Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100758

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Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Bioclimatic design strategies: A guideline to enhance human thermal T

comfort in Cfa climate zones
Abdollah Baghaei Daemeia,∗∗, Seyed Rahman Eghbalib,∗, Elham Mehrinejad Khotbehsarac
a
Young Researchers and Elite Clubs, Rasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran
b
Department of Architecture, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran
c
Department of Architecture, Rasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Architectural design based on bioclimatic features has long been of interest to many designers. Exploiting cli-
Bioclimatic design mate indicators and the use of passive strategies are among the central principles of this design approach. The
Humid climate main purpose of the present study is to provide bioclimatic design strategies to enhance the human thermal
Human thermal comfort comfort in the humid climate zones based on Cfa Köppen climate classification. This study focused on to improve
Passive design
indoor thermal comfort with climate indicators. The eight cities studied include Rasht (Iran), Durban (South
Cfa climate zones
Africa), Tokyo (Japan), Kutaisi (Georgia), Houston (United States), Buenos Aires (Argentina), Brisbane
(Queensland) and Trieste (Italy) according to similarities in the climatic zones and the most important criteria
climates such as humidity and rainfall were selected all around the world. Hereafter, the city of Rasht was
directly investigated as a case study. In this way at first, the climatic data of Rasht collected. Then it analyzed
concerning the Givoni Bioclimatic Chart and Mahoney Table to determine the appropriate bioclimatic design
strategies. In the following, these strategies plotted from the Givoni chart and the Mahoney table and the design
recommendations provided as diagrams related to the strategies and debated separately. In the end, the ex-
ecutive function of the strategies regarding the relations between the zones of Givoni bioclimatic chart and
months of the year, and also the strategies have discussed the indicators of the Mahoney table as well. The
extensive findings described in this paper allowed us to conclude that certain bioclimatic design strategies that
have been adopted in specific cities and countries could be exported to other zones with similar climates because
they were proven to be useful functional architectural design strategies that resulted to improve human indoor
thermal comfort.

1. Introduction
Industrial growth and economic development are largely dependent
on the amount and level of efficient use of energy carriers. Due to high
per capita income as well as having more accessibility to varied
equipment in developed countries, Per capita energy consumption in
these societies have been higher than developing societies. However,
these years some approaches have led to increased productivity in these
countries, and per capita consumption has been decreased. The energy
consumption per capita in Iran in the different categories of agri-
cultural, domestic, public and commercial sectors, transportation and
industry is 3.33, 1.9, 1.7 respectively, and is 1.5 times the global
average ([1]: 11). Modern buildings use energy to power equipment
and provide occupants with comfortable conditions. Over half of the
energy consumed by buildings is used to meet heating, cooling,
ventilation and lighting loads [2]. Nowadays one of the biggest and
most important concerns of researchers and designers are environ-
mental issues at the global level, specially the excessive consumption of
fossil fuels and the consequent danger of climate change. Among the
numerous suggested solutions proposed by the global institutions, the
use of renewable energies is considered as the most appropriate factor.
It is possible to generalize these approaches under the title of sustain-
able architecture [3], Green Architecture [4], Zero Energy [5], Passive
Solar Design [6] and Design Biological Jelly [7].
Bioclimatic design refers to an architectural design approach that
utilizes solar energy and other related environmental resources to
provide indoor and outdoor human thermal comfort. In the definition
by ASHRAE Standard 55 [8] for thermal comfort, it is presented that,
“Thermal comfort is the condition of mind that expresses satisfaction
with the thermal environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation.

