Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BOCK, Philip - Music in Mérida, Yucatan
BOCK, Philip - Music in Mérida, Yucatan
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Merida in 1989
Merida is a relatively easy city in which to become oriented; with a few im-
portant exceptions, the streets are numbered-even numbered streets run
north and south while odd numbered streets run east and west. Locations
within the colonias(neighborhoods) are often indicated by Cartesian coordi-
nates (for example, Calle 69 x 70 indicates the intersection nearest the main
bus terminal). The downtown area centers on the cathedral (Calle 60 x 61)
and the main plaza with its surrounding government buildings, banks,
shops, and eating places. The nearby mercadois a locus of retail activity
from early morning to mid-afternoon although some shops sell pirated
cassettes, little music is usually heard there or at the tourist craft market a
few blocks away. Each of the colonias has its own central area with a
church, market, retail shops, and often a movie theater, while some of the
prosperous outlying neighborhoods have shopping centers or even malls.
One's first impression of Merida is of a busy, but exceptionally clean and
pleasant, downtown area served by old and plentiful public transport. Ex-
tending north from downtown is the elegant Paseo Montejo with its luxury
hotels, consulates, museums, and restaurants. A friendly taxi driver helped
The program listed four dances in this epoch, all part of a "new fire
ceremony." These were the dance of the princes, dance of vestales,dance of
the warriors (involving much posing with decorated spears), and a con-
cluding victory dance. I was not able to identify the music that revealed a
romantic stylistic quality, with drums and flutes prominent. At one point
the warriors blew on conch shells and just before the new fire was ignited, a
male voice delivered an emotional recitation about the glories of the Maya
civilization. This first part lasted about fifteen minutes.
Part two, "The Conquest," consisted of one brief scene entitled "flagel-
lation and doctrine." It portrayed a single Spanish soldier in armor whip-
ping a line of agonized male and female dancers who writhed across the
stage in chains, while a Catholic priest looked on. The program mentioned
300 years of slavery, but the dance represented this period in about five
minutes with little imagination or expense.
Part three, "Spanish Influence" (distinct from the conquest) was a series
of five beautifully costumed dances with authentic music of the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries. It was intended to show the creation of a "tercera
cultura" (mestizo), neither Spanish nor Maya. First appeared ajota aragonesa
with a solo singer and sixteen dancers wielding castanets. The setting was
suggested by a large backdrop showing a hacienda gate, though the jungle
was still represented at the sides of the stage. Following a long and lively
dance, the transition "De laJota a laJarana" was shown by a group of six-
teen mestizo dancers who performed ajarana to their own singer. Then both
groups danced together. (The termjarana may originally have been used in
disapproval of the rough style of the peasants; among its meanings are
"binge," "spree," "rumpus," and "riot.")
Part four, "French Influence and the Porfiriato," was set in an elegant
terrace with stone railings and potted plants, though the jungle still invaded
the sides and background. Men in tails and women in turn-of-the-century
gowns and hats danced a series of European ballroom steps with formal
grace and intentional stiffness. Soon a mestizo group entered and repeated
the steps of waltz, shottish, and polka in a freer, more spontaneous mode.
Couple dances alternated with group forms. The suggestion of mutual in-
fluence was subtle and well portrayed. Some of the European dance steps
(for example, "Lancers") were quite complex. The final dance was per-
formed by the mestizo group alone, first in a circle, then in a chain. The
recorded accompaniment was varied, one selection sounded like the man-
dolins of a tuna while others featured violins or brass.
After the intermission, part five showed the influence of Cuban music and
dance on Yucatan, especially in the carnaval.Six dances were presented, again
intermingling couples with group. The genre called danzoncalled for complex
coordination of dance with music, one section showed the mestizos trying to
learn the dance, at first with difficulty, then with enthusiastic success.
The sixth part showed the conjugacion of Maya, Spanish, French, and
Cuban dance styles in the Yucatan. The six dances included a dance with a
pig's head, a basket dance, and a familiarjarana("Chinito Koy Koy"). In
the finale, groups of between eight and twelve dancers represented each of
the major styles and periods while a narratorspoke in sonorous tones about
"our ancestors." The multicultural message was contradicted, however,
by a passage in the program that referred to the Yucatecan hypocrisy of
welcoming foreigners with humility while acting in a superior way toward
the Maya (mestizo?) sector of the population. Thus when the narrator in-
tones "When will my people be free?," we must ask whose voice is speak-
ing these words and how sincerely.4
The performancejust described seems to be a regional version of the na-
tional Ballet Folkloricowhich many people have seen in Mexico City or on
its internationaltours. The Yucatan ballet also tours widely. Its dancers are
students at the U.A.Y. who receive scholarships in return for their par-
ticipation. Many of these students, together with graduatesof the program,
participatedin a special serenata to celebrate the anniversary of the univer-
sity and the sixth anniversaryof its Ballet Folkloricoon February 24. Held
in the university courtyard, it was an enjoyable evening of song and dance.
