture by keeping in shade
it may help prolong your life a little. or burrowing underground. They thus
Dr. Schmidt-Nielson's discoveries have shield themselves from the direct sun and
not changed the fact that camels can go avoid heated air and the hot surface of the
long periods without water. His work does desert. They have digestive systems that
show that the animals withstand dryness by enable them to manufacture all the water
a greater tolerance .of heat and dehydration they need from the starches they eat. They
instead of by a water storage system. De- expend very little moisture in eliminating
prived of water beyond the limits of his de- their body wastes. Their feces are very dry,
hydration range, the camel dies of "thirst" and their urine much more concentrated
(actually dehydration) just as man does than in man or other animals not adapted
when dehydrated beyond his limits of toler- to living under drought conditions.
ance. Man does develop more sweat glands per
Although the camel does not carry excess square inch of skin surface if he is raised
water, he has an advantage in the matter of in the desert or hot climates from infancy.
food. The hump is all fat, and a food re- That adaptation makes it easier for him to
serve, built up firm and solid during months live in the heat, but it does not lessen his
in good pasture. When out on desert trails need for water.
where food is scarce, the hump is gradually Man gets along in the desert by carrying
absorbed to supply the energy that keeps his supply of food and water with him. So
the animal going. A soft or flabby hump is far we know of no desert men with flesh and
an application for 8 months annual leave. blood storage humps. Man's food hump is
Wise owners grant that leave—or lose their either a pack on his back or a pack on the
camels. back of his transportation, whether that
The use of the energy stored in the hump be beast or vehicle. He may carry a quart
requires less water for waste elimination of water in his belly, enough for a 5-mile
than energy obtained from eating forage. hike, but, like his food, most of his water
When the body converts the hump fat into supply is in auxiliary tanks of some sort.
energy, it produces a small amount of waste Intelligent desert travelers keep to trails
and some water. This water helps carry where wells are located. They take advice
away the waste and delays dehydration. The from desert rats and keep out of the heat
humpS is another of the camel's physical as much as possible. They adopt the phi-
adaptations to living in dry regions. losophy of the camel, which is strictly slow
The camel moves in slow motion to gen- moti.pn.
erate as little body heat as possible, and his Oasis dwellers, of course, are not true
coat insulates his body against excess heat desert men. Food and water are present in
from the desert air, Man can move slowly, the oasis just as they are on farms in tem-
keep sheltered from desert heat by seeking perate areas. Oasis people do hunt shelter
shade, and insulate his body with clothing. during the heat of desert summers, and they
His greater need for water compared to that take life slow and easy, like wise tropic
of the camel, however, makes it necessary dwellers. In winter they hunt the sunny
for man to carry all his water with him. side of a nice warm wall.
PA R T III
y
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The Colorado River, an immigrant desert stream that cuts through the barren
rock plateau of northern Arizona.
11
Desert nomad's tent on the edge of sand dunes. The wool tent is close to the
ground and the walls are easily lifted to provide ventilation during the heat of
the day, or lowered in the cool of the night.
tanks may be dry for 10 or 15 years, then
suddenly be deep enough for a good swim-
ming hole. The water in them is fresh and
drinkable and may take several weeks or
months to dry up. Unfortunately there is
no way for the casual traveler or stranger
to the area to know of the existence of such
water holes, and there is no rule to guide
one to them. They are natural drainage
basins like any depression on a plain or
plateau. If you know there has been a rain
recently in your area, then keep an eye out
for hollows or any protected cavity which
would naturally collect surface drainage.
The thirsty traveler in tropical jungles
The water hole at Tigelmimi, a day's auto run will find many plants containing suitable
South of lnSalah, Algerian Sahara Desert. This drinking water. In the Gobi and Sahara,
is really a natural cistern which receives the
drainage from the surrounding desert rock when plants are npt a source of water supply.
rare desert rains occur in the oreo. When the American deserts are slightly better favored.
photo was taken the pool was deep enough (4 The large barrel cactus does contain con-
feet) for a swimming hole. siderable moisture which can be squeezed
MAN'S ADAPTATION—THE APPLICATION OF NATURE'S LESSON 15
Typical Mongol camp on the Gobi plateau, including felt yurts and cotton tents.
Some horses are always tied to a picket line, as Mongols object to walking even
a few feet. Note that the walls of some of the yurts hove been raised to permit
circulation of air.
out of the pulp if you have the energy to your water supply out of desert plants in-
cut through the tough, outer spine-studded dicates that you had better find a well.
rind. Botanists argue that the juice can be Desert wells are generally located along
used and cannot be used to quench thirsts. trails. In rocky deserts and on some gravel
Randall Henderson and his two companions plains, however, it is not always easy to find
did drink it. They found the taste bitter. the well. This is particularly true if it does
"Reminded me of the taste when I take an not have any super structure or is in a pro-
aspirin tablet without a drink of water to tected valley.
wash it down," says Henderson. The taste In desert and near-desert regions, wells
disappeared in about half an hour. A barrel are gathering places for native peoples as
cactus 3 '/2 feet high contained moisture well as stopping places for caravans. Perma-
from top to bottom and "about a quart of nent camps or habitations may be some
liquid could be obtained by crude methods distance away from the well, sometimes as
of crushing the pulp and squeezing out the much as 2 or 3 miles away. Passing caravans
milky juice." (This is an exception, like may camp within a few yards or a few hun-
dandelions, to the rule that milky or colored dred yards from a well. Camp fire ashes,
sap-bearing plants should not be eaten.) animal droppings, and generally disturbed
Working with a scout knife, Henderson once surface will tell you that others have
took 40 minutes to get to the moisture- camped there. Such indications will also tell
bearing pulp of this kind of plant. Less you that a well is not far off. Paths leading
time was required when a machete was
available5. So far the evidence for getting from the camping area should lead you to
the well,
0Th 1542 Edwin Waldistaus Zolnier. 1st. Lieutenant, IJSMCE Many desert water holes are not true wells
parachuted from his burning plane out in Arizona and roamed
the desert fur 5 days. He tried the Juice of several cacti which
were "very nauseating' before he discovered the barrel type. but are natural tanks or cisterns. These
He "gouged large chunks out of the living cactus and chewed may be located behind, rocks, in gullies or
the water content out of It. The juice completely satisfied
his thirst and the taste was pleasant at first but iseca,ne ,nonutu- side canyons and under cliff edges. Often
nous after a few days. Chunks of the cactus were carried for
several days and still had moisture in then,. The marine also
rubbed his body with the pieces he had chewed. This moisture the ground surface near them is solid rock
helped keep him cool. (From his letter July 31. 1944, quoted by
Ladislaus Cutak in Missouri Botanical Garden Bulletin.) or hard-packed soil on which paths do not
16 AFOOT IN THE DESERT
show up. In such cases you may have to dune. Rain water from local showers col-
search for the water point. 1n the Libyan lects here. Stop digging when you hit wet
Sahara, doughnut-shaped mounds of camel sand. Water will seep out of the sand into
dung often surround the wells. Unless you the hole. This first water is fresh or nearly
recognize the small mound ring you could fresh. It is drinkable. If you dig deeper, you
easily miss the well. may strike salt water.
On some fiat plains, wells which are not Damp surface sand anywhere marks a
often used are covered against sandstorms. good place to scoop out such a shallow
Even though there is no sand in the im- "well," from which you can collect water
mediate area, sandstorms would in time into your canteen or other receptacle.
fill up such wells. In sand dune areas this Among sand dunes away from surface water
is even more likely. Desert people have the lowest point between the dunes is where
learned to cover such wells a little below rain water will collect. Dig down 3 to 6 feet.
the top. Sand drifts in, but the well is pro-
tected. You can dig out the cover and reach If sand gets damp, keep digging until you
water easily in such wells but be careful hit water. If you dig in the dune itself, you
and don't dump the sand into the cavity. may strike a foot or so of damp sand with
There may be only a shallow pool of water dry sand below. When that happens, you
in the well bottom. had better look for a lower spot to dig your
When you are away from trails or far well.
from wells, you may still find water. Along In a sand dune belt, water will most likely
the seashore or on sandy beaches or desert be found beneath the original valley floor
lakes your best chance is to dig a hole in at the edge of the dunes rather than in the
the first depression behind the first sand easy digging middle.
You may find water in sand dune areas if you dig in the hollow near the stnp
side of the dune.
MAN'S ADAPTATION—THE APPLICATION OF NATURE'S LESSON 17
5?:.
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pile of zu-a-.fte rock
Water may be found at the base of rock cliffs for some weeks or months after a
desert rain. It is also found in the waste rock at the base of cliffs or in the gravel
outwash from valleys in mountains which may get regular seasonal rain or
snow. This is particularly true of mountains on the edge of deserts.
