Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 70:919–928
DOI 10.1007/s00170-013-5326-x
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Problems and solutions in machining of titanium alloys
A. Pramanik
Received: 4 August 2012 / Accepted: 23 September 2013 / Published online: 5 October 2013
# Springer-Verlag London 2013
Abstract Titanium alloys are known as difficult-to-machine
materials. The problems of machining titanium are many folds
which depend on types of titanium alloys. This paper investi-
gates the underlying mechanisms of basic challenges, such as
variation of chip thickness, high heat stress, high pressure
loads, springback, and residual stress based on the available
literature. These are responsible for higher tool wear and
worse machined surface integrity. In addition, many cutting
tool materials are inapt for machining titanium alloys as those
materials are chemically reactive to titanium alloys under
machining conditions. To address these problems, latest tech-
niques such as application of high pressure coolant, cryogenic
cooling, tap testing, thermally enhanced machining, hybrid
machining, and use of high conductive cutting tool and tool
holder have also been discussed and correlated. It seems that
all the solutions are not yet well accepted in the industrial
domain; further advancement in those fields are required to
reduce the machining cost of titanium alloys.
Keywords Titanium alloy . Machining . Challenges .
Productivity
1 Introduction
Super alloys, such as titanium alloys, are well known as
difficult-to-machine material. The deformation mechanism
of these alloys under machining conditions (at high tempera-
ture, strain, and strain rate) is very complex and completely
different to that of conventional metals such as aluminum,
steel, etc. [1]. A typical setup for turning process is shown in
A. Pramanik (*)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Curtin University,
Perth, WA 6102, Australia
e-mail: akprama@yahoo.com
Fig. 1. Titanium alloys have a high yield stress to tensile
strength ratio (>0.9), and the flow stress increases dramatically
with strain rate when strain rate is greater than 103 s−1 [2–4]
which is easily achieved in any machining process [1]. Seg-
mentation (normally known as saw-tooth chip; Fig. 2) is a
characteristic shape of the chip when machining titanium
alloys [5, 6]. The segmented chip formation is believed to be
due to the growth of cracks [7, 8] and adiabatic shear band
formation which occur from the predominance of strain hard-
ening over thermal softening and the difficulty of dislocation
motion through the microstructure [9–11]. The segmented
chips lead to the variation of chip thickness. In addition, lower
elastic modulus cause excessive workpiece deflection and
moves away from the cutting tool. When the cutting edge
moves forward, the workpiece springs back. This leads to
deflection, vibration, and chatter.
Low thermal conductivity and volume-specific heat of
these materials result in high cutting temperature during ma-
chining. In addition, the capacity to maintain strength at high
temperature and severe work hardening ability lead to high
machining forces. Furthermore, the ability to change the phase
of titanium alloys makes the deformation process more com-
plex. Most of the harder tools available in the market are not
suitable to machine these materials due to chemical affinity
which causes chemical wear in the cutting tool. Furthermore,
chips weld easily on the tool to form a build-up edge. As a
result, cutting tool wears rapidly through different wear mech-
anism during machining. The ceramic and cubic boron nitride
(CBN) tools experience large groove wear on the flank and
rake face. Thus, these tool materials are not suitable for
machining titanium alloys [1]. However, only the carbide,
binderless CBN, sintered diamond, and natural diamond tools
show acceptable performance in machining titanium alloy.
The sintered diamond tool performs slightly better than car-
bide tool at low speed but at higher speed both of these tools
showed almost similar performance. Tungsten carbide (k10)
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Fig. 1 A typical setup for turning process: 1 chuck to hold work piece, 2
workpiece in bar shape, 3 cutting tool insert, 4 tool holder, and 5 piezo-
electric dynamometer [18]
tool wear increases rapidly after 5 min cutting at low speed
(100 m/min) without coolant [12]. However, the wear rate
with the water-soluble type coolant is significantly low even
after 30 min cutting. At higher cutting speeds (198 m/min), the
tool life becomes extremely short. On the other hand, natural
diamond tool shows minor wear even after 30 min cutting at
low (100 m/min dry) as well as at higher (198 m/min with
coolant) cutting speeds. However, severe tool wear is noted
with further increase of cutting speed (300 m/min) even after a
few minutes of cutting. Generally, diffusion and dissolution
processes are blamed for damage of PCD tool due to high
local temperature [13]. Binderless CBN (BCBN) tools do not
have any binder to hold the tool material grains and show
improved high temperature durability and thermal conductiv-
ity [14]. BCBN tools exhibit lower flank wear and sharper
cutting edge compared to that of sintered carbide, PCBN, and
PCD tools during turning of Ti6Al2Nb1Ta [15]. Some coat-
ings, such as, TiN (by physical vapor deposition) and TiCN+
Al2O3 (by chemical vapor deposition) are shown to improve
Fig. 2 Micrograph of a Ti-(6AlL4V) shear-localized chip shows the
intense shear bands (between arrows) in the chip [19]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 70:919–928
the life of carbide tools (milling process) [16]. Both of these
two tools exhibit a tool life of 30 min at the cutting speed of
55 m/min and feed of 0.1 mm per tooth. TiCN (3.1 μm) and
AlSiTiN (3.9 μm) coatings (by arc evaporation) also show
better performances (almost double tool life) at a cutting speed
range of 50–130 m/min (turning) in wet and minimum quan-
tity lubrication condition compared to the uncoated carbide
tools [17].