After two short speeches and the usual recitation about the past glories of
Yucatan, an excellent trio, Los Maganas, sang several ballads. The Or-
questa Jaranera (with many of the same musicians seen at Santa Lucia
park) played while more than ninety dancers performed. Later, the or-
chestra accompanied Ignacio "Nacho" Torres, a prominent local figure,
who sang several ballads including "Mi Merida." The evening concluded
with a big finale as all the dancers performed a bottle dance, the men
balancing trays with bottles on their heads. Tourists and local members of
the audience seemed to enjoy this lively representationof regional tradition
and could most likely fit its parts into the historical frameworkpresented in
the longer performance.
An allied performance is apparently staged every Sunday afternoon as
part of the "Sunday in Merida" series. On February 12, I witnessed the
BodaMestiza(Mestizo Wedding), beginning at about 1 p.m. in front of the
Municipal Palace (on the west side of the main plaza). A couple dressed in
plain white were feigning marriage; they were accompanied by several
couples in colorful dress (embroidered huipilesand plain rebozos).The
ceremony was quite simple, a narrator explained the various steps of this
"traditional" rural ritual while recorded orchestral music was played.
Although the intention may have been respectful, the effect was of quaint,
happy peasants, engaging in ancient customs with no historical context.
After the ceremony, a small band (drums and cornets) struckup a couple of
jaranas, including the popular "Porque te quiero." A man recited a brief
poem, "Merida en Domingo," in which he spoke of "our jaranas and
ThePopularScene
Perhaps because my stay did not correspond to the main tourist season, I
encountered few street musicians (ambulatores) and only one occasion when
a young man boarded a public bus with his guitar to sing a popular ballad
and pass the hat.
By far, the predominant style of live music heard in the city in 1989 is
what Stigberg called tropical.Caribbean and South American influences
(especially from Cuba and Colombia) are very strong, and a variety of
Latin popular music genres (especially cumbiasand boleros)can be heard is-
suing from large restaurantsand dance halls, startingearly in the afternoon
and continuing through the following morning. Perhaps two hundred ban-
das or conjuntos,with names such as "Marca Registrada," "Censurado,"
and "Sangre Latina," operate in the vicinity of Merida. A typical group is
composed of five to nine performers, some of whom sing. The music is
highly amplified and, besides tropical standardsand recent hits, always in-
cludes some Mexican and U.S. popular standards (such as, "New York,
New York") and a few "rock" numbers.6
Smaller grupos(duos, trios, and quartets) are also common, playing a
similar mixture of tropical and pop. These groups are generally less highly
amplified and appear in intimate settings. Included here are the traditional
trios bohemiosthat perform a limited, regional repertoire, usually with
acoustic guitars and percussion. Such groups may also alternate with the
larger bands in certain settings.
These musicians were found in a number of downtown and dispersed
establishmentsknown as centrostur'sticos.These establishments(which seem
actually to cater to a local crowd) open at noon and provide six or more
hours of live music and entertainment with free appetizers for drinking
patrons and with food service from a regional menu. They range from
small, neighborhood places such as "La Choza" (The Hut) with its thatched
roof and family atmosphere to the gigantic "Tulipanes" with its double
stage and variety show (dancers and comedians), entertaining a business
crowd during the long afternoon dinner break.
Contrasting with these daytime settings are the centrosnocturnos(night-
clubs) such as "La X'tabay" (which is located above and shares some
facilities with a centro turfstico, "El Tucho").7 These clubs open after nine
o'clock and present alternating bands, at least one of which also plays
background music for a show. An entry fee is charged and some snacks are
served with drinks, but meals are not available. Groups of men often pur-
chase bottles of liquor while couples tend to consume beer or cocktails. The
club I sampled proved to be well worth the expense (15,000 peso cover
charge = U.S. $7) and merits a detailed description.