Dry stream beds often have water just miles. Occasionally fog occurs as much as
below the surface. It accumulates and sinks 200 miles from the Persian Gulf.
at the lowest point on the outside of a bend In the Negev, desert of Israel, ancient
in the stream channel as the stream dries piles of stone are found in regular lines.
up. You may catch a drink if you dig on In some of them old stumps of grape vines
such outside bends. have been discovered. Some archaeologists
In mud fiats during winter you may find believe that the ancients heaped stones
wet mud at the lowest point. Wring mud around the grape vine base so that dew
out in a piece of cloth to get water—but would collect and water the vines.
don't drink if the water is too salty or If you find dew on the metal wings of
soapy tasting. your crashed plane you may collect the
In the Arabian Desert near the Persian drip in a container or you might get more
Gulf and the Red Sea and in the Libyan water by wiping it off the cool metal with
Sahara near the Mediterranean Sea there is a handkerchief or soft cloth and wringing
considerable moisture in the air. This mois- it out into a container.
ture will condense on cool objects. Often Cool stones, collected from below the hot
condensed moisture or dew will be heavy surface of the desert, if placed on a water-
enough to drip from metal awnings or roofs proof tarp may cause enough dew to col-
on cool mornings. In Arabia this morning lect for a refreshing drink. Exposed metal
dew and even fog extends inland several surfaces like airplane wings or tin cans
18 AFOOT IN THE DESERT
are best dew condensers. They should be ways mean that surface water is available.
clean of dust or grease to get the best Many desert plants have extensive shallow
flavored water. root systems for gathering the maximum
Soon after sunrise in the desert the dew moisture from desert showers. Others, euca-
evaporates. If you expect a good drink you lyptus for instance, have taproots that go
win have to collect the dewdrops very soon down to ground water. Suez canal diggers
after sunup. found tamarisk roots 100 feet down. In
Desert natives often know of lingering American deserts mesquite is an excellent
surface pools in dry stream beds or other water-indicating plant. Though sometimes
low places. They cover them in various so buried by drifting sand that only 2 or
ways to protect them from excessive evapo- 3 feet of brownish tips protrude, where
ration. If you look under likely brush heaps mesquite grows you can reach water, if you
or in sheltered nooks you may locate such dig—but it may be down 30 to 60 feet!
pools in semiarid brush country. Damp places where flies hover are better
Birds all need water. Some of them fly spots to dig. Surface water was there re-
considerable distances at sunset and dawn cently. Donkeys and goats gone wild often
to reach water holes. 'If you hear their make trails to dry riverbeds. These some-
chirping in the early morning or evening times lead to little meadows of short reeds
you may locate their private drinking foun- almost hidden under a few bushes, where
tain. In true desert areas flocks of birds the animals paw holes in the spongy
will circle over water holes. ground. .At such spotà you may get drinking
The presence of vegetation does not al- water 2 or 3 feet below the surface.
MAN'S ADAPTATION—THE APPLICATION OF NATURE'S LESSON 19
Mosquitoes
Left—This gal can sing and bite but rarely carries disease. She is a Culicine
female and perches nearly parallel to her landing fleld. Right—Anopheles lands
at about a 45° angle and makes no noise, If she has recently had a meal of
malaria infected blood, she can communicate the disease to you.
boscis and long axis of the body in one possible. If you travel in the desert they
straight line (see fig. 22) at an angle of 450 will probably be hitchhiking on your back,
with its "landing field." The Culicine mos- but in time you can get rid of them until
quitoes, which in general do not carry dis- you reach another inhabited area.
ease, land with the abdomen parallel to or Other insects are less numerous. In some
inclined toward the surface upon which it regions you might shake a scorpion out of
rests. Cold weather slows them up.9 your shoes in the morning. On the other
Singing mosquitoes are not Anopheles. hand you can spend months in the desert
The singers do not generally carry disease. without seeing one.
Malaria, yellow fever, dengue, filariasis
In Arabia the nomad women keep down
(elephantiasis) and other ills are mosquito the lice population by washing their hair
borne. every week in camel urine. It is strong stuff
which is tough on the current generation of
Unless the female Anopheles has bitten a bugs but a new generation follows before
patient with malaria or other mosquito- the week is out.
carried disease before she bites you, no harm Snakes are not numerous in desert areas.
is done. She is only a vector, not an origi- Same individuals manage to see snakes
nator. If a strong silent mosquito drills you where others, just as sober, see none at all.
at a 450 angle play safe and reach for the An American scientific expedition in the
Chloroquin.1° Gobi of Mongolia once camped on the pri-
Flies are sometimes found so far out in vate property of a nest of vipers. Every man
the desert that you wonder how they got in the outfit was killing snakes for an hour
there. In Egypt and Libya they are bad. or two, but other years the same group saw
They buzz and pry about any exposed part almost no live snakes. Cold weather keeps
of your body with persistent malignity. them sluggish, and you probably will not
They settle on your lips, the corners of your see one in wintertime even in southern
eyes, your ears. There is no rest from flies deserts,
unless you cover your face and every part A really serious hazard exists in the WW
of your body when you are in a fly-infested II fought-over regions of Libyan Sahara.
desert. These are the mine fields which have not
Since WW II, many areas have been been cleared except for limited roads. The
treated against flies. If garbage is covered, engineers who were assigned the clean-up
kitchens, food-handling areas, and sleeping job lost so many men that only necessary
quarters are screened, relief from flies is routes through the fields were cleared.
eMosquitoes In arctic or sub.arctic regions will bite at much
The attached map gives some still danger-
lower temperatures. Gus general areas. In these localities you
'"Recent discoveries Indicate that mosquitoes of the genus should seek special local advice and "tread
Haernagogus and Aecles. which breed In rock pools and treetops.
serve as vectors for yellow fever. Several species of Aedes also
carry dengue fever, Certain species of all main groups of mos- lightly."1'
quitoes can transmit filariasis. Culex and Aedes transmit en-
cephalitis. Psorophora carries dermatobla. See Appendix 2, LIst of Mrne Ha,.rd in Libya.
Location of Malaria and Mine Hazards.
Sandstorms are not a serious hazard un- Don't worry about being buried by a sand-
less you make them so. If you try to travel storm. Desert romance stories have got to
when visibility is zero you can get lost in a make the storms good, but no man was
hurry. rhat is true on a black desert night ever buried alive by a desert sandstorm.
when sentries can't find their post or miss a Even in the sand dune areas it takes years
white tent at 50 feet. It is true in severe for the sand to cover a dead camel. You
sand or dust storms. won't have to sleep out a storm more than
If wind and dust impede your progress a few days at worst. Remember sandstorms
or shut out visibility, stop traveling! Mark are not blizzards. Your real danger is get-
the direction you are traveling with a deep ting lost by traveling in zero visibility.
scratched arrow on the ground, a row of Sun glare and dark. glasses. The color of
stones or other markers. Then lie down the ground varies a great deal in different
and sleep out the storm with your back to deserts. In areas where there is light sand
the wind. You may get some comfort by as much as 80 percent of the light which
covering your face with cloth. falls on it is reflected back. That is getting
MAN'S ADAPTATION—THE APPLICATION OF NATURE'S LESSON 23
near the amount of reflection from snow. serious. Nights are cold, but not much below
"Snow-blindness" (photophthalmia) is freezing, while daytime temperatures reach
due to the reflection of short wave length the eighties and low nineties. You will not
ultraviolet light. Since there is a little higher suffer from exposure if properly dressed.
percentage of ultraviolet light in equatorial The summer months bring hot days, and
regions, there is probably a damaging con- shelter from the midday sun is advisable.
centration of these light rays at eye level Natives on desert journeys carry tents either
from the reflected light in some desert of skins or of woven wool cloth. They also
regions. carry their tent joles and stakes. These
Solar retinitis produced by the short tents are about 4 feet high in the center,
infrared and visible light rays can also sloping to about 18 inches above the ground.
occur in deserts. You won't be bothered by During the heat of the day this gives good
this, however, unless you look at the sun or circulation of air and a cool place to rest.
are scanning the sky in the area immedi- When it begins to get too cool in late after-
ately adjacent to the sun. noon or evening, matting is unrolled around
All of which means that sunglasses of the inside edge of the tent to stop the breeze
some sort are good for you. Even though and make the tent warm. Some nomad
the glare does not seem painful to you the groups raise and lower the edges of the
very high light intensities of the desert will tent as the temperature rises and falls.
cause a decrease in your night vision. In Sahara oases, dwellings are of adobe,
Regular flying sunglasses in large frames thick-walled, flat-roofed, and often are
are the easy and satisfactory solution to the whitewashed and painted blue around the
problem of si.mglare. Lenses should be pref- windows and doors. Blue reduces the glare
erably neutral density lenses of 12-16 per- and seems to keep away some of the flies.
cent transmission. They should be large to The Gobi Mongols use semipermanent
prevent light from the sides from striking circular dwellings called yurts. These are
the eye. Such glasses will be some protection made by lashing a thick sheet of felt
against dust, but by no means complete around a willow or bamboo frame. The coni-
protection. cal roof is also of felt and has an open smoke
If you do not have sunglasses, make slit hole like an American Indian tepee.
goggles of cloth as described in AFM 64-5. Mongol lamaseries are adobe structures
It also helps to shade the eyes with a hat built for them by Chinese laborers and
or a tuthan that has cloth down the sides decorated with red and gold. Many lamas,
of your face. however, erect felt yurts in temple court-
yards for their sleeping quarters. The felt
SHELTER
yurt, like the adobe house, is well insulated
Natural shelter in the Sahara or Gobi is against both the summer heat and the win-
limited to the shade of cliffs or of steep ter cold. The latter is a serious hazard in
hills. In some desert mountains you can the Gobi, where January and February tem-
find good cave-like protection under the peratures are regularly down to 15 or 20
tumbled blocks of rocks broken from cliff degrees below zero, Fahrenheit.