∗
Corresponding author. Room No, 273, Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran.
∗∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: baghaei@iaurasht.ac.ir (A.B. Daemei), s.r.eghbali@arc.ikiu.ac.ir (S.R. Eghbali).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100758
Received 21 June 2018; Received in revised form 30 March 2019; Accepted 30 March 2019
Available online 06 April 2019
2352-7102/ © 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
A.B. Daemei, et al. Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100758

Thermal comfort is based on dry bulb temperature, clothing level (clo), indicators were available in three hours as well. In fact, Rasht located in
metabolic rate (met), air velocity, humidity, and mean radiant tem- northern Iran has a humid subtropical climate with limited diurnal
perature. Indoors it is assumed that mean radiant temperature is close temperature variations partially due to its high humidity. The major
to dry bulb temperature. The zone in which most people are comfor- purpose of this study is to provide the bioclimatic design strategies that
table is calculated using the PMV model. In residential settings, people fit the climate of these cities. In this way, by collecting the climatic
adapt clothing to match the season and feel comfortable in higher air indicators and then analyzing the findings of the GBC and Mahoney
velocities and so have full comfort range than in buildings with cen- table, the appropriate design strategies are provided.
tralized HVAC systems. Minor principles of bioclimatic design are
passive solar systems, which are appropriate for heating, cooling, and
2. Research methodology
lighting of buildings. Optimal utilization of bioclimatic design strategies
based on local climate can play a decisive role in the enhancement of
This research comprises in three stages: at first, this comprehensive
indoor air quality [9]. Such strategies mainly achieved through specific
study is based on defining and examined human thermal comfort in-
methods including the Givoni bioclimatic chart (GBC) [10] and the
dices in indoor and outdoor environments, and also provides many
Mahoney table (Mahoney et al., 2002).
guidelines for outdoor thermal comfort design. In the following, indices
To use these methods, the monthly climatic parameters of the region
for indoor and outdoor thermal comfort were introduced. In the next
collected and then analyzed with the chart mentioned above and table
stage, climate data of the city of Rasht collected and its climatic char-
to determine the appropriate design considerations and strategies.
acteristics identified. The second stage required access to 3-hour RH
Passive heating techniques are globally favorite, and their heating
and temperature data for analysis with the Givoni chart. Climatic data
performance has been extensively researched [11–15]. The standards
for the period 2006–2015 obtained from the Rasht meteorological of-
relating to indoor air quality are also specified in ASHRAE 55 [8];
fice and organized into 3-hour data separated by month. The data was
ASHRAE 62 [16] and ISO 7730 [12]. On the other hand, passive system
entered into the Givoni chart (Fig. 2). The Mahoney table then used to
can also combat climate change renewable energies in order to reduce
determine the day and night thermal stress of each month of the year
carbon emission. Iran was the first country which used renewable en-
based on mean annual temperature and average RH of the same month
ergy sources in the past [17–19]. For this reason, present study has been
throughout 2006–2015.
carried out to providing architectural strategies to enhance human
In the end, the average annual temperature, the average maximum
comfort. On this basis, eight cities were studied included Rasht (Iran),
and minimum temperatures of each month, and the average RH of each
Durban (South Africa), Tokyo (Japan), Kutaisi (Georgia), Houston
month were determined. The Annual Mean Temperate (AMT) and
(United States), Buenos Aires (Argentina), Brisbane (Queensland) and
Relative Humidity (RH) of each month then analyzed by the use of
Trieste (Italy) according to similarities in the Cfa climatic zones and the
Table 4 to identify the relevant humidity group. Night and day thermal
most important criteria climates such as humidity and rainfall were
stress extracted from the same table, and the mean maximum tem-
selected all around the world. In the following, the city of Rasht was
perature of each month compared with the relevant thermal stress.
studied as a pilot climate zone and due to the fact that its climate
Furthermore, the indicator of each month of the year determined

Fig. 1. Internal heat gain factors.

Fig. 2. PPD as a function of PMV (a) ([8]: 7) and Adaptive chart (b).