I arrived at La X'tabay about eleven o'clock. The name refers to a
female spirit that lures men to their death in the jungle. She was portrayed
on the walls of the club in fluorescent paintings, displaying vaguely Mayan
features and long black hair and standing beneath a sacred ceibatree. From
various sources I gather that she is a mixture of the siren figure and the
weeping woman (llorona). The GrupoJosewas playing dance music when we
entered. It is a very good five-piece band featuring a lead guitarist who
sings, a drummer, an electric bass, and two women who sing (one played
the keyboard, the other tambourine). The sound was well integrated and
the repertoire mainly tropical plus some American rock tunes sung in
Spanish (for example, "Gloria"). Each dance tune was continuous with the
next.
The main attraction was the "Grupo Cubaney Show" from Cuba. This
was an excellent band, led by a man who played flute and saxophone; there
were also two trumpets, a trombone, electric bass, keyboard, drums, percus-
sion, and three conga drums (but no guitars). Four showgirls who paraded
in skimpy costumes (each had a brief solo spot), a pair of ballroom dancers,
a marvelous woman singer (Emilia Morales), and several male singers
completed the group. The men sang solos and in various combinations
(duets and backup). Especially notable was Luis Noa, a powerful tenor who
sang in English and Spanish. The first show lasted about forty-five minutes
and was very professional and entertaining. La X'tabay seats perhaps two
hundred persons on tiny chairs at low tables and the atmosphere was
friendly and controlled. GrupoJoseplayed between shows; I left after the sec-
ond one though the dance floor was packed and the Cubaney band was
playing "Juana la Cubana."
There are a dozen or more nightclubs in Merida, some in hotels catering
to a family crowd, others featuring strip shows for single men. They seem
to complement the other kinds of establishments where music can be heard
earlier in the day or where people come primarily to dance (see below). As
far as I could tell, the hours from 4 A.M. until noon are the only times when
live music is not available in great quantity.
crowd included groups of boys and girls (some of the latter clearly chape-
roned) who seemed to enjoy the music. The invitation to dance is usually
non-verbal and the couple dances in silence except for older married
couples. Beer was available, but few people were drinking and the three or
four policeman present had little to do that night.
The second union is headed by Sr. Alvaro L6pez Gasca, who had been a
business agent at S.U.F.Y. for many years. He claimed to representdozens
of musical groups, the best of which were listed in a newspaper advertise-
ment. His officewas in a smallwalkupjust off the main plaza and he indicated
a dance hall acrossthe streetwherehis groupsperformed,the "Sala de Fiestas
Montejo." Sr. L6pez also spoke of his affiliationwith Sr. Rivas, owner of a
number of radio stations(GrupoRivas),which also providedopportunitiesfor
his musicians.I judged that some of his claimswere exaggerated-one knowl-
edgeablemusician said he had never heard of this second union-but the or-
ganizationdoes exist and is anothersign of the active musical life of the city.
Many of the musical groups that I heard or learned about through the
unions and newspapersparticipatedin the February1989 paradescelebrating
Carnaval. Althoughdisparagedas "muy pobre" by people from elsewhere,the
Merida parades provided an opportunityto witness many groups as they
rolledby on some of the floats(thoughmost used recordedmusic)or performed
on the fixed platformsspread along Paseo Montejo. The floats (carrosalego-
ricos)celebratedthe carnivalqueen and her "ugly king" (reyfeo),neighborhood
queens, civic organizations,businesses,centrosturisticos,and brandsof ciga-
rettes or beer. People in holiday dress and in costume crowdedthe sidewalks
alongthe paraderoutewhile shops, stands,and ambulatoryvendorsdid a good
business in food, balloons, and curios. The parades took place on three suc-
cessivedays, plus one night for regionalcostumesonly; othercelebrationstook
place in dance halls, private clubs, and neighborhood parks.
The ubiquitous song "Baile como Juana la cubana" inspired young and
old, male and female, to dress like a stereotypicalCuban woman or at least
to wear a red bandanna with white polka dots. One informant called it "the
song of the year," and said that the previous year another song, "Toda la
vida," had been equally popular. Every musical group had to be prepared
for requests and I heard the song two or three times each night when a band
was playing at the dance hall behind my apartment. I do not know whether
it attained national popularity, but it could hardly be avoided in Merida or
other parts of Yucatan that I visited.
La Trova Yucateca
Most of the songs on the "Merida es Yucatan" recording are drawn from
the traditional repertoire of the romantic troubadour (trovador)and referred
to locally as la trova(such as "Rayito del sol," "Ella," and "Pajaro azul").