sides. Rarely you may find a twisted, stunted For light travel, especially in summer,
bush or tree to spread your parachute over the Mongols use a light cotton cloth tent.
for shade, but shelter out on the open This is blue outside and white inside. It is
plains, like food and water, you must carry an A-type tent, also sloping to the ground
with you. at both front and back. Like the circular
A camp in summer desert is cooler on yurt, it offers minimum wind resistance.
sand than among rocks. Sand loses heat Tent poles and pegs are carried with the
fast. Rocks hold it and can be oven-hot far cloth, as no supports are available in the
into the night. During Sahara winter (Octo- desert. During hot nilddays of July and
ber to May) the absence of shelter is not August the edges of the tent are propped
24 AFOOT IN THE DESERT
••' !'
e -
1'
Mongol women of Chahar, Inner Mongolia. The costumes of these women show
considerable Chinese influence; the headdresses, however, are distinctly charac-
teristic of Mongolia. The semipermanent dwellings or yurts of the Mongols are
composed of felt layers lashed to portable wood frames. Note that the smoke
hole may be covered from different sides in accordance with wind direction.
The yurt offers minimum resistance to wind and is well insulated against both
desert heat and desert cold.
up to allow free circulation of air. When In the Gobi, dried heifer dung is the pre-
strong winds blow, extra ropes over ridge ferred fuel. You will recognize it by the
pole and sides are staked down to keep the symmetrical shape in contrast to the broad
tent from ballooning off across the desert. irregular pattern of cow dung. It burns
with a hot blue flame in contrast to the
DESERT FIRES AND FUEL
smoky yellow flame of cow dung, sheep
Cooking fires are not large in the Sahara, droppings, etc. Bricks of hand-pressed dung
and it israre, not over a day or two at a are used to build winter corrals, and as the
time in winter, that a fire is needed to warm cold becomes severe the top layers of the
the adobe houses of oases. In the houses of corral walls are used as fuel for cooking and
wealthy natives, where floors are covered for heating the yurts. Argol is the Mongol
with rugs, fires are built in various types of word for all kinds of dung. The natives have
braziers. In ordinary houses and in caravan large aEgol baskets and argol forks which
and nomad camps, fire is• built on the are used in collecting animal droppings for
ground. winter fuel supply.
Stems of palm leaves and similar wood
serve as fuel in and near oases. Out on the DESERT CLOTHING
open desert dry roots or any bit of dead In summer heat, desert conditions call
vegetation are carefully hoarded to boil tea for head and body covering against direct
or cook a meal. Dried camel dung is the sunlight and excessive evaporation of sweat.
standard fuel where woody fibers are Natives in the Sahara prefer white, either
lacking. wool or cotton. Even the Tuaregs, who are
MAN'S ADAPTATION—THE APPLICATION OF NATURE'S LESSON 25
famous for their blue-black garments and definitely like high leather boots or leather
face veils, wear white cotton undergarments puttees even though they are hot in
all the time and white outer garments on summer.
occasion. Sand dune areas can be crossed barefoot
Gobi natives wear dark clothing, even in in cool weather but in hot summer weather
summer, and in winter add sheepskin over- any desert surface will burn the soles of
coats. Gobi winters are cold, and bitter winds your feet unless you are a professional fire
are common. During that season you will be walker. The average man will sink down in
comfortable if dressed as you would be for a the sand less than an inch when walking
Dakota winter. In spring and fall, the strong across dunes barefooted or with shoes. With
wind and dust penetrate ordinary clothing broad-soled sandals, a little sand occasion-
so that a sheepskin-lined garment is com- ally spills onto the top until you become
fortable even though the temperature is accustomed to handling them. Sand does
not much below freezing. slow your speed somewhat, compared to the
During Sahara winters, natives wrap level plains, but it is not a particular handi-
themselves in woolen burnooses or capes cap. Neither is it a condition requiring spe-
with hoods. xp1orers often dress in woolen cial preparation for keeping sand out of
underwear, wool riding trousers, wool shirts, your shoes, as some survival literature
and sheepskin coats. By 10 o'clock in the would indicate.
morning,- the coat is removed; by 1 p.m., DESERT TRAVEL
the wool shirt is open at the neck and sleeves
The great deserts of the Old World have
are rolled up. At 4 p.m. the process is re- been crossed and recrossed for hundreds
versed, and before long the wool-lined coat and thousands of years. These crossings fol-
is welcomed again. low definite rqutes along marked trails from
Camel riders in the Sahara wear sandals. oasis to wells and wells to water holes or
They protect the feet against stones and the other oases. In the course of centuries some
hot desert ground in summer. They are routes have been abandoned when easier
easily rethoved and hung on camel saddles routes were discovered. 'Who dug the wells?
while the rider's bare feet rest on the camel's Who planned the first crossing? These are
neck. Oasis dwellers wear low-cut shoes or questions not often answered, but some-
slippers easily removed before entering a times there are explanations in historic
dwelling, whether it be tent, adobe house, records or legends.
or Mohammedan mosque. In sothè'area governments have provided
The Gobi Mongols wear high leather boots for keeping wells open or digging new wells,
with curious turned-up toes. They are not but most desert travelers are public-spirited
designed for / walkathon contestants, but enough to fix a well that needs repairs.
then a Mongol won't walk 50 feet if a horse Their generosity doesn't extend to leaving
is available, and he sees to it that one is a rope for the next traveler. Unless you are
always tied in front of his yurt. agile enough to go down and up a chimney
In either desert a good hiking boot which like Santa Claus, you had better carry
is comfortable and suited to the taste of the hundred-foOt rope in the Sahara. •Tiii:Vy
wearer is the best footgear for an American feet will reaèh water in most Gobi wells.
who finds himself afoot. Desert surfaces are Bandits and smugglers, especially in Asia,
not often as hard as concrete, although often search out old abandoned routes and
there are many rock plateaus in Sahara even dig new wells to make difficult trails
and Gebi. A good leather or composition usable. Changes in governments and politi-
sole will protect your feet from gravel and cal boundaries sometimes produce confisca-
bunch grass-covered surfaces. Generally, tory customs stations on desert routes.
loose trouser legs will be more comfortable Then caravans abandon the easy trails in
than wraps or puttees in summer. That favor of tough-going routes in friendly
again varies with individuals. Some men territory.
26 AFOOT IN THE DESERT
:
•
-
r - d
- .:.r-J.—
t_- -
-
__________ -
Desert trails are visible from the air. They lead to native settlements and
wells or water holes, which are located along their raute.-Note the patch work
fields of dry farming on this edge of the Syrian Desert.
Desert trails resemble interlacing cow the auto trails traverse more barren coun-
paths, all leading in the same general di- try where water holes are great distances
rection. Usually these networks of paths are apart, while camel routes generally strike
only a few yards wide. In rough terrain water every 20 to 40 miles. In the extremely
there may be two or three paths close to- dry Tanezroufts and in Tripoli there are
gether, but in a pasture or region of some waterless stretches of over 100 miles, but
vegetation the trail may be half a mile these are rare.
wide. In either case trails are usually as In dune areas wind soon obliterates camel
clear and distinct as the cow paths in a tracks, but the trail can be followed by
farm lane. They can be seen easily from an watching the accumulation of camel drop-
automobile or from the air. pings in hollows just below the dune crests.
In Algerian Sahara trail junctions are On the open plain automobile tracks re-
often marked with wooden signposts giv- main visible for years after a car has passed.
ing distances. Automobile routes are fre- Caravan trails in Mongolia are well
quently well outlined with pebbles, for the marked by piles of stones 6 to 10 feet
trail makers actually swept the surface of high placed like lighthouses on prominent
the desert to mark the route. Gasoline buttes and mesa edges. They are called
pumps and rest houses have also been obos and serve the double purpose of sign
erected all across the Sahara, but they are posts to travelers and religious monuments.
supplied only when the tourist busses are Some have small openings in the stone
expected. structure where once a year the Mongol
Automobile routes in the Sahara do not lamas place food for the spirits who in-
always follow the camel routes. Frequently habit the area. This is done at the time of
MAN'S ADAPTATION—THE APPLICATION OF NATURE'S LESSON 27
-& •--;.
-t- a
-t• .t,_,qt -
—
4
r:
Mongols in characteristic costume. Like other desert dwellers, their bodies are
well protected against heat and cold by looseultting garments. Note the turned-
up toes to Mongol boots, footgear not designed for walkathon contests.
I
Lit
L,__s .. :
-
- — -_a--
-
- -._
LI.
-
-
a religious feast when the obo is decorated or September). Plodding oxen and heavy
with silk prayer cloths. Desert winds soon wheels cut deep into Gobi grasslands when
whip the silk to shreds, but some bits of rain soaks the trail. Then the route may be
cloth will cling to the strings on the monu- half or three-quarters of a mile wide, and
ment until the next ceremony and will motor cars swing wide from the trail to
waft lama prayers aloft to desert gods. avoid the ruts.