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A.B. Daemei, et al. Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100758

Table 1
Summary of research on bioclimatic design.
Author(s) Year Short description

Papparelli et al. [20]
Zain-Ahmed et al. [21]
de Dear and Brager [22]
Cañas and Martín [23]
Mingozzi and Bottiglioni [24]
Albatici [25]
Ampatzi [26]
Mahmoud [27]
Stavrakakis et al. [28]
Ahmed et al. [29]
Jamaludin et al. [30]
Tang et al. [31]
Katafygiotou and Serghides [32]
Belkacem et al. [33]
Desogus et al. [34]
Khandan et al. [35]
Di Leo and Salvia [36]
Vecchi et al. [37]
Mehrinejad Khotbehsara et al. [38]
(b)Baghaei Daemei et al. [39]
1996 This study aimed to determine the bioclimatic design strategies suitable for the city of San Juan, Argentina, according to the
temperature and relative humidity of the region.
1998 In this study, Regional climate data of the Klang Valley, Malaysia was used to develop a set of design strategies based on the
bioclimatic chart and Mahoney tables. In the end, this study introduced some passive design strategies for Malaysian buildings.
2001 A study has been conducted on the adaptive model of thermal comfort and energy conservation in the built environment. This
paper highlights the potential for reduced cooling energy requirements by designing for natural or hybrid ventilation in many
moderate climate zones of the world.
2004 The purpose of this study was to determine and adopt the design strategies used in vernacular construction. This study suggested
some strategies for improvement of vernacular solutions with bioclimatic strategies.
2007 The purpose of this study was to reduce energy consumption and create a sustainable and comfortable indoor space for the
buildings in Pieve di Cento, Italy. In this study, passive design strategies were identified by the Givoni chart and Mahoney table.
2009 This study aimed to improve energy efficiency and indoor comfort conditions of residential buildings. This study was conducted
by simulation of passive solar elements and traditional materials. After a critical analysis of simulation results, some specific
recommendations for the stated purpose were presented.
2009 This study was focused on passive cooling strategies for seaside resorts in the Greek islands. The thermal simulation conducted
in this study showed that thermal comfort could be achieved by nightly convective cooling by the use of roof pools.
2011 The study analyzed the relation of bioclimatic strategies and outdoor built environments in Egypt and provided some
suggestions for bioclimatic design under such conditions.
2012 This study presented a computational method for bioclimatic design applications in urban environments and provided some
strategies for dealing with urban heat islands.
2014 The results of this study indicate that passive cooling strategies based on natural ventilation can serve as a suitable solution for
cooling of residential buildings in hot and humid subtropical climates.
2014 This study evaluated the thermal comfort and resident satisfaction in the residential units of the University of Malaya, Kuala
Lumpur based on the data collected by questionnaire. After analysis, this study concluded that the implementation of
bioclimatic design strategies in the studied residential units would provide better comfort for residents.
2014 This study searched for a comprehensively sustainable design directive based on bioclimatic techniques for Shang-gan village in
western China.
2015 In this paper, a bioclimatic analysis was conducted on three different climatic zones in Cyprus, namely coastal, inland and
mountainous, in order to find suitable passive design strategies for buildings in each climate.
2016 This study aimed to improve the energy performance of a bioclimatic house in Algeria. Analyses of this study were carried out
both experimentally and with software simulation. The results of both analyses showed that bioclimatic strategies could serve as
a suitable solution for the provision of thermal comfort in summers, more useful space heating and energy saving, and reduction
of emission of environmental pollutants.
2016 The study suggested some bioclimatic strategies based on Mediterranean vernacular architecture and specifically the
architecture of Sardinia.
2016 This study analyzed and compared some typical examples of architecture in Ardabil, Iran, and their relationship with the
climatic characteristics of this city, and finally suggested a new design suitable for this climate.
2017 This study examined the traditional design strategies in South-Eastern Europe, including Hungary, Greece, Potenza in Italy,
Nitra in Slovakia, Skopje, Miercurea Ciuc in Romania, Slovenia, and ivanić-grad in Croatia, and identified and discussed the
significant features, differences, and similarities in the architectural designs of these regions.
2017 This paper addresses thermal comfort conditions in office buildings in a humid subtropical climate in Brazil.
2018 Studies about the traditional climate responsible solutions in Iranian ancient architecture in humid region. In this research was
performed by analyzing appropriate climatic solutions in the vernacular architecture of west of Guilan.
2018 This study has been carried out in Rasht city. The goal of the study is to assist architects to design optimum building form for
natural ventilation.