It is this style even more than thejarana that symbolizes a Yucatecan identi-
ty for most Meridanos. Expatriate musicians working in Guadalajara,
Acapulco, and Mexico City often perform these songs for a nostalgic (or at
least sentimental) audience. The usual arrangement is for three males to
sing in close harmony and play as many guitars, or two guitars and percus-
sion. La trova songs may also be sung solo, in duos, or in larger groupings
with drums or percussion added (especially claves, maracas, or the cabasa, a
large gourd rattle with shells attached to its outer surface). Women also per-
form songs of la trovaand there have been some famous female groups, but
most of the songs are written from a male point of view.
This tradition came to my attention in a newspaper article, which men-
tioned a meeting of "Los amigos de la Trova Yucateca" at a downtown
hotel. The ostensible purpose of the meeting was to honor an elderly musi-
cian and teacher, Sr. Vicente Uvalle, who was born in Yucatan but who
has taught for many years at the Teachers College in Mexico City. Maestro
Uvalle had recently been presented with the Guty Cardenas Medal (the
famous popular musician who was also an expatriate) by the city govern-
ment, and this homenajewas one of many such ceremonies that take place
regularly in Merida. The master of ceremonies, Sr. Roberto MacSwiney
Santiago, read a biographical sketch and invited others in the audience to
amplify it. Some cassettes of the honoree's songs were played, and then
with the guitarist (and "curandero de guitarras") Manuel Sanchez,
Maestro Uvalde performed two others. He has written over 3,000 songs
and composed numerous semi-classical works, including a recorded suite
called "Bambuco."
After about an hour of such tribute, a very youthful trio, "Los Angeles,"
performed several songs. The trio was acclaimed as demonstrating the con-
tinuity of the tradition, and mention was made of a concursoof Yucatecan
song held for the second year in the secondary schools and a concert planned
for February 5th. The Amigos de la Trova meet monthly for business
and pleasure, but I also learned that there are daily gatherings (peias) at
noon in another hotel where lovers of la trovacan listen, perform, or learn
songs that may exist only in the memory of older troubadours (Bock
1990).
I began to attend these gatherings regularly, to meet a number of musi-
cians and aficionados, and to gain a sense of the style and its context of per-
formance. Although their numbers have diminished greatly, active trios
still work in Yucatecan hotels and a few groups still wait around the
main plaza in hope of gaining employment at a fiesta, much like the
mariachisin Guadalajara. Indeed, just north of the Merida city hall stands a
special telephone booth marked "Trovadores." People can call on this phone
to order a serenade (usually four songs) or an evening of entertainment.
The older trios specialize in la trova, but all have some Mexican standards as
Soon after the song was written, Carillo Puerto was captured by the forces
of General Adolfo de la Huerta and together with his brother and several
aides summarily executed. This ended the "socialist threat" to the
Yucatecan elite, but added great sentiment to the song.
The FM station, Radio Amistad, features various trios that play selec-
tions from la trova(and more recent compositions) on its program, "Guitarras
en la tarde." The advertisers seem to believe that the program reaches
an audience. At the same time the performers have a chance to promote
their recordings and appearances (if any), although much of the warmth of
live performances is lost in the chatter.
I had several opportunities to observe performances of trova in different
settings. One was at the downtown Teatro Daniel Ayala where the Amigos
staged a free public concert (again honoring Maestro Uvalde) on February
5. Roberto MacSwinney hosted this impressive and varied evening that
was interesting both for the music and the metamusic,which commented on
itself and on the occasion. The stage was set with a rural hut and hammock.
Recording equipment from a national radio station was also present. Most
of the performers were limited to two numbers, as follows:
*Los Tres Corazones sang "La peregrina" and Sr. Pereyra's bambuco,
"Todo me habla de amor."
*Arturo Vega sang his own compositions "Adi6s amor" and "Cosas
Preciosas."
*M6nica Morena sang an original song she had written for the second an-
niversary of the Amigos and another song about Merida.
*Los Angeles, the young trio previously mentioned, sang "Flor" and
"Merida, Hermosa Ciudad," after which the master of ceremonies com-
mented (rather hopefully): "La trova Yucateca no esta muriendo; ila
trova Yucateca esta viviendo!"
*The Conjunto Magisterial, a quartet from Chetumal (including a doctor
and a professor) sang five brief numbers, always announcing the name of
lyricist and composer; one of the songs, "Sefior Turista," was an invita-
tion to visit Chetumal.
*A male duo performed "A mi Novia" and "Oreja."