Significant researches on machining titanium alloys have
been performed to enhance the tool life to an acceptable level
[20] by analyzing its causes [21]. Stress, temperature, and
vibration in the machining zone are the three main factors that
enhance the cutting tool damage [22]. Tool wear, surface
integrity, and productivity are correlated and depend on the
cutting conditions such as depth of cut, speed, feed, presence
of coolant, cutting tool materials, etc. [23]. Generally, tool
damage mechanisms are adhesion, thermal diffusion, chemi-
cal reaction, abrasion, chipping, fracture, plastic deformation,
and fatigue [24]. Most of these damages increase drastically
with the increase of temperature. The contribution and gener-
ation of heat vary with tool and work material combination
and mainly on speed [21]. The diffusion occurs at high cutting
temperature where cutting tool and work material elements
diffuse into each other's structure. The plastic deformation
takes place at high cutting temperature when a cutting tool
fails to withstand the stress on cutting edge [25, 26]. In
machining processes, the material is subjected to extremely
high strain, strain rate, and temperature, thus cutting tool and
machined surface have to go through severe conditions [27].
Ying-lin [28] found that the generated temperature in the
machining zone is so high that it can damage the finished
surface of titanium alloys easily. This temperature can melt
titanium alloy chips and enhance adhesion of chips to the tool
and machined surface. Cutting fluids are well accepted by the
industrial community to remove heat-generated and heat-
induced lubrication at the tool–workpiece and chip–tool inter-
faces during the machining process [5]. This method is easy to
use and it is a proven technology. However, improper coolant
delivery location and low pressure can lead to adverse effects
including premature tool failure due to abrasion and thermal
shock resulting in severe chipping of the tool while machining
titanium alloys [29]. The higher coolant pressure (above 70
bars) properly directed at the cutting point enhance the tool
life and machined surface significantly [30–33]. Cryogenic
cooling by liquid nitrogen also improves the tool life during
machining titanium alloys [34]. Similar to the coolant tech-
nology, there are other techniques such as vibration analysis
(tap testing) [35–37], thermally enhanced machining [4, 38],
use of high conductive cutting tool and holder [12], and hybrid
machining [39] that are potential applicants to improve ma-
chinability and productivity. Researchers are continually en-
gaged to improve the applicability of these techniques for the
industrial community. So far, there have been huge
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 70:919–928
investigations in machining of these materials. But results and
information are not properly utilized in industries. In addition,
the underlying mechanism of the challenges in machining
titanium alloys and acceptable solution to these problems are
not the main focus. This paper clearly identifies and explains
the mechanism behind all the challenges and correlates the
understandings with the possible solutions based on existing
literature.
2 Problems in machining titanium alloys
Variation of chip thickness The critical cutting speed for the
onset of shear instability and chip segmentation is very low
during machining of titanium alloys. At or above critical
cutting speed, segmented chip formation involves localized
shearing which is associated with the generation of cyclic
forces [40] and acoustic emission. These dynamic cyclical
and pulsating forces are due to varying thickness and width
of chips which lead to rough machined surface, chatter, and
cutting tool tip breakage [5, 40–42]. Komanduri et al. [41]
developed thermal model for the thermoplastic shear instabil-
ity in the machining of a titanium alloy (Ti–6Al–4V) based on
the analysis of the shear-localized chip formation process and
the temperature generated in the shear band due to various
heat sources (primary, preheating, and image) in machining. It
was found that the shear localization is pending when the
shear stress in the shear band is less than or equal to the shear
strength of the bulk material. The cutting speed at which this
occurs is taken as the critical speed for the onset of shear
localization, which continues at all speeds above this value.