(Table 6). The results of this stage then organized into the proposed
building design table (Table 7), and the appropriate design strategies
were identified. In the end, the design strategies recommended to
achieve indoor comfort are described.
3. Literature review
Several studies have been conducted on passive design strategies
goal to use solar energy to improve the thermal comfort in buildings,
without the use of HVAC systems. Lee et al. [60] conducted a study
about to identify the peculiar elements of environmental architecture in
folk houses in Korea. In their study, they have suggested which passive
design strategies can play a significant role as some neglected principles
in modern architecture, in order to environmental control of the
buildings. Dili et al. [61] also found similar results have conducted a
qualitative analysis of the passive environment control system of ver-
nacular residential architecture of Kerala that is known for ages for its
use of natural and passive methods for indoor thermal comfort. This
study has provided positive results confirming that the passive en-
vironment control system employed in vernacular architecture is highly
effective in providing thermal comfort indoors in all seasons. Bodach
et al. [62] also found similar results have conducted traditional
buildings use passive solar measures to achieve thermal comfort can be
sufficient conditions. This paper reviews examples of vernacular ar-
chitecture and its building elements in Nepal and analyses in a quali-
tative manner which bioclimatic design strategies were applied.
Some of the results in the Yılmaz [63] studied the sustainability and
energy saving terms take place in building construction industry too
since buildings are one of the most significant energy consumers. It is
known that energy demand of buildings has an essential role in build-
ings total energy consumption. In this study energy, efficient design
strategies for these climatic zones have been explained and thermal
performance to show the significance of thermal mass in hot-dry cli-
mates. Holmes and Hacker [64] study addressed of designing sustain-
able low-energy buildings while still providing thermal comfort under
warmer summer conditions. In this paper demonstrate some of the
critical principles associated with climate-sensitive low-energy design.
Ochoa and Capeluto [65] conducted study other reasons to exploring
the influence of incorporating intelligence in buildings in hot climates,
through the perspective of energy consumption and user comfort with
an emphasis on lighting. Results show that a truly intelligent building
needs to be the product of a design process that incorporates in-
telligence in all its stages while taking advantage of technological in-
novations. Moreover, research has also been done that looks at how

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A.B. Daemei, et al. Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100758

Table 2
Summary of research on outdoor thermal comfort in a humid subtropical climate.
No Author(s) Year Index City, Country

1 Spagnolo and de Dear [40] 2003 Top, ET*, PET, PT, OUT_SET Sydney, Australia
2 Knez and Thorsson [41] 2006 PET Tokyo, Japan
3 Hwang and Lin [42] 2007 SET Taichung, Yunlin, Chiayi, Taiwan
4 Thorsson et al. [43] 2007 PET Tokyo, Japan
5 Lin and Matzarakis [44] 2008 PET Sun Moon Lake, Taiwan
6 Lin [45] 2009 PET Taichung, Taiwan
7 Lin et al. [46] 2011 SET Taichung, Yunlin, Chiayi, Taiwan
8 Shimazaki et al. [47] 2011 PMV, SET, Human Thermal Load Osaka, Japan
9 Lin et al. [46] 2011 SET Taichung, Yunlin, Chiayi, Taiwan
10 Shimazaki et al. [47] 2011 PMV, SET*, Human Thermal Load Osaka, Japan
11 Cheng et al. [48] 2012 PMV, PET Hong Kong, China
12 Ng et al. [49] 2012 PET Hong Kong, China
13 Brode et al. [50] 2012 UTCI Curitiba, Brazil
14 Xi et al. [51] 2012 SET Guangzhou, China
15 Cheng et al. [48] 2012 PMV, PET Hong Kong
16 Lin et al. [52] 2013 WBGT Taichung, Taiwan
17 Zhou et al. [53] 2013 SET Wuhan, China
18 Tung et al. [54] 2014 PET Taichung, Yunlin, Chiayi, Taiwan
19 Watanabe et al. [55] 2014 ETU, UTCI OUT_SET Nagoya, Japan
20 Lucchese et al. [56] 2016 PET, PMV, UTCI, TEP Campo Grande, Brazil
21 Huang et al. [57] 2017 PET, UTCI, UCB Hong Kong
22 Shih et al. [58] 2017 PET Anping District, Taiwan
23 Cheung and Jim [59] 2018 UTCI, PET Hong Kong