Transportation in both the Gobi and the In both the Sahara and the Gobi, as well
Sahara has been by camel caravan for cen- as in much of the American desert country,
turies. Where distances between wells or travel by ordinary automobile is practical.
watering places are not more than 1 day's
march in the Sahara, the horse and little Where the route leads down off a mesa or
donkey are considered more speedy than where it crosses a dry wash, it is often
the camel. Those animals must be watered wise to follow the "road." Otherwise, one
twice a day, however, which forces them to can drive almost anywhere and even chase
give way on long dry marches to the slower, antelope with a car.
more cantankerous camel; who isn't even That does not apply to mountainous
inconvenienced by a 2 to 4 days' jaunt be- areas, sand dune regions, or badlands,
tween drinks. which exist in parts of all deserts. You may
Cumbersome two-wheeled ox carts cov- have to detour such places or be very selec-
ered with matting to protect the freight tive of your path, but in general motorcars
from rain and snow lurch over many Gobi will take you where you want to go faster
trails from June to snowfall (late August than camels or your own two feet.
—a--
Desert mountains are common throughout the Arabian Peninsula. Stunted trees
and scanty vegetation in the mountains offer more shelter than one finds on the
open desert.
MANS ADAPTATION—THE APPLICATION OF NATURES LESSON 29
Natives of the-deserts have little idea of take you to walk to the next Well, he will
distances. Once in the Sahara an American state the time With accuracy.
asked a sheik how far it was to the next Caravans travel at night in summer if
oasis. visibility is adequate. They also travel in the
"Seventy-five kilometers," said the Arab. early morning or late afternoon. In hot
"But we have an automobile," said the weather they almost never travel after 10
American, thinking perhaps that the camel am, and before 5 or 6 p.m. There is more
route would be too rough and the car would daytime travel in winter. Traveling at night,
have to detour. a large caravan thy pass close by without
"Oh, with an automobile it is only 25 your seeing it. If your ears are keen, how-
kilometers," replied the sheik. Time and dis- ever, you will hear the creak of boxes on
tance are thoroughly mixed• in the native camel saddles or the swish and whispered
concept. To the sheik kilometers are not a rustle of rubbing bales and bags.
standard of measurable distance. They are Walking is not at all difficult in des,erts.
just a way of expressing how long it takes Caravan men walk as much as they ride
to travel from here to there. Don't take a and frequently wear only light sandals.
native's statement of distance too seriously, Trails avoid the difficult terrain like loose
but if he tells you how many days it will sand or broken rocky areas.
r" 'P—
- -C - —
-7-' Si!
Sand dune pattern in the Western Erg of Algerian Sahara near the oasis of
Timmimoun. Prevailing wind direction is from upper right to lower left. Flat
basins between the dunes are often suitable for emergency landing. These
basins tend to be locoted in patterns associated with prevailing wind direction.
Note the corner of an oasis at right center on a basin edge. Scattered dote palm
trees are in dune hollows in lower center. Wells are frequently located in the
middle of fiat basins among the dunes.
30 AFOOT ZN THE DESERT
If you cannot follow a trail, your best bet counter. Practice looking at known ob-
is to head for the coast, providing you know jects distorted by mirages.
where it is and the distance is within range One or two attempts to look carefully
of your strength and water supply. Once at familiar objects in a duststorm or a
you reach the coast you can conserve your whiteout will convince you of the need
sweat by soaking your clothes in the sea. for training yourself in desert observation
Valleys, ancient stream beds or dry water
courses lead to inland basins in desert areas. and of the importance of "waiting for the
In Libyan Sahara such valleys start within sunshine" in an emergency.
a few hundred yards of the sea and run in- Signaling. The Sjamese twins of desert
land. Great, through-going rivers like the survival are water and signaling. Their
Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, the Rio Grande importance was emphasized in 1955 by
and Colorado which carry water all year widely publicized desert emergencies in
do reach the sea of course. Even some short southwest United States. In each case
vaileys join the ocean, but you better have proper signaling equipment or a little more
a map to guide you in any generalization water would have averted tragedy. (Water
is discussed in the next chapter.)
about following stream beds or valleys in
The Air Force provides emergency radio
the desert.
equipment. Learn to use it properly. Learn
Maps of desert regions are notoriously its capabilities before you need it. Then
bad. They serve to give you a general idea check before you take off to be sure the
of terrain features but often specific land- battery is not dead. A dead radio in a
marks are located 50 miles in error. Try to desert emergency can mean a dead pilot.
get an estimated accuracy from a reliable If you have no radio, you can indicate
source for any map you carry, check that your position in the desert to search planes
accuracy before you have to use the map. by visual signals. A pillar of smoke by day,
a column of fire by night are excellent,
Orientation. In the air or on the ground but a mirror's blinding flash by day and
it is not easy to orient yourself in the a battery flashlight at night will do the
desert. There are few check points. Dis- job. You may have to provide your own
tances are deceiving. The landscape is flashlight, but the Air Force survival
monotonous, and the features of one area equipment includes an excellent signal
often resemble those of a distant region. mirror. Learn to use it so the pilot
The sun is not much help in a duststorm or will not confuse your signal with a
a coastal desert fog. Mirages distort even gun flash—hold it on him until he turns
middle distance landmarks and sometimes toward you. Don't blind him when he
cause you to lose sight of others. is trying to help you. Pilots say the
You can improve your ability to orient mirror's light can "knock you out of the
yourself by consciously identifying those cockpit," so after you are sure you have
features of the landscape your eyes en- been seen, don't bverdo it.
WATER: THE SECRET OF STRENGTH AND EFFICIENCY 31
[XI'E(TEEI SIJIVIVAL
AYSo in fke
EJESERT
Under Two Conditions
haiIy
_1e.m.F
120' 2
Available
Days
2
I
Water
2
per Man,
of Expected
2
j 4
as
U. S. Quarts
SurvivoT
ID
3
20
0' 3 3 3.5 4 5
100'
90
5
7
5.5
8
6
9
7
10.5
9,5
Is I
oX°
80' 9 I0 II IS 19
70' to II 12 14
60' I0 II 12 14
50' I0 2 14.5
o. 120' 2 2 2.5 3
I0 2 2.5 3 3.5
100' 3.5 3.5 4,5 5.5
90' 5.5 5.5 6.5 B
60' 8.5 9 II 14
50' a, 9 II 14
This is Table 17B, p. 279, in Physiology of Man in the Desert, byE. F. Adolph and Associates, New
York: lnterscience Publishers, 1947. Note that survival time is not appreciably increased until
available water is about4 quarts, the amount necessary to maintain water balance for 1 day at
high temperatures. Utilization of shade or saving a few degrees of temperature is as effective
and as important in increasing survival time as water.
Water needs in the jungle are much less than in the desert. At equal temperatures the body re-
quires two to three times as much water to maintain water balance in deserts as it does in jungles.
P .4 11. 'r I \1'
HE NORMAL body temperature for tion of sweat on the desert bag keeps it 40°
T man is 98.6°. Any variation, even as lit-
tie as one or two degrees from that normal
cooler. Evaporation of sweat on your skin
keeps your body temperature normal.
temperature, reduces your efficiency. When you sweat, hGwever, your body loses
Patients have survived after a few min- water. That is called dehydration. It is true
utes of body temperature as low as 20 de- that two-thirds of the human body is water,
grees below normal (78.8° and 75.23))2 but every bit of body water is needed for cir-
However, their consciousness became culation! Therefore when you lose body
clouded at half that drop in temperature. water by sweating, when you dehydrate,
In contrast, an increase in body tempera- that loss must be replaced by drinking
ture of six to eight degrees above normal for water. Otherwise the body pays for the loss
any extended period causes death. This fact in reduced efficiency. Actual, scientifically
is familiar to everyone. 'When sickness or controlled experiments on men working in
disease causes the body temperature to go hot deserts have given us some figures on
above the normal 98.6, we call it fever. High loss of efficiency compared to the percent of
fever can burn up the patient so that in the dehydration or loss of body water.
case of sickness, efforts are directed to keep- For instance, a man who has lost 2 /2 per-
ing the body temperature within bounds. cent of his body weight by sweating (about
Body temperature in a healthy person 2 quarts of water) loses 25 percent of his
also can be raised to the danger point either efficiency. Also it has been found that work-
by absorbing heat or by generating heat too ing in air temperatures of 1100 cuts down a
fast. The body absorbs heat from the air if man's normal ability about 25 percent. That
the air is above 92°F. It can get it from di- means that if your body is short 1 '/2 quarts
rect sunlight striking the body, radiant of water and the air around you is 110°F,
heat, even if the air is relatively cool. It can
you are only half a man. You can do only
absorb heat refleetsd from the ground or it about half as much work as you normally
can absorb it direct from the ground by con-
do. You can walk only half as far as you
tact, as when you are lying down. Any kind
could with plenty of water in normal
temperatures.
of work or exercise, of course, produces body
Most people can get accustomed to work-
heat. ing in high temperatures, whether in the
Regardless of where the heat comes from, stokehold of a ship or in a harvest field on
the body must get rid of the excess and keep the Kansas prairie. It may take a good man
body temperature at the normal 98.6°. This from 2 days to a week before his circula-
is done by evaporating sweat on the skin tion, his breathing, his heart action, and
surface. It is a very effective and efficient his sweat glands all get tuned to hot climate
process. work. Some people never do adjust to hot
You can see how effective evaporation is weather; others adjust quickly. Some people
in cooling if you fill a desert water bag even have more sweat glands per square inch
and a canteen with water and hang them of skin surface than others. Extra glands
both in the sun. When the water in the help them acclimatize more quickly. It has
canteen is 110°F, the water in the sweat- been found that those brought up from
ing desert bag will be only 70 °F. Evapora- infancy in hot climates really do have more
-
2SDorothy Mae (Johnyl Stevens. 23-year-old Chicago Negro
girl survived a body temperature of 64.4° in 1951, but eventu-
sweat glands than people raised in temper-
ally lost both legs. ate climates.