Because of the differences in the distances between the seg-
ments and variations of energy inputs, there can be a signifi-
cant difference in the thermal aspects of shear localization
when the depth of cuts change from few micrometers or less
to several hundred micrometers [41]. According to
Komanduri [19], “the machining of titanium alloys is a typical
case of distinct gross inhomogeneous plastic deformation
involving periodic upsetting and intense shear localization in
a narrow band. It is suggested that the continuous chip forma-
tion models, such as the classical Merchant–Piispanen model
and the use of parameters derived from the model (such as the
chip thickness ratio and shear angle) should be discontinued in
describing machining characteristics of titanium alloys”.
While performing machining inside a scanning electron mi-
croscope, Komanduri et al. [11] noted that freshly sheared
surface of the chip rolls onto the tool and causes intense
contact. Continuous contact occurs at or near the apex of the
tool with the chip segment for a substantial time of the chip
segmentation cycle as there is no relative motion between the
segment and the tool due to chip segmentation. In addition,
high reactivity of titanium with commonly used cutting tool
material such as cemented carbides, nitrides, oxides, borides,
921
diamond, cubic boron nitride, etc. contributes to high tool
wear. The temperature at the shear band is very high due to
intense shear concentration and low thermal conductivity of
titanium alloys [11]. According to Vyas and Shaw [7], thermal
origin and periodic development of cracks in the workpiece
surface are the two theories of the origin of saw tooth chips.
Increased strain rate and decreased thermal softening increase
the tendency for saw tooth chip formation. The material in
microcracked bands undergo adiabatic shear when the cutting
speed (temperature) is high enough and materials undergo a
phase transformation. Continuous gross cracks and discontin-
uous microcracks which occur across the chip width are
involved in saw tooth chip formation [7].
The frequency of the cyclic loads, load sensor, and acoustic
emission signals is found to correspond to the frequency of
chip segmentation [7, 10]. The behavior of the dynamic
cyclical and pulsating forces is complex and depends on all
the factors associated with the cutting process. The vibration
frequency is found independent of feed but the amplitude of
the vibration is found to increase initially then decrease at
lower feed range. Amplitude and frequency are found to
increase with further feed increase [40]. The amplitude of
force fluctuation increased linearly with increasing depth of
cut. The frequency of the cyclic force is found to increase with
cutting speed; the amplitude of the cyclic force is found to
decrease with speed increase, then stabilizes and then de-
creases with further speed increase. At the stabilized zone,
the cyclic force frequencies are found to be multiples
(approximately) of 260 Hz, the intrinsic harmonic frequency
of the cutting. The cutting speed at which the cutting force
starts to increase with increasing cutting speed is much lower
when machining titanium alloys. This makes it difficult to
increase the machining speed of titanium alloys. It is noted
that periods of large force fluctuations (dynamic force) oc-
curred randomly during machining and are superimposed on
the static force. These force fluctuations are more significant in
the thrust and cutting directions than in the feed direction [40].
Continuous and uniform shearing with smaller slipping
angle (38°) is found for the continuous chip period. On the
other hand, a narrow shear band with heavier deformation and
larger slipping angle (55°) is noted in the sharp “saw tooth”
period. In case of the aperiodic saw tooth chips, shearing with
both smaller and larger slipping angles is found [40]. Sharp,
periodic, and aperiodic “saw teeth” are found in the continu-
ous chips. In the periodic segmented chip region, the segmen-
tation frequency can be calculated through dividing cutting
speed by the length of undeformed surface [10, 40]. This
agrees very well with the cyclic force frequency and indicates
that the cyclic force fluctuation is caused by the segmented
chip formation process. This also agrees with the relation
between the segmentation frequency and cyclic force frequen-
cy obtained by variation of strain, load, and acoustic emission
[7, 10].
922
In addition to this, if the frequency of these pulsating loads
does not occur in phase with the machine's natural frequency,
the variation of cutting forces can cause self-excited chatter.
Self-excited chatter can cause tool pull out or break.