Table 3
Annotated definitions [8].
Indices Definitions

• Metabolic rate The rate of transformation of chemical energy into heat and mechanical work by metabolic activities within an organism
usually expressed in terms of unit area of The total body surface. In this standard, the metabolic rate is expressed in met units.
• Clothing insulation The resistance to sensible heat transfer provided by a clothing ensemble. Expressed in clo units. Note: the definition of clothing
insulation relates to heat transfer from the whole body and, thus, also includes the uncovered parts of the body, such as head
and hands.
• Air temperature Air temperature is a measure of how hot or cold the air is. It is the most commonly measured weather parameter.
• Radiant temperature Is defined as the uniform temperature of an imaginary enclosure in which the radiant heat transfer from the human body is
equal to the radiant heat transfer in the actual non-uniform enclosure.
• Airspeed The rate of air movement at a point, without regard
To direction
• Relative humidity The ratio of the partial pressure (or density) of the water vapor in the air to the saturation pressure (or density) of water vapor
at
• PET (Physiological Equivalent Temperature) Is defined as the equivalent air temperature at which, in a typical indoor condition heat balance of the human body exists.
• SET (Temperature, Standard Effective) The temperature of an imaginary environment at 50% RH, < 0.1 m/s airspeed, Moreover, Tr = Ta, in which the total heat
loss from the skin of an imaginary occupant with an activity level of 1.0 met and a clothing level of 0.6 clo is the same as that
from a person in the actual environment, with real clothing and activity level.
• PMV (Predicted Mean Vote) An index that predicts the mean value of the votes of a large group of persons on the seven-point thermal sensation scale.
• PPD (Predicted percentage dissatisfied) An index that establishes a quantitative prediction of the percentage of thermally dissatisfied people determined from PMV.
• WBGT (Wet-bulb Globe Temperature) A type of apparent temperature used to estimate the effect of temperature, humidity, wind speed (wind chill), and visible and
infrared radiation (usually sunlight) on humans.
• UTCI (Universal Thermal Climate Index) The UTCI is defined as the air temperature (Ta) of the reference condition causing the same model response as actual
conditions.

Table 4
Climatic data of Rasht for the during 2006–2015.
Mean frost day Annual mean relative humidity (%) Mean annual Temp. (C) Max mean annual Temp. (C) Min mean annual Temp. (C) Mean annual rainfall (mm)

11 80.6 16.50 20.70 12.30 1260

passive design strategies to improve indoor thermal comfort in build-
ings.
Stevanović [66] Studied passive solar design strategies comprise
essential ways of reducing the heating, cooling, and lighting energy
consumption of buildings. In this study, to give an exhaustive review of
the previous studies of simulation-based optimization of passive solar
design strategies, with a particular focus on recent research results.
Tejero-González et al. [67] studied climate parameters affecting the
applicability of passive and low energy heating and cooling techniques
is presented. The study has been developed from existing research work
results and aims to serve as a first-stage assessment tool of the viability
of these solutions at a particular location, depending on outdoor con-
ditions to be faced. The primary target of this paper is to serve as a
guide for an adequate preselection of the optimal passive energy solu-
tions in buildings at a specific site, from existing research on climate
analysis. Also, Panchabikesan et al. [68] Explained that passive house
(PH) standard provides a cost-efficient way of minimizing the energy
demand of buildings by the global principle of sustainability. This paper

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A.B. Daemei, et al. Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100758

Table 5
3-hour temperature and relative humidity statistics of Rasht for the period 2006–2015.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2006–2015