32
W4TER: THE SECRET OF STRENGTH AND EFFiCIENCY 33
Although your body may acclimatize to ciency after the last dehydration as it did
hot weather, it must have water to form after the first. During their dehydration the
sweat and supply liquid for circulation. same symptoms, the same loss of efficiency
When the body dehydrates, the blood loses always occurred at the same stages or per-
more than its share of water. Blood be- centage of water loss.
comes thicker and less in volume. The re- Here's how you feel when you dehydrate.
sult is more wont for the heart and less First you are thirsty and uncomfortable.
efficiency in circulation. Then you start taking it easy, sort of slow
Most people drink the liquid they need at motion, and have no appetite. As you lose
meal times. In hot climates they tend to more water, you get sleepy, your tempera-
dehydrate between meals and are restored ture goes up, and by the time you are de-
to normal when they eat and drink. Such hydrated to 5 percent of your body weight,
people often claim that they are tired when you get sick at your stomach.
in reality their loss of energy is due to From 6 percent to 10 percent dehydration,
dehydration. the symptoms follow in this order:
Efficiency loss by dehydration is quickly You experience dizziness, headache, dif-
restored by drinking water. Replacing water ficulty in breathing, tingling in arms and
lost by sweating will in a few minutes re- legs, and a dry mouth; your body gets
store a man who has collapsed from de- bluish, your speech is indistinct, and finally
hydration. That means you can keep your you can't walk. From there on you need
efficiency in summer desert weather by help, but if you are watching some other fel-
drinking plenty of water. Without water in low with less water than you have, you'll
hot deserts you will not travel far. The find his symptoms in the tables at the end
product of your labor will be small. of this paper.13 They range from his being
It is important to remember that there is off his nut to a numb skin. In any case, get
no permanent harm done to a man who de- water into him—but quick.
hydrates even up to 10 percent of his It is probable that man can survive 25
weight. If you weigh 150 pounds, you can percent dehydration in air temperature of
sweat off 15 pounds if you drink enough 85°F or cooler. At temperatures up in the
water to gain it back later.13 You probably nineties and higher, 15 percent dehydration
would not be able to walk to the drinking is probably fatal.
fountain if you dehydrated that much. If The story of Pablo Valencia is a glorious
you could stagger over there and drink a exception." In 1905 Pablo was in the desert
quart or two of cool water, you would be of southwestern Arizona for 8 days and
back on your feet in a few minutes; ready nights with 1 day's water. He rode in the
to battle the champion, as soon as you had saddle for 35 miles and walked or crawled
replaced all the lost water. Ice cold water, between 100 and 150 miles. For 160 hours he
however, may cause stomach distress if was without water. His arms and legs were
drunk too rapidly, but warm or cool water cut by thorns and rocks, but his blood was so
may be swallowed as fast as you like. thick the wounds did not bleed until he
There is no evidence that anyone can ac- was rescued by Dr. McGee and water was
climatize to dehydration." Some men have gotten into his belly. He lost 25 percent of
been dehydrated 15 or 20 times under ex- his weight. During the incident the lowest
perimental conditions. It took just as much temperature was 81°F, the maximum
water to bring them back to normal effi- I
'Some writers claim that Arabs have acclimatized to de-
hydration. We find no evidence to support this claim. we do
'°SvenHedin. the Swedish explore,', once ran out of water. find that desert natives conserve body water by following the
Two of his men died, On reaching water, Hedin drank 6 pints rules later stated in this paper; but for equal work In equal
of water at once and was revived without Ill effe,ts. His com. temperatures they require as much water s other people.
panion who survived drank 'two high boots full." Hedin, $ven, There Is a record of two Arab soldiers In the Sahara who were
Through Asia. harper, 189$, Vols 5 and II. prsud ol their desert ability and who believed the legend of the
Two U.S. aviators who were made prisoners in Italy by the desert robber who could go 2 or 3 days without water, just like
Germans In World War It esraped into an attic and survived his camel. These soldiers tried to ImItate the legendary hero
6 days on 1 pint or water. They lay almost inert for fear of but collapsed after 36 hours without water. They were revived
recapture and finally fell out of their hiding place. It wa.s by drink,ng water. Gautier, E. F., Sahara the Great Desert, New
several minutes before they could stagger over to water, where York: Colu,ubia University Press, 1935. tr by D. F. Mayhew.
they drank 3 pInts right away and were able to walk— '°See Appendix 1.
"Could actually feel energy returning." Personal conversation "McGee, Dr. W. .5., Desert Thirst as Disease. Interstate Medi-
with survivor at SAC. cal Journal Vol. XIII No. 3, March, isea.
34 AFOOT IN THE DESERT
103.2 F. Pablo Valencia, however, was out indicate that a little extra salt on your
in the open not in the protected shelter of food at mealtimes may be necessary for the
the official thermometer. He was, of course, first few days you are living in hot climates.
familiar with the desert trails and dragged When you have adjusted to living in the
himself back to water and help. You can heat, food salted to your taste will supply
equal Pablo's will to survive. You should all your body needs. Unless plenty of water
outdo him in common sense about water is available, salt will do you definite harm.
and desert travel. Sweat does contain salt, but the body is
In summer desert heat, thirst is not a able to regulate the amount of salt in
strong enough sensation to indicate the sweat and so conse?ve what is needed. In
amount of water you need. If you drink only other words, don't worry about your salt
enough to satisfy your thirst, it will still be but do keep up your water supply.
possible to dehydrate slowly. The best plan
is to drink plenty of water any time it is RATION YOUR SWEAT, NOT YOUR WAJER
available and particularly at meal times.
There is no substitute for water to pre- Your body produces so much heat every
vent dehydration and keep the body at nor- hour while at rest that unless that heat is
mal efficiency. Alcohol, salt water, gasoline, lost, you will have 2 degrees of fever in 1
blood, or urine—any of those liquids which hour. Evaporating sweat takes care of that
desert and sea castaway romances say men heat just as fast as it is formed. In order to
have tried as substitutes for water—only in- keep your body temperature normal, every
crease dehydration. That is because all con- hundred calories of heat generated by your
tain waste products which the body must body and absorbed from air, sun, or ground,
get rid of through the kidneys. More water must be balanced by the evaporation of 173
is required to carry of! the waste through grams of sweat.
the body than is contained in the liquids In hot deserts you need about a gallon
mentioned. For example, sea water is more of water per day. If you follow the rules
salty than urine; therefore, when sea water and walk in the "cool" desert night, you can
is drunk, the body must add more water to get about 20 miles for that daily gallon. If
carry away the extra salt. you do your walking in daytime heat, you'll
You can drink brackish water—that is be lucky to get 10 miles to the gallon.
water with half as much salt as sea water— Whether you sit out your desert survival or
and get a net gain of moisture for the body. walk home to mother, you'll need water, at
Any liquid containing a higher percentage least 3 to 4 quarts a day.
of waste than urine can do only harm to
your cooling system. The only way to conserve your water is
Do not adulterate fresh water! If your to ration your sweat. Drink your water as
fresh water accidently gets mixed with salt, you need it, but keep heat out of your body.
don't waste it. Drink it and get all the possi- That can be done if you keep your shirt on.
ble good from it. It had better be a white or light-colored
Chewing gum or pebbles in the mouth shirt. Of course we mean pants, hat, and
may be a pleasant form of kidding your- shoes as well as shirt. Clothing helps ra-
self that you are not thirsty. They do no tion your sweat by not letting it evaporate
harm but they are not a substitute for so fast that you get only part of its cooling
water and will not aid in keeping your body effect. Light clothing also reflects or turns
temperature normal. Only water, sweated away the heat of the sun and keeps out the
out and evaporated on your skin surface, hot desert air. Keep in the shade as much
can do that job. You may smoke, too, it you as possible during the day. Desert natives
like. It will not change your need for water. have tents open on all sides to allow free
circulation of air during the daytime. Sit
SALT IN HOT WEATHER up a few inches off the ground, if possible;
Recent studies on salt needs of the body do not lie on the ground: It is 30 tO 45 de:
WATER: THE SECRET OF STRENGTH AND EFFICIENCY 35
A mirage in the desert resembles this apparent lake on the landing field. The
variation in density of air masses causes distortion of light rays so that the
image of the sky appears on the ground as a lake. Other distortions cause dis-
tant obiects like mountains to appear much closer than they really are. Still
other conditions produce upside-down images above the horizon. All such dis-
tortions are mirages but the apparent-lake type shown above is commonly
recognized in deserts.
grees cooler a foot above the ground than it and oftener than you think your thirst re-
is right on the ground. That difference can quires, if you want to stay healthy and keep
save you a lot of sweat. efficient.