High heat stress The machining temperature is related to
cutting conditions and material properties. It is generally
qffiffiffiffiffi
vf
accepted to be proportional to u kpc , where v is the cutting
speed; f is the uncut chip thickness; and u, k, p, and c are the
specific cutting energy, the thermal conductivity, the density,
and the specific heat of a workpiece, respectively [43]. This
correlation indicates that a small value of the product of k, p,
and c which are intrinsic properties of titanium alloys causes
the temperature to rise even at a relatively low machining
speed and uncut chip thickness [44]. In addition to these, the
properties of tool materials, especially the thermal conductiv-
ity, play very important role when the product of k, p, and c of
workpiece material is very low. The cutting temperature in-
creases with the decrease of density and thermal conductivity.
The magnitudes of all these parameters for titanium (thermal
conductivity of titanium alloy is about 18.67 W/m °C at 1,
000 °C compared to 381.77 W/m °C for steels [45]) are in
favor to generate higher cutting temperature during machining
processes. About 80 % of the heat generated is conducted into
the tool due to titanium's low thermal conductivity when
machining Ti-6-4. On the other hand, almost all of the ma-
chining heat is ejected with the chip during high-speed ma-
chining of aluminum [46].
At a relatively low cutting speed (60 m/min), the
temperature of Ti–6Al–4V machining becomes higher
than 1,000 K and it can be as high as 1,350 K at
200 m/min—these are about 250 K higher than that of
machining carbon steel. In case of medium carbon steel,
the temperature reaches only to 1,123 K at the speed as
high as 2,400 m/min [47]. While machining titanium
alloy, very narrow contact zone occurs at or near the
apex of the tool [11, 19] and very high temperature is
noted at the cutting edge [45]. Accordingly, the heat
stress becomes significantly higher when machining tem-
perature is higher due to low heat dissipation by chips
and the workpiece [42]. Diffusion and adhesion process-
es are thus enhanced, high temperature gradients occur
where thermal stress emerges [42]. The high cutting
temperature worsen tool life, surface quality, and cutting
accuracy because thermal expansion of the tool and
workpiece materials [48]. Among the machining param-
eters, the effect of speed is the most significant on
machining temperature. The machining temperature in-
creases with the increase of speed and feed [45]. A lower
cutting temperature is desired for better machinability of
titanium as the inherent high chemical reactivity of tita-
nium worsens at elevated temperature [48].
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 70:919–928
High pressure loads High pressure loads on the cutting edge
cause reduced contact surface and low plasticity of the titani-
um alloys [42]. The chips generation segments involve grad-
ual upsetting of the wedge-shaped volume of the material
immediately ahead of the tool. The initial contact time and
length of the tool face with the chip being formed is extremely
small (apex of the cutting edge). Upsetting of the wedge-
shaped volume of the material being formed causes high unit
pressure on the tool face owing to the small contact area. Thus,
very high mechanical stresses occur in the immediate vicinity
of the cutting edge when machining titanium [46]. However,
the contact length increases as the chip formation process
continues [19]. The stress on cutting edge also increases with
the increase of cutting speeds due to the decrease of contact
length and shear angle [45, 49]. This mechanism is different
from that of the continuous chip formation process [19]. In
addition, the strength and hardness of titanium does not reduce
much at elevated temperatures which contributes to higher
stress at higher temperature on cutting tools [46]. Thus, cutting
tools have to go through extreme stress conditions when
machining titanium and wear out rapidly.
Springback According to Friedrich and Kulkarni [50], the
springback in the milling process is a linear function of tool
edge radius and the ratio of material hardness to elastic mod-
ulus. It can be calculated using the following equation:
s ¼ kr HE , where, s is the springback, k is the constant, r is
the cutting edge radius, and H and E are the hardness and
Young's modulus of the workpiece material, respectively.
Significantly, low Young's modulus and reasonably high
hardness/yield stress make titanium alloy highly elastic which
cause excessive workpiece deflection and small plastic defor-
mation. Thus, it springs back, i.e., there is a bouncing action as
the cutting edge enters the cut during machining processes
under cutting pressure [46]. The workpiece has a tendency to
move away from the cutting tool unless deep cuts are
performed or rigid backup is applied. This also leads to a
lower effective clearance angle at the flank face, enhanced
friction, and chatter. Besides high cutting forces, the low
excitation frequencies, caused by relatively low rotation
speeds, propagate chatter [42].