6.2 5.1 6.9 10 15.8 20.3 22.4 22.7 21.2 17 11.5 7.5 Temp. 0
93.6 92.8 92.3 93.4 99.6 92 91 90 93 95.6 96 93.4 RH
5.9 5 6.6 9.7 15 20.9 22.9 23 20.9 16.7 11.3 7.3 Temp. 3
90.3 92.3 91.4 92.6 92.5 89.2 87.5 87.9 90.7 95.2 95.6 92.5 RH
8 6.6 8.7 13.2 15.5 25 26.9 27.9 25.9 20.5 13.9 9.1 Temp. 6
86 86 84 77.5 77.4 69.6 71.7 71.3 78.7 83 94.2 79.3 RH
11.5 9.2 11.5 16 20.7 27 28.9 30.5 27.3 23 16.1 11.6 Temp. 9
76.1 76.5 73.5 69.5 69.3 61.4 62.8 61.4 69 72.4 76.7 68.6 RH
12.2 9.7 11.7 15.8 20.6 27 29 30.5 27.2 22.6 16.1 12 Temp. 12
73.4 75.5 73 69.4 69.9 63 64 61.7 69.8 75.8 75.6 71.6 RH
8.7 7.5 9.5 13.3 19.7 25 27 28 24.9 20 13.7 9.6 Temp. 15
87.5 86.2 82.9 77 77 68.8 70 71.9 80.2 87 87.2 79 RH
7.3 6.4 8 11.7 16.6 22.4 24.3 24.9 27.7 18.5 12.6 8.6 Temp. 18
91.7 90.8 89.2 86.9 87 83.3 87 89 89.3 92.9 92 88.4 RH
6.7 5.5 7.2 10.8 15.6 21.2 23.2 23.5 21.7 17.6 11.9 7.8 Temp. 21
92 91.9 91.3 91.2 91.6 90 88.5 88.7 92.3 95 94.7 92 RH

variations, both physiologically and psychologically, from person to person,

Table 6 it is difficult to satisfy everyone in space. The environmental conditions re-
Table Mahoney - Day and night, comfort zone. quired for comfort are not the same for everyone…” as reported by in-
Annual Mean Temp. Mean RH RH Group
ternational standards even during optimal conditions, it is expected that
approximately 10% of building occupants will be dissatisfied with the
< 15° 15–20 < °20 thermal conditions. On this basis, six physiological and psychological
factors must be addressed when defining conditions for thermal comfort
Night Day Night Day Night Day
in which including metabolic rate, clothing insulation, air temperature,
21 30 23 32 25 34 0–30 1 mean radiant temperature, air speed, and relative humidity (Fig. 1).
12 21 14 23 17 26 Satisfaction with the environment is significant because it affects
20 27 22 30 24 31 30–50 2 productivity and health [73]. In this way, when discussing thermal
12 20 14 22 17 35
comfort, two different main models can be used: the static model
19 26 21 28 23 29 50–70 3
12 19 14 21 17 23 (PMV/PPD) and the adaptive model. P.O developed the PMV/PPD
18 24 20 25 21 27 70–100 4 model. Fanger [74] using heat-balance equations and empirical studies
12 18 14 20 17 22 about skin temperature to define comfort. The PMV model stands
among the most recognized thermal comfort models. It was developed
using principles of heat balance and experimental data collected in a
controlled climate chamber under steady state conditions. On the other
presents the outcome of various research works carried out in the field hand, the adaptive model was developed based on hundreds of field
of evaporative cooling, nocturnal radiation cooling, and PCM based free studies with the idea that occupants dynamically interact with their
cooling of buildings under various climatic conditions. Table 1 presents environment. Occupants control their thermal environment using
a summary of prior studies conducted on bioclimatic design. clothing, operable windows, fans, personal heaters, and sunshades
Moreover, over the years, many comprehensive studies on outdoor [9,12].
thermal comfort have been conducted by researchers in different out- The PMV model can be applied to air-conditioned buildings, while
door spaces and under different climatic conditions. The studies by the adaptive model can be generally applied only to buildings where no
Brager and de Dear [69] is one of the first outdoor thermal comfort mechanical systems have been installed [8]. There is no consensus
studies to address people's behavior. In their study, they investigated a about which comfort model should be applied for buildings that are
literature review paper related to the thermal adaptation in the built partially air-conditioned spatially or temporally. The adaptive model is
environment. Chen and Ng [70] provided review research on the be- based on the idea that outdoor climate influences indoor comfort be-
havioral aspects of outdoor thermal comfort. This work focuses on cause humans can adapt to different temperatures during different
perceptions of outdoor thermal comfort and the use of outdoor space in times of the year. The adaptive hypothesis predicts that contextual
the context of urban planning. Yang et al. [71] a study has been carried factors, such as having access to environmental controls, and past
out in thermal comfort perceptions and preferences. This study also thermal history can influence building occupants' thermal expectations
explores the impact of thermal adaptation on human thermal sensation and preferences. The PPD (predicted percentage of dissatisfied) index is
in outdoor spaces, which could be useful for future researchers. On the related to the PMV as defined in Fig. 2.
other hand, Potchter et al. [72] conducted a comprehensive review of Based on the Fig. 2 (a), acceptable thermal environment for general
approaches, methods, and quantification of outdoor human thermal comfort for PPD is < 10 and PPD range is −0.5 < PMV < +0.5.
perception in various climates. Table 2 shows a summary of the re- Also, as shown in Fig. 2 (b), this chart represents the acceptable com-
search studies related to the outdoor thermal comfort in the humid bination of indoor operative temperature and current mean outdoor
subtropical climate. temperature. The gray regions are the 80% and 90% acceptability
comfort zones, according to the adaptive method in the ASHRAE
4. Thermal comfort criteria 55–2013 Standard. In the following, thermal comfort can be divided
into indoor and outdoor conditions in which, the researchers have
As mentioned, one of the most important things to be considered in provided different indicators for evaluating it. Laboratory researches
the bioclimatic building design is human thermal comfort. According to have proposed several indices for indoor and outdoor thermal condition
ASHRAE 55 [8]: “Thermal comfort is that condition of mind that expresses analysis in which in Table 3, indicators are introduced, and each one is
satisfaction with the thermal environment. Because there are large also briefly defined.