Slow motion is better than speed in hot You may feel more comfortable in the des-
deserts. Slow and steady, slow and easy ert without a shirt or pants. That is be-
does it. If you must move about in the heat, cause your sweat evaporates so fast. But
you'll last longer on less water if you take it takes more sweat, and sunburn is a pain-
it easy. Remember the Arab. He is not sur- ful trouble. Desert sun will burn even if you
viving in the desert; he just lives there— have a good coat of tan, so use your head,
and he likes it. He isn't lazy, he's just liv- maintain your efficiency, and keep your
ing in slow motion, the way the desert clothes on.
makes him live.
DESERTS ARE ALSO COLD
If you have plenty of water—2 or 3 gal-
lons per day—go ahead and work your head Most people think of deserts as hot, dry,
off if you want to, and drink as often as barren wastes where it is a long way be-
you like. In fact you had better drink more tween drinks. We have been talking of that
36 AFOOT IN THE DESERT
type of desert. Heat is a desert characteristic a compass unless you have an Arab's
in summer daytime. That is from May to memory for landmarks.
October in the Sahara; during July and Natives and people who walk the desert
August in the Gobi. During the rest of the trails are friendly people. They know. the
year you'll need winter clothing in the hardships of the desert, and, like people
Sahara and arctic winter clothing in the living close to nature anywhere in the
Gobi. world, their natural sense of hospitality is
The distance between wells does not to help a fellow traveler. That holds particu-
change from summer to winter even if the larly true if the stranger appears friendly
thermometer does hover in a lower register. and is not armed or threatening in his
You can dehydrate when the temperature manner.
is 65° in the shade, but it will take days in- There are bandits and smugglers in some
stead of hours. You need water wherever deserts. The former are usually not far
you are. In desert country you'll find water from large centers of population where
along trails, so, winter or summer, afoot, on trails begin to converge. Such groups do
horseback, in a jeep, or aloft in a four-en- not welcome threats or too many questions
gined aircraft, travel in sight of the trails about their business, but a friendly ap-
if not actually on the caravan paths. proach will get you help in the right di-
rection. Of course if you look like a bandit
JOURNEY OF 1,000 MILES or throw your weight around in the pres-
The Chinese have a saying that a jour- ence of desert travelers, their reaction may
ney of 1,000 miles begins with one step. If be one of self-protection instead of hos-
you find yourself afoot in the desert, just pitality. A friendly guy afoot in the desert,
remember that Chinese have been walking however, should meet up with friends on the
across the deserts of Asia for 2 thousand trail.
years. The Arabs have been walking across
the Sahara and the Arabian deserts for SuMMaY
many centuries, They do it by taking and
thinking about just one step at a time. And Evidence left by those who died of dehy-
they follow century-old trails. dration shows that in temperatures above
100°F you may live a couple of days without
All deserts have trails. They are visible water. If you save your energy and keep in
from the air. Keep them in sight when you the shade, every gallon of water you have
fly the deserts; keep them in mind when means another day of life. Less than 3
you see them on your maps. Land on them quarts of water will not increase your sur-
if you have any control of your landing. vival time. Rationing yourself to 1 or 2
Trails lead to water. In all deserts, wells, quarts of water per day at high tempera-
water holes, and oases are reached by trails, tures is inviting disaster. Such small
In the Gobi wells are often 8, 10, or 15 miles amounts will not prevent your dehydrating.
apart. In the Sahara they may be 15 to 40 Loss of efficiency and eventual collapse fol-
miles apart. In some sections of both deserts low dehydration as surely as night follows
there are longer stretches between wells, day. Ration your sweat, not your water.
but God help you if you come down in re- There are no substitutes for water, but
gions where there are no trails. Here's hop- remember that tea, coffee, milk, fruit
ing you send out a radio fix in any event, juices, and soft drinks are basically water.
but if you are down on a trail you can Pebbles in the mouth, chewing gum, or
probably hitchhike to water with a passing smoking may make you feel better, but they
caravan. Remember they travel at night in will neither decrease nor increase your need
summer heat. for water. Alcohol, salt water, urine, or any
Deserts are big open spaces and a map, liquid containing quantities of waste ma-
even a poor one, will help you locate trails terial which must be eliminated from the
or find water. Don't be without a map and body through the kidneys will increase de-
WATER: THE SECRET OF STRENGTH AND EFFiCIENCY 37
hydration. Water in your belly will keep you pie. They are interesting. Plan for your
on your feet in hot summer deserts. water supply if you are in desert areas. YOUF
Arabs and Berbers, Mongols and Ameri- water.-needs-are.greateven4f .you are rid-
can Indians live and travel in deserts. ing. across the-desertina jeep.
There are many plants and animals which It is recorded that one tough general
survive under desert conditions. If you profit thought troops on desert maneuvers could
by the lessons these desert dwellers have be toughened to lack of water. A colonel
given—if you understand the limitations knew better and took the general for a jeep
under which you must walk or wait in the ride with only 2 quarts of water per man.
desert—if you practice what we've been Of course the water lasted the general less
preaching, you'll live to know the value of than 3 hours. Long before the desert ride
these desert lessons. was finished, the general was mentally pre-
The walking is good in deserts. Distances pared to issue plenty of water to troops on
are great, but the obstacles to a man on maneuvers. Under hard working conditions
foot are few. Water is necessary to maintain
normal body temperature, and normal tem- in summer daytime desert heat, those troops
often used 3 gallons of drinking water per
perature is necessary to keep up your man per day.
efficiency.
In summer desert temperatures you can The water you drink when exposed to
conserve body water by keeping fully desert heat is not wasted. Carry your water
clothed and sitting in the shade during the in your belly—drink as you feel thirsty and
day. Necessary work or walking should be keep your efficiency. Men have dehydrated
done at night. Under such conditions in with water still in their canteens—and won-
summer a man should be able to travel dered why they couldn't walk or work! It
about 20 miles on a gallon of water. If you is the water in your body that saves your
work or travel in the heat of daytime des- life, not the water in your canteen.
erts, twice or three times as much water is Start planning your desert walk now.
essential to your body. Plan before every take-oft for desert flight.
If you are flying in desert areas, plan to Plan on landing and before you start walk-
study your maps. Keep in mind the general ing. Include water, trails, and friendly na-
locations and directions of the trails. Plan tives in all those plans and you can find the
now to learn about deserts and desert peo- desert a fascinating place.
flflfli4n4.,nflflnfli4,,4fl,4Wh4iflflwSflfl'A%"%WS'fl%l Pi4A ]3 'F J an%in%i¾S%%%%¼%4A4Sn.M.M.Sn.Afln4%i5M.,,%,%%%¾.,.%M%—AWA..,
p.
V
.4
r4jrt _
.tsr%m.. 4 .
Oasis and village in the mountains of Morocco. Walled courtyards and flat
roofed houses are built of sun-dried brick or adobe. Note the sharp line where
the desert meets the irrigated cultivation. The river, almost dry in June, carries
considerable water in the winter months.
p are conservative
who inhabit the great deserts
EOPLE
and pretty well ad-
the limits of the land which can be grazed
or used by their family and their tribe. They
justed. In general they have come to terms know who are their friends and who are
with nature's elements. They have learned their enemies. They understand what to ex-
ta endure extreme heat in summer and cold pect from both and how to act toward each
in winter. They expect long periods of dry- of them. They know the rules. They believe
ness, and know how to ëonserve water. They in those rules and they act in accordance
get along with little food, but know how to with that belief. Established SOP prevails
enjoy a banquet on occasions. They know for most situations.
"The Ethnic Card Series being published by ADTIC will When an American like you steps into the
give specific details of Individual tribes which are beyond the
scope of Afoot in the Desert. This is ADTIC Publication, 0-101. land of desert people that adjustment is
38
DESERT PEOPLE AND YOU 39
thrown off balance. The picture is out of The Bedouin you are likely to meet on the
focus. The desert native does not know Sahara and Arabian deserts have a really
where you fit into his scheme of things. hard life. They have .little food and few
You make confusion in his world. He or clothes in a rugged climate. Cash money is
she has no idea what to do about you. hard to come by, and it is usable in many
What he or she does will depend on sev- ways.
eral things, but above all else it will proba- He will do a great many things for money,
bly depend on YOU. If his group has any but money will not tempt him to sacrifice
contact with white-skinned, hat-wearing, his honor. He sticka rigidly to his code.
trouser-legged individuals like you, he'll A man's first duty is towards God.
treat you according to the pattern his peo- Second: the protection of his tent
ple have decided upon. neighbor.