Residual stress Aerospace components are mainly
manufactured from big stock material by removing a huge
amount of material. Sometimes, the weight ratio of stock
material to final product becomes more than 50. Casting is
the main process to produce stock material. The temperature
gradient during cooling of the huge casting of stock material
generates residual stress. With the start of the machining
process as the material removal begins, the residual stress
starts to release and the machined part starts to distort. This
problem becomes critical when the weight ratio of the stock
material to the final product becomes higher and unacceptable
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 70:919–928
if the stock material is embedded with very high residual
stress.
Problems in machining other titanium alloys So far, problems
related to machining alpha-beta titanium alloys (Ti6Al4V)
have been discussed. This section provides additional prob-
lems of other titanium alloys. Beta-titanium alloys (Ti–10V–
2Fe–3Al) have the highest specific strength and high chemical
reactivity than that of other titanium alloys. The mechanical
properties lead to high process temperatures, high specific
mechanical loads, and rapidly increasing tool wear [51–53].
Near α titanium alloy, TA15 works well even at a temperature
of 500 °C and it is the general alloy of the bar stock and sheet
material. The machining response of these alloys is very
similar to that of the Ti6Al4V [54]. Near-beta titanium alloys
Ti555.3 have a poor machinability rating compared to that of
Ti6Al4V alloys as the previous one have higher strength [55].
The chips produced from different titanium alloys at different
cutting speeds are given in Fig. 3. Gamma titanium
aluminides (45 % Al, 2 % Nb, 2 % Mn, and 0.8 % B in atomic
percentage) possess higher brittleness than that of convention-
al titanium-based aerospace alloys (i.e., Ti–6Al–4V) and it has
the tendency of rapid tool wear [56]. Similar to Ti–6Al–4V,
varying shear deformation in the chip flow direction is noted
with saw tooth chips composed of angular- and needle-shaped
lamellae [57]. BuRTi alloys (Ti–25V–15Cr–2Al–0.2C wt%)
is more difficult to machine than γ-TiAl alloy [58].
3 Techniques to address the problems
The traditional approach of machining titanium is to use low
cutting speeds, high feed rates, high depth of cut, and use
ample amounts of cutting fluid. In addition, the machine tool
should be vibration free; cutting tools should be sharp and
replaced at the first signs of wear [46]. But this approach is no
Fig. 3 Chip morphology for the two Ti alloys for T =15 min [55]
923
more economical as much machining time is spent on the
finishing processes. Thus, there are many other methods to
improve the productivity of titanium machining as described
below. However, these methods are well tested for more
commonly used Ti6Al4V titanium alloys and other Ti alloys
which have properties similar to that of Ti6Al4V. There are
not much published research on machining of BuRTi alloys
(Ti–25V–15Cr–2Al–0.2C wt%). The response of BuRTi
alloys on the following techniques to improve machinabil-
ity is not known yet. So far, it is known that the acceptable
results from machining of this class of titanium alloys can
only be achieved when these are machined at low feed and
speed [58, 59].
Application of vibration analysis kit The application of vibra-
tion analysis technology in machining of difficult-to-cut ma-
terials, such as titanium, is getting popular. This technique
eliminates the variation of chip thickness, thus chatter and
cyclic forces even at higher speed. Generally, the program-
mers choose the machining conditions based on their experi-
ence and trial and error. Vibration analysis kit (tap testing)
helps the programmers to find the machining conditions at
which there will be no chatter and chip thickness variation. In
titanium milling, surface speed and radial depth of cut are the
two key variables that govern tool life and machining stability.
If radial depth of cut is accurately controlled for semifinishing
and finishing operations, then the surface speed and axial
depth of cut can be increased. Chatter occurs with the increase
of surface speed within acceptable tool life limits. Significant
gains in machining time can be made by combining dynamic
analysis (using vibration analysis kit) with controlled tool
paths and knowledge of the upper limits of the achievable
surface speeds, axial depth of cut, and radial depth of cuts.