*Prof. Jorge Segura recited parts of "La Profecia" and sang "Solo yo."
One last example will illustrate the concept of metamusic while showing
the typical urban ambivalence (patronizing admiration) toward the peasan-
try. "La Fiesta del Pueblo" is ajarana by Manuel Burgos that tells of a
village fiesta in which the rockets have announced the beginning of the va-
queria(a type of cowboy dance):
Now the dance hall is full,
The orchestra starts to play;
All the mestizosare happy
Coming to dance with their mestizas.
How joyously beat the drums!
How lovely are the dances of my Yucatan!
Because of my fondness for the singers and songs of the traditional trovait is
not easy for me to describe the next musical movement objectively. I do not
want to adopt the "moldy-fig mentality" (Keil 1966:34) of some of the
Amigos, for if it is to survive as a vital musical force, the trovamust surely
adapt to changing tastes and opportunities. The question is, how much
change or "fusion" with other styles is possible before a tradition loses its
integrity?
Let us begin with an article that appeared in El Diario de Yucatdnon
March 1, 1989. Above the heading, "La musica yucateca no agoniza, cam-
bia de estilo" (Yucatecan music isn't dying but changing its style), ap-
peared a photo of fifteen young people (nine men, six women) with their
mentor, the Mexican pop star, Sergio Esquivel. A boldface blurb beneath
the headline translates as:
It must advance with the times, affirms the singer and composer, Sergio Es-
quivel. 'If Guty Cardenas were alive he would surely write differently from
his former song.' To succeed in the media today one must go to the D.F. and
do what impresses the producers.
The interview (with two more photos) takes up over half of a vertical page
and continues along the same lines: the old trova has had its day; it is time
for Yucatecan youth, what he calls "the fifth generation," to create its own
music.
Since his return to Merida in 1984, Esquivel has taught a workshop on
songwriting and performance, helping the students to form groups and
make recordings. His goal is to create a high quality, contemporary music
that will keep its roots in Yucatecan tradition but that will be relevant to the
present and yet have a chance of national success. At the same time he
warns against commercialization and mere imitation of popular styles.
Recently, Esquivel opened a downtown nightclub, "La Pefia de la
Trova," to showcase his proteges and their music. He denies that they are
"opposed" to the traditional music but insists that the new generation has
its own style. Even allowing for the somewhat garbled newspaper report,
there is clearly some ambivalence here. The use of the terms "trova" and
"quinta generaci6n" indicates a desire for continuity, but Esquivel stresses
the differences between the styles. Of course, the "old" trova also moved
from highly personal serenades and "bombas" (spontaneous compliments,
also known as "coplas") to highly commercial forms in hotels, broadcasts,
and recordings; but the "fifth generation" seems to want both artistic in-
tegrity and commercial success-a familiar paradox.
Esquivel's Sunday evening television program, "Tiempo de Trova,"
probably reaches many more people than the afternoon radio show,
"Guitarras en la Tarde," but the new style is still taking form. According
to the Diario interview, "We do not have a definite line. The workshop is
searching [en buzsqueda] and we do not want to limit ourselves. What we do
want is that all who listen to the music identify Yucatan in it."
I spent a long evening at the new club, located between the site of the dai-
ly pena and El Trovador Bohemio. The music was very good: varied and
well-presented, mixing male and female voices and guitars with electric
bass, keyboard, and percussion. I heard several groups and soloists,
notably "Quatro de la Quinta" and Felipe de la Cruz. A Mexican friend
indicated that the themes were more current than those of the old romantic
ballads and that she preferred their "realistic" approach to relationships.
To my ear, however, they are similar to Mexican pop styles and I could not
specifically "identify Yucatan" in any of it. Of the twelve songs on my
recording of "New Trova," six are love songs (though some use rather
unusual imagery); three deal with personal issues (solitude, death,
identity); one is a piece of metamusic ("Sangre criolla que se abraza al
ritmo"); one is an homage to the late poet, Guadalupe Trigo; and one (by
Felipe de la Cruz) is sung by a man to his lover's young son, assuring the
boy that: "I want to be your friend, not a substitute father."