If the last shoe-wearing blond he met or Third: attention to the laws of hos-
has heard about was a natural SOB, the pitality.
desert man will be expecting trouble. Don't Fourth: duty to a traveler under his
give it to him. If the last friend of democ- "safe conduct."
racy the desert people knew was honest, Fifth: attention to the laws of per-
friendly, courteous, a really swell fellow, sonal protection and sanctu-
then your troubles are at a minimum pro- ary.
viding you can be as decent. Sixth: is duty to himself; to raid
You can find published books and maga- when he can and to keep what
zine articles written by desert travelers he has captured.
which call the natives treacherous, vicious, Raiding is no sin but a virtue. Payment,
sly, hostile, and dangerous. Most of those you might say, for the five good deeds
authors had already formed their opinion above. To kill your enemy is a greater vir-
before they reached the desert. Some of tue. To steal your enemy's cattle isn't rob-
them wanted to prove how brave they were bery; it is something to be proud of. Your
in going into "a land of terror." Some new- enemy will do the same to you if you give
comers got into trouble and never knew him a chance.
why. Often it was because they had violated Some Americans and other non-natives
some simple customs like putting out the have gone among the desert people as
wrong hand. Others boast of how they gyped friends. They have lived among them as
the natives. Many went looking for trouble equals. Those who have treated the desert
"with a gun on each hip and chip on each people as decently and honestly as they
shoulder." Naturally the desert people were would treat their friends at home all agree
on guard against such unfriendly or arro- that desert people are hospitable, dignified
gant intruders. and friendly.
Arabs are exchangers of gifts. Gifts repre- This author once went down into the Hog-
sent friendship. If you learn what simple gar Mountains of the Algerian Sahara on a
presents you can give in your particular sec- civilian expedition, Expedition members
tion of Sahara or Arabia you can get more heard so many tales of treachery and am-
cooperation than money can buy. bush by the Tuaregs that a machine gun
The author once gave a Swiss jackknife was carried on one of the cars in addition
to a Tuareg noble in the Sahara. It cost 50 to side arms and rifles. On the northern
cents in the States. Later he received courte- edge of the desert we stopped at a French
sies out of all proportion to the demands of military post. Among other questions, we
hospitality. Finally the noble explained. asked about our machine gun.
"When you first came here you gave me a "It. is excellent for shooting Gazelles,"
knife that closes. All my life I have wanted said the Commandant, "but if you want to
a knife that closes. You are my friend. Any- shoot Tuaregs, extra film for your camera
thing I have is yours." will be more practical."
40 AFOOT IN THE DESERT
We left the machine gun with the Com- relationships all around. That applies even
mandant and found the Tuaregs so friendly in the exceptional regions where groups or
that they enjoyed our singing "Old MacDon- Individuals may be hostile or trigger happy.
aid Had a Farm." They joined us inwres- Remember when you enter the land of
tling matches and even invited us to an desert people, you are the foreigner In
Ahai. That is not a subject for publication. another's home town. It is up to you to act
Experienced desert travelers have found in accordance with their customs. When
that an honest effort to understand the you are the foreigner, act with the decency
desert people pays off. A sincere respect for you'd expect of a foreigner in your home.
their customs, no matter how different from Act like an undesirable, and your sweet-
yours they may be, will result in satisfactory heart may be looking for another boy friend.
-
-
'2
jftt 7jg
- -r •-' ;- -, _tt-
—
SMpc*±fl _ -
•rs
______
rw - ________
': ;c*
—w n''- ,r r.
A Ga' iziot village of Khunik Pai Godar in the Khorasan desert region of Iran.
Dame-roofed buildings and irrigated terraces are characteristic of this arid part
of the Near East.
Among desert people if you give your The people of Saudi Arabia can't under-
word you must keep it. In Saudi Arabia the stand our custom of signing a written
courts will see that you do keep your verbal agreement and having witnesses sign. They
agreements. For example, if you say you give their word and keep their verbal
will pay a certain price for a rug and later promises.
see another which you like better you can't Desert people are not fist fighters. They
back out of your first verbal deal even don't lay violent hands on each other in
though you have not paid anything down anger or in horseplay, as youthful Ameri-
nor taken delivery. cans sometimes do. To inflict physical in-
DESERT PEOPLE AND YOU 41
jury on an Arab, for example, is a very These are just a few of the greeting cus-
serious offence. You may find yourself le- toms of desert people. Afoot in the Desert
gally obliged to support the injured and his is not large enough to give the customs of
family. all groups. Its purpose is to give you gen-
Article 39 of the Saudi Arabian laws pro- eral ideas of what customs to look for. With
hibits you from striking a person by hand this background you should catch on quickly
or by tongue or from treating him with to the local Emily Post recommendations
scorn or contempt. in any desert. Learn the customs for your
There are many very interesting angles region. When a man .shakes his fist at you,
to the customs of desert people, and in well he may be saying, "Hello Friend."
organized Saudi Arabia many of those old In some parts of the Gobi you should only
customs are written into law. approach a yurt or a tent from the east.
That will be the front where the only door
Here are a few of the most important is located. If you happen to come from some
don'ts. In general they apply to the deserts other direction, you should circle the yurt
everywhere. at a reasonable distance. Give the Mongols
• Don't bawl out an offender in front of a chance to see you before you get close to
other people. their dwelling.
• Don't draw sand pictures or maps with In Mongolia dogs will probably warn of
your foot. Stoop down and draw with your approach. Then you'll need a club or
right hand. some stones to keep them at bay while you
• Don't swear at a native. shout to the inhabitants, "Call off the
• Don't expose the soles of your feet to dogs." Learn the proper words in the native
others. Sit tailor fashion or on your language of the desert you are traveling.
heels.
Women, girls or anyone else around will
• Don't ask about a man's wife. come out and quiet the animals.
• Don't throw a coin at a man's feet, that You enter the yurt through the left side
is insulting. of the door. You leave your whip or club
• Gambling is forbidden. outside above the door. There are rules re-
• DO HAVE PATIENCE when dealing garding what part of the yurt is reserved
with desert people. for each member of the family and for
• DO ACT FRIENDLY.
guests. Your good nature and friendliness,
however, will get you by until you know the
Customs differ in different desert regions rules.
They differ sometimes between tribes of Some Mongols are extremely informal
the same region. For instance, some natives and enter without knocking. The author
we have met in the Gobi stuck out their remembers one time when a Mongol woman
tongue as a "hello" type of greeting. Later walked into his tent without knocking
we learned it was more characteristic of or calling. She sat on the ground for 10
Tibet than Mongolia. Others in Mongolia minutes in front of him while he proceeded
extended the right hand as a fist but with with his allover sponge bath. She had passed
the thumb up. The same sign was used to the prime of her youth and beauty, and she
ask the expedition physician if the patient needed a bath worse than the author, so
would get well. In the Algerian Sahara a the experience didn't raise his blood
lone traveler often advanced to meet us pressure.
with his right hand raised like the tradi- In Arabia the guest must also approach
tional American Indian pose when saying the tent from the front. Front will be in the
"How." Others extended the right hand to lee of the wind. If the wind changes, the
touch ours almost like a simple handshake. back will be raised and become the front.
There was no firm grip and shake but just Stop some distance away to give the gals
a touch of the right palms. Then each man time to get their veils in place. During sum-
put the back of his hand to his lips. mer heat all sides of the tent will be raised
42 AFOOT IN THE DESERT
so you better observe the people from a dis- group. If she has reason to believe that the
tance to be sure which is front. approaching group is led by the Sheik or
On the edge of the Sahaa in Algeria it other important personage, she hangs out
is customary to call out on approaching a her best dress as a banner on a pole by the
tent. This is particularly true if there are tent.
no men around. In that region the author Set phrases of welcome and greeting are
did not enter the tent unless invited. Curi- repeated and answered in all regions. Learn
ously Americans were welcomed, and they those used in your region. Even if you pro-
were allowed to photograph the Berber no- nounce the phrases badly your effort will
mad women. A cousin of the family who be appreciated. IV may even cause some
acted as interpreter could not come near merriment among your hosts and that al-
the tent. Necessary interpreting was con- ways increases friendliness.
ducted by shouting back and forth. The believers of Islam in North Africa,
Don't surprise people in the desert if you Arabia, and the deserts of Central Asi con-
expect their help or hospitality, Their re- sider hospitality an important duty. The
action to surprise may be a disappearing traveler in those regions accepts that hos-
act. It may also be a hostile reception es- pitality naturally. However, gentlemanly
pecially if you are in bandit country. instincts are highly developed even among
In some sections of the Arabian Desert the poorer desert men. They approach a
and in some parts of the Sahara a guest tent "modestly and with becoming diffi-
will be welcomed with a bowl of milk. In dence" and call out a friendly greeting like
Arabia (Dickson says) "it will be butter- "salam alaikum" (peace be upon you). A
milk." In the Algerian Sahara the writer guest would never dream of offering pay-
has always been offered sheep or goats milk ment for his accommodations and such. an
and a tray of dates. In the Gobi it was a offer would not be accepted. Neither would
piece of stone-hard cheese. In parts of the the guest think of imposing on the hospi-
Arabian Desert, when the man of the tent tality of a neighbor if he could make it to his
is away, his wife will welcome a passing own tent.
—
— a -.
-
¾•• - —
Camp of Emir Fawaz Shalan in the Syrian Desert near Palmyra. The Emir is
head of the Rwala Tribe. Camps are never as large as this in the Sahara.