Surface speed limits for a carbide tool is generally based on (a)
100–220 m/min for up to 25 % radial immersion, (b) 55–90 m/
min for up to 50 % radial immersion, and (c) 40–60 m/min for
50–100 % radial immersion. Vibration is always present be-
tween the tool and the workpiece in machining process. In
case of machining titanium alloys, the vibration becomes
more susceptible to occur due to self-excited vibration be-
tween the workpiece and the cutting tool. Localized shearing,
which is associated with the generation of cyclic forces, is
responsible for self-excited vibration [35]. This vibration
causes waviness of the surface in the first cut. In the following
cut, the tool cuts into the wavy surface which causes further
variation of chip thickness and force that excites the structure,
producing greater vibration between the tool and the work-
piece. This is called “waviness regeneration”. The vibration
may grow after each subsequent pass if tool vibration and
surface waviness are not in phase and the process becomes
unstable. The chip thickness variation is negligible, and there
is no appreciable force variation when the wavy surfaces
between two revolutions (cutting passes) are in phase. This
924
permits stable cutting with large chip widths. Considering
that the tool vibrates in its natural frequency, it is natural
that matching the workpiece rotating frequency (spindle
speed) to the tool's natural frequency will lead to this
preferred “in phase” situation [36]. The gain in variation
of force and chip thickness depends on the axial depth of
cut and speed. If the axial depth of cut is doubled, the gain
becomes double in an unstable machining process. The
process is always stable with small depth of cuts. Chatter
will eventually be encountered if the depth of cut is in-
creased [37] and it occurs at certain combinations of axial
depth of cut and spindle speed.
Thermally enhanced machining Thermally enhanced machin-
ing process uses an externally controlled heat source, such as
laser heating, to heat and soften the workpiece material ahead
of the machining point. With temperature increase, the
strength of the materials normally decreases, thus cutting
forces are reduced. In addition, the rate of strain hardening
also decreases at higher temperature. Thus, the continuous
chips are formed at higher cutting speed; the critical speed
for share localization also increases. This eliminates the pos-
sibility of cyclic forces and variation of chip thickness. The
hexagonal closely packed atomic structure of titanium [60]
contributes to different deformation at high temperature and
strain rate as deformation twinning is also effective. The
deformation of Ti-6-4 consists of planar slip in the α grains
at quasistatic strain rates. Deformation twinning is observed in
addition to planar slip at higher strain rates (3,000 s−1). The
temperature around 221.85 °C alters the deformation mode to
more random slip [4]. At higher temperatures, the strain
hardening recovers the normal trend of decreasing with in-
creasing temperature and decreasing to almost zero at 600 °C.
This variation in hardening is considered to be the result of
dynamic recovery happening at the intermediate temperatures
at low deformation rates. On the other hand, the high strain
rate data shows that a strain hardening rate decreases almost
monotonically from 200 to 734 °C. A slight change in the
strain hardening rate is noted between 250 and 600 °C above a
strain of 10 %, but the change is much smaller than that
observed at low-strain rates [38]. Thus, the presence of the
recovery and twinning mechanisms considerably complicates
the deformation mechanism of titanium. For the same reason,
the selection of proper heating temperature and machining
condition during thermally enhanced machining is very
important.
The application of the laser during machining Ti-6Cr-5Mo-
5V-4Al beta titanium alloy significantly reduces tool life at
cutting speeds higher than 150 m/min irrespective of the laser
power applied. A too-high laser power (1,600 W) at cutting
speeds below 25 m/min resulted in chip pile up which can
worsen tool wear. A 1,200–1,600 W laser power reduces
cutting forces at moderate to high cutting speeds (25–125 m/
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 70:919–928
min) [61]. The machinability improvement of the β-alloy is
about 1/3 of that achievable in the conventional α- and α/β-
alloys by thermal-enhanced machining under similar machin-
ing condition. Thus, the high temperature strength titanium
alloys are less responsive to thermally enhanced machining
[53]. Machinability of Ti–10V–2Fe–3Al can be further
improved by heating beyond 1,000 °C. The cutting pres-
sure load can be reduced by almost 50 % when the heating
is close to the melting point of the alloy [53]. However,
localized melting produces adverse effects, such as, safety
hazard, alloy contamination, damage of equipment (includ-
ing the tooling), etc.
Application of coolant The coolant is more effective if it
penetrates into the tool–chip and tool–workpiece interfaces
during the cutting process. This can drop the cutting temper-
ature to as much as 30 % [62] and also acts like a lubricant
which leads to a longer tool life [28, 44]. The efficiency of the
heat removal process depends on the heat transfer coefficient
between the coolant and the cutting zone [63].