At the end of the evening, Esquivel (who had been sitting in the au-
dience) was prevailed upon to sing a few songs, including his national hit,
"Un Tipo Como Yo" (A Guy Like Me). He is a strong performer and has
clearly helped the members of his workshop to achieve a high level of pro-
fessionalism, though it remains to be seen whether their work will attract
even a regional following. The recording mentioned above, "Quinta
Generaci6n: Nueva Trova Yucateca" (1987), contains twelve songs by
members of the workshop. It was issued by the Instituto de Cultura de
Yucatan as part of a series together with several volumes of the Orquesta
Tipica Yucalpeten and solo performances by Pastor Cervera. Esquivel has
arranged some appearances on national variety shows for his students and
at least one recording by a name singer, but I doubt that they will be able to
achieve significant careers while staying in Merida and deliberately
avoiding commercial "pressures."
It is hardly surprising that the old troubadours are not pleased with these
developments. At a meeting of the daily pena on March 3, talk centered at
first on the broadcast that three of the men (Carlos Pereyra, Gregorio
Brito, and S6lomon Rabanales) had made on Guitarrasen la Tardeearlier in
the week. Later, attention turned to the Esquivel interview. Those present
were very negative. Especially outspoken was Arturo Vega who said it was
all nonsense: Esquivel "knows nothing of real trova," and, anyway, "he
had only one hit song." Vega then sang two of his own ballads quite
beautifully, after which a young woman came over and requested a tradi-
tional ballad. The group sang it and she returnedto give thanks, saying this
(informal) group was far superior in her opinion to the successful pop
group, "Timberiche." Thus, there is some evidence for the continuing
popularity of "old" trova and its message that affirms the possibility of
romantic love.
Conclusions
I shall conclude by comparing my observations with those made by
Stigberg on Veracruz nearly twenty years previously. The variation in
history, size, and location of these cities, as well as the passage of time, have
doubtless produced some differences between their musical cultures; yet I
felt that Merida in 1989 was experiencing many of the same changes that
took place in Veracruz a generation earlier. His descriptionof the radio sta-
tions could be repeated almost exactly for Merida. At the same time, com-
pared to Veracruz, Merida seems to be off the main route for travelling
companies of large musical organizations or theatrical production. Thus,
except for national television programs, Meridanos rarely have the chance
to see big name Latin American or U.S. performers.
Stigberg discusses at length the position ofjarochomusic and musicians in
the larger musical life of Veracruz. This music was performed in 1971-72
by a dwindling group of ambulantes in a few settings. It was regarded by
much of the population as a "music of the past" (1978:271), that is, rural,
monotonous, and irrelevant to urban life. Although symbolic of regional
identity-natives of Veracruz often refer to themselves as jarochos-the
music seemed unable to recruit a new generation and creativity in the style
was diminishing. I chose to focus on the trovaYucateca, but a closer analogy
to jarochowould be thejarana tradition. Without government subsidy, this
style might also be nearly defunct; however, due to support for ensembles
that play serenatas and incorporation of the music and dance into the
U.A.Y. Ballet Folklorico, the jarana remains vital.
In Veracruz, as in Merida, the dominant style was tropical. Musicians
were recruited from diverse class backgrounds and, according to Stigberg,
most were literate and had had some formal training. The troubadoursare
also from various classes, rural and urban, but most are liricos,unable to
read music. In Veracruz, tropical orchestras of about ten musicians per-
formed in dance halls (especially two large halls near the beach) and in cen-
tros nocturnos. The conjuntos he observed were somewhat larger than
those I saw in Merida and, except for an occasional organ, the former were
entirely acoustic (1978:294, no. 17). His study neither mentions any style
similar to the Yucatecan trova, old or new, nor does it describe any groups
similar to the Amigos.
Notes
1. Many people helped with this study, none more than my wife, Barbara.
Thanks are also due Don Carlos Pereyra Contreras, Ing. Miguel Perez
Concha of the U.A.Y., Ing. Elsy Yolanda Lara Barrera, Director of the
Central Library, Lic. Carlos E. Boj6rquez Urzaiz, Director of the
Faculty of Anthropological Sciences, U.A.Y., Sr. Miguel Martinez An-
cona, Secretary General of S.U.F.Y., and Srta. Mercedes Noriega.
Srta. Adriana Ramirez de Arellano assisted with the transcription and
analysis of the new trova songs.
2. The notion that the state should encourage (and discourage) certain
forms of music goes back as far as Plato's Republic. The European na-
tionalist folklore movements further illustrate the state's tendency to co-
opt regional styles for its own purposes, while ethnic pride movements
frequently react against such attempted hegemony. In Guatemala, the
state has recently undertaken a major project to document the music of
the Kekchi Maya and other indigenous peoples-the same peoples who
are threatened by its genocidal policies! (AlbuquerqueJournal, 14 July
References
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