DESERT PEOPLE AND YOU 43
Three days is the limit one should stay He says his prayers five times each day.
in a host's tent. A longer stay is not only He gives alms to the poor and needy. Dur-
bad manners, but it permits the host to ing the month of Ramadhan he does not
urge you to continue on your journey. eat, drink nor have sexual intercourse be-
The nile of hospitality is so rigid that it tween sunrise and sunset, but he can and
could easily cause the ruin of a poor man if does indulge during the night. If his means
his tent was located on a main trail. Those permit. he will make the journey to Mecca
who are poor accordingly often hide their at least once in his lifetime. This is be-
camp in a hollow or behind a hill away from coming easier to do now that airlines in the
traveled routes. They dare not refuse hos- Near East can fly the pilgrims to Jidda.
pitality even to a stranger although feed- The believer in Islam prefers to be called
ing him may force them to go without. a Moslem. Remember that while he knows
Their best bet is to keep their camp hard that Mohammed was the Prophet of God,
to find. Your best bet is to look for a side the Moslem does not worship Mohammed.
trail leading oft behind a hill. It may lead It is, therefore, not correct to call him a
to hospitality. Mohammedan.
Religion among desert people ranges A Moslem can and does worship wherever
from fanatical adherence to rigid forms he is. When prayer time comes, he will stop
through dignified sincerity to the most whatever he is doing, face Mecca and go
casual lip service. through the seven positions of prayer while
Among Gobi Mongols two-thirds of the he repeats set phrases and suras from the
male population were lamas or priests of Koran. That applies out in the desert or in
Lamaism. Most westerners consider Lama- the lobby of an office building in the city.
ism a decadent form of Buddhism. Certainly In cities and in oases there are mosques
it has absorbed a great many local spirits, where Moslems go to pray and to meditate.
and the common people were imposed upon In the courtyard or somewhere near the
by the lamas through serious superstitions entrance will be a place for the believer to
which they kept alive. The largest collec- wash his hands and feet before entering the
tions of permanent buildings in Mongolia religious sanctuary. He always removes his
were the lamasaries. Since the region has shoes or sandals before entering the mosque.
been controlied by the soviets the number You will show the same courtesy and re-
of lamas has been greatly reduced. It is move your shoes. In tourist cities extra
thought that they now include only 3 per- sandals are sometimes provided for non-
cent of the male population instead of the Moslems who are visiting the holy places.
former 60 percent. Probably the average Put these on over your shoes. In the desert
Mongol should be considered more super- you may not be allowed inside the mosque
stitious, than religious. The soviets have re- at all but don't defile the holy place with
duced the power of the lamas, but it is your shoes if you are allowed to enter. The
doubtful if they have eliminated supersti- offense is serious in some places, and may
tion. start a riot against you.
Among the Arabs of Arabia and the Sa- Many desert people are superstitious
hara many of the tribes are really sincere. about photographs. They rationalize their
They truly believe in one God. They do not fear by saying that the Koran forbids pic-
need anyone to intercede for them but each tures. There is no such ban on pictures in
man prays direct to God. This he does with the Moslem religious book, but it will do you
dignity, secure in the knowledge that be- no good to try to argue the matter. In
fore God he stands on an equal footing with Damascus the author has been urged by his
every other man. guide in a mosque "to take all the pictures
The true believer in the Moslem religion you want." In the same city, however, in-
knows that there is no God but God and dividuals objected violently to any photo-
Mohammed was his Prophet. graphs even out on the street.
44 AFOOT IN THE DESERT
—
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— -- - F-
1*
-S /
4
You will have to learn the "temper" of cal districts of Arabia proper. Phiiby'8 also
the desert people you encounter and follow relates that he saw young, well-formed
their taboos. Respect their prejudices. Don't women bathing in a stream. Each showed
ridicule or make fun of desert people. All neither shame nor embarrassment. others
of them are proud people. They are follow- exposed their "well-formed breasts," and
ing customs that have proved satisfactory one took off her shawl, which was her only
to them for more centuries than your ways garment, in order to rearrange it.
have years. Most Arabs and Berber peoples of Arabia
Women among desert people have varied or the Great Sahara tolerate no nonsense
positions. Except among the very wealthy between their women and men to whom
families, all desert women do their share of they are not married. Violations of the code
work about the camp. In Mongolia there is brings swift, sure punishment, sometimes
no double standard of morals. Among the including the death of the woman.
Arabs most tribes do not allow their women In contrast the Tuaregs of Sahara pride
to show their faces to any men except the themselves on the complete absence of
closest members of the family. In contrast jealousy. The women go unveiled before all
to this strict seclusion the women of tribes men while the men never show their faces
just north of Yemen on the Arabian Penin- even in all male gatherings. Their Ahal
sula "expose more of their bodies than gatherings include young married and un-
would be tolerated in other parts of Arabia." married men and women. They play the
They have greater freedom and freer inter- "Philby H. St. .1. B.. Arabian Highlands. The Middle East
Institute, Washington. if C., 1952, Pages 275, 447, 451, 456,
course with men than in the more puritani- and others.
DESERT PEOPLE AND YOU 45
C -,
Me
A Bedouin with his wives and children in front of his tent at Abqaiq, Al Ilasa,
Saudi Arabia.
imzad (one stringed violin) and sing dur- where water is scarce he may go through
ing the early part of the evening. Then they the motions with sand. Religion also pre-
go back to their tents, milk the camels and scribes that both men and women must
eat supper. After supper the second session have a complete bath after sexual inter-
of the Ahal continues far into the night as course "even though only a small bowl
a cosy petting party. Although a man will of water is available." Nevertheless, many of
show no sign of annoyance when a fellow the desert people you meet will certainly
Tuareg steals his girl, there is no assurance seem very dirty. Unless you have lucky con-
that his tolerance will extend to you. tacts, you are not likely to meet many of
As far as desert women are concerned, the wealthy class who can afford the luxu-
there are three factors which should hold ries of regular baths and clean clothes.
you in check: swift, sure trouble from most
tribes for violations of the code; the cer- In the deserts of Mongolia where people
tainty of VD where the women are given wipe their fingers on their garments you
liberty; and your sense of sight and smell. can smell the rancid mutton-fat almost as
Cleanliness among desert people varies far as you can see the man. Even there,
as much as the observance of religion. If cleanliness varies with individuals.
you compare a poor shepherd with an Toilet habits also vary. Among most des-
American businessman, the desert shep- ert people their voluminous flowing robes
herd is definitely dirty. However, some permit them to squat and relieve them-
wealthy Arabs wear spotlessly white gar- selves wherever nature calls. In oases and
ments and bathe as regularly as you do. The towns of Sahara or Arabia there are pit
Moslem religion prescribes that one must latrines. In some desert camps each in-
wash before prayers. You will see men doing dividual will dig a small hole and cover his
so in the entrances to mosques. The good feces. In contrast when prickly pears are
Moslem prays five times a day. In the desert ripe in North Africa you need to watch
46 AFOOT IN THE DESERT
49
Appendix 1
5!
Appendix 2
Other fields are uncharted. For the general areas see map—page 22.
52
Appendix 3
22. Great Barsuk, North of Aral Sea X 52. Rub al Khali (part of Arabian Desert), South-
23. Great Salt Lake Desert, Northwestern Utah, east Saudi Arabia 250,000
USA 4,000 53. Sahara Desert 3,000,000
24. Great Sandy Desert (part of Australian Desert. 54. Sechura Desert, Northeastern Peru 10,000
Northwestern Australia) 160,000 55. Sinai Desert—East of Suez IC
25. Great Victorian Desert (part of Australian 56. Smoke Creek Desert, Northwestern Nevada,
Desert, Southwestern Australia) 125,000 USA 300
26. Helmand, Southern Afghanistan (both sides of 57. Sonoran Desert, around Gulf of California IC
Helmand River which empties into Siestan 58. Swnznan Hard Desert, Part of Arabian Desert
Basin) X West of Persian Gulf IC
27. High Desert, Central Oregon, USA 3,000 59. Syrian Desert (part of Arabian Desert), North-
28. Jafura, part of Arabian Desert, Southwest of ern Arabian Peninsula 125,000
Persian Gulf X 60. Takla Makan, Southern Sinkiang, China 125,000
29. Kalaharl Desert, Bechuanaland, South 61. Tarim Basin (contains Takla Makan) IC
Africa 200,000 62. Tau Mum, part of Peski Sary—Ishik Otrau IC
30. Kara-Kum, Turkmen SSR 105,000 63. Thar Desert, Northwestern India 100,000
31. Karroo, Southwest Africa (like Kalahari not 64. Tumbe Desert, Northern Peru IC
true desert but very dry) X 61. Turfan Depression (part of Gobi) IC
32. Kerman Desert—South Iran X 66. Vizcaino Desert, Baja California, Mexico 6.000
33. Khorasan Desert (North Central Iran) same as 67. western Argentina Desert IC
Dasht-i-Kavir X 68. "Western Desert," Somaliland IC
!.'X indicates that reliable estimates or area are not available. 69. Wyoming Basin Desert IC
53
COUNTRIES WITH ARID AND SEMIARID AREAS
54
Appendix 4
BIBLIOGRAPHY