High pressure coolant is found to be the most effective
cooling process in machining titanium alloys. The coolant
pressure can be as high as 90 bar compared to conventional
coolant pressure of 6 bar. Smaller chips are generally formed
during turning of Ti6Al4V with the application of high-
pressure coolant directed into the tool–chip interface in the
secondary shear zone. This method can increase tool life by
almost three times mainly by reducing the machining temper-
ature during turning Ti6Al4V material. Chip morphology and
tool performance not only depends on the pressure of the
coolant, but also the coolant's properties such as, density,
thermal conductivity, convective heat transfer coefficient,
and lubrication ability. The better performance of water-
soluble oil is found due to its higher momentum, thermal
conductivity, convective heat transfer coefficient, and lubrica-
tion ability compared to high-pressure neat oil [63]. High-
pressure coolant softens the machined surfaces; on the con-
trary, conventional cooling hardens the subsurface layer. The
latter is probably due to higher heat generated with conven-
tional coolant supplies [30].
Many researchers reported improved machinability of tita-
nium alloys by cryogenically freezing the workpiece or by
spraying liquid nitrogen to the general cutting area [64, 65].
The liquid nitrogen has several advantages such as its being a
safe, clean, nontoxic fluid that evaporates into the atmosphere
leaving no mess and requires no expensive disposal. However,
ice build-up on tools/tool holders and unavailability of a
constant supply of liquid coolant are the main disadvantages
to this process [65, 66]. Tool temperatures can be reduced to
below 500 °C by applying liquid nitrogen to the tool rake and
flank face at cutting speed of as high as 150 m/min [64]. Thus,
the diffusion responsible for tool wear becomes negligible
which can double the cutting speed of conventional emulsion
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 70:919–928
machining (usually limited to 60 m/min). Figure 3 shows the
tool wear for different cooling methods. If different cooling
methods are compared, these can be put in the order of
effectiveness—worst to best—as dry cutting, cryogenic tool
back cooling, emulsion cooling, precooling the workpiece,
cryogenic flank cooling, cryogenic rake cooling, and simulta-
neous rake and flank cooling [64]. The effectiveness of cryo-
genic cooling can be further improved by applying a mini-
mum amount of liquid nitrogen injected through a micro-
nozzle formed between the chip breaker and the tool rake,
and assisted by the secondary nozzle for flank cooling [65].
The amount of heat removed from the cutting zone depends
on the duration for which the heated area is in contact with the
coolant. Thus, the cooling efficiency reduces with the increase
of cutting speed [62].
According to Hong et al. [65], cryogenic machining
tests show that tool life increases up to five times in
conventional machining, outperforming other machining
approaches. On the other hand, the high pressure cooling
increases the tool life by almost three times mainly by
reducing the machining temperature during turning
Ti6Al4V material [63].
Applying industrial gases such as carbon dioxide snow
(CO2) instead of conventional cooling and lubrication fluids
promises increased productivity for turning Ti–10V–2Fe–
3Al. Carbon dioxide is provided in a pressurized gas bottle
and is fed to the tool tip through holes in the tool holders
clamping jaw. Compared to flood emulsion cooling, the flank
wear looks uniformly (Fig. 4) spread and tool life increases by
a factor of 2 even at higher cutting speeds. The tool-life-
limiting notch wear and the burr formation at the workpiece
are suppressed [51]. Reduced tool wear and better surface
integrity of machined γ-titanium aluminides are achieved by
applying cryogenic cooling with liquid nitrogen [57].
Fig. 4 SEM images of the cutting edge of coated carbide tool a with
flood emulsion cooling and b with carbon dioxide snow [51]
925
Using high conductive cutting tool and tool holder Higher
heat generation is the main problem during machining titani-
um alloys. Researchers used high-conductive cutting tools
to improve the machinability of this material. Takeyama
et al. [12] applied different types of cutting tools, such as,
straight tungsten carbide tool, cemented TiN tool, pure
aluminum oxide type of ceramic tool, TiC-coated tool,
CBN tool, sintered diamond tool, and natural diamond
tool for machining (turning) titanium alloy (Ti-6A1-4).
The natural diamond tool which has highest thermal con-
ductivity of all the tool materials available was used with
abundant water-soluble coolant. This tool showed an ex-
cellent performance in machining titanium alloys at a
cutting speed of as high as 3.33 m/s with an abundant
coolant. The surface machined with the natural diamond
tool was better than those with the other [12].
Cutting heat can be dissipated efficiently by increasing
the thermal conductivity of the tool shank. Takeyama
et al. [12] designed a special tool shank with built-in large
copper plate as a heat sink. The stability of the soldered
part was tested when machining with the conventional
tool shank and the improved tool shank at the cutting
speed of 2.5 m/s. The flank wear width was only
0.03 mm after cutting half an hour with both tools. The
soldering damage of the conventional tool shank was
damaged and the diamond tip was changed. On the other
hand, the tool tip is firmly fixed after a long time of
machining for the improved tool shank [12].
In some cases, appropriate cutting condition and tool ma-
terial prolong tool life; for example, tool life increases during
face milling γ-TiAl Ti–47Al–2Nb–2Mn+0.8 vol% TiB2 by
micrograin carbide inserts at cutting 20 m/min speed, 0.1 mm/
tooth feed, 1 mm depth of cut, and 30 mm radial immersion
[67].
Hybrid machining Hybrid machining means the combination
of processes/techniques in order to produce parts in a more
efficient and productive way [68]. It should enhance the
advantages and minimizes the potential disadvantages found
in the individual techniques [69]. There is not much research
in hybrid machining of titanium alloys. Dandekar et al. [39]
investigated hybrid machining of Ti–6Al–4V by including
heating of workpiece and cryogenic cooling of the tool simul-
taneously. The machining process took the advantages of
softening the workpiece by heating and reducing tool degra-
dation by cooling. Generally, laser heating is used for soften-
ing the workpiece and a liquid nitrogen circulation is used for
cooling the cutting tool. Two to three times longer tool life at
higher cutting speeds (150–200 m/min) can be achieved by
this method. A TiAlN-coated carbide cutting tool performs
two to three times better than an uncoated carbide tool for
hybrid machining of Ti–6Al–4V at all cutting speeds [39].
There are several reasons for improved machinability in
926
hybrid machining of titanium alloy, such as (1) heated work-
piece becomes softer and machining forces/pressure load re-
duce, (2) continuous chips are produced at higher speed which
reduces the variation of chip thickness and thus machining
forces, and (3) cooling of cutting tool reduces the diffusion
wear and retains the strength of cutting tool.
Dandekar et al. [39] did not find discernible difference in
the machined microstructure and the microhardness between
conventional machining and hybrid machining. An economic
analysis was also carried out based on estimated tooling and
labor costs. It was found that the hybrid process with a TiAlN-
coated tool shows a considerable improvement in machinabil-
ity of Ti–6Al–4V through increased material removal rate and
increased tool life. It could yield a 40 % reduction in overall
machining costs [39].
Springback and residual stress For springback problems, the
best method is to add extra operations. For example, if you
had two operations to complete machining of the part, you
would add an extra two operations for roughing only. To
release the stress, it requires shimming any gaps in between
the fixture and the part where it is clamped to eliminate any
springback in the part in the first finishing operation after
roughing. In addition, the workpiece can be rested for several
days if time allows, but shimming would still be required.
If the residual stress is too high in the workpiece, then it
should be machined step-by-step by removing materials from
tensile side first. In addition, all titanium alloys can be stress
relieved without affecting their mechanical properties. Com-
binations of time and temperature can be used to remove the
stress. Thicker sections require longer times to insure uniform
temperatures. Either furnace or air cooling is usually accept-
able. The cooling rate is not critical but uniformity of cooling
is important [46].
4 Conclusions
The main problem of machining titanium is tremendously
high tool wear and chatter due to variation of chip thickness,
high heat stress, and high pressure loads. These limit the
material removal rate and increase the machining cost. In
addition to these, springback and residual stress affect the
quality of finished products if proper measures are not taken.
Titanium alloys such as like alpha, gamma Ti-Al alloy, and
burn-resistant Ti alloys like (BurTi) have different machin-
ability. The machinability reduces with the increase of high
temperature strength and hardness though the chip formation
process has similarities. Application of high-pressure coolant
is the most commonly used method to improve productivity of
titanium alloys machining. However, cryogenic cooling is
found to be more efficient than that of high pressure cooling
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 70:919–928
method though it is not frequently used in the machining
industries. Tap testing (vibration analysis) method is getting
popular slowly though it has already proved its potential to
improve productivity by several folds. Thermally enhanced
machining, hybrid machining and use of high conductive
cutting tool and tool holder are still in the primary stage of
research. Application of these methods is not proven to con-
tribute significantly to improve the productivity of titanium
alloys machining in the industrial environment. Most of the
cutting tool materials are chemically reactive to titanium al-
loys under machining condition. Only the carbide, binderless
CBN, sintered diamond, and natural diamond cutting tools are
found reasonably suitable for machining titanium alloys.
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