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Table 7
Mahoney table of Rasht for the during 2006–2015.
Station: RASHT Min. Temp. Max. Temp. AMR AMT
Latitude: 37.25 N
Longitude: 49.60 E 3.5 31.7 28.2 33.4
Elevation: −7
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Temp. (c)

12.7 11 13.3 17.5 22 28 30 31.7 28.5 24.3 16.5 12.6 Monthly Mean Max. Temp. A
4 3.5 5.5 8.7 14 19 21.5 21.7 20 16 9 4.6 Monthly Mean Min. Temp.
8.7 7.5 7.8 8.8 8 9 8.5 10 8.5 8.3 7.5 8 Monthly temperature fluctuations
96.5 96.5 95.4 93.6 93.7 97.1 98.2 98.8 96.9 97.9 97.4 96.7 Max. Monthly Mean RH B
60.6 62.2 56.4 59.1 54.6 66.6 70.3 74.5 70.8 65.2 70.9 66.9 Min.
78.4 79.4 76.1 76.5 74 82 84.4 86.9 84 81.7 84.4 82 Total Mean
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 RH group
131 116 113 62 49 42 41 71 153 214 191 153 Rainfall (mm)
12.7 11 13.3 17.5 22 28 30 31.7 28.5 24.3 16.5 12.6 Monthly Mean Max. Temp. C
27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 Max. Day Comfort Zone
22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 Min.
4 3.5 5.5 8.7 14 19 21.5 21.7 20 16 9 4.6 Monthly Mean Min. Temp.
21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 Max. Night Comfort Zone
17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 Min.
C O H H H H O C C C C C Day Temperature status D
C O O H H O O C C C C C Night

Before proceeding, in sections 5.2 and 5.3, and also 6, internal
thermal comfort is described graphically. For this reason, here we only
consider the external thermal comfort. One of the pioneers who pre-
pared a graph to predict pedestrians' outdoor comfort zone is Pen-
warden. In 1975, he introduced his graph according to his compre-
hensive field studies in the UK (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 shows the comfort regions for shade and full sunshine. The
effect of an increased wind speed is highest at low speeds; in full sun an
increase from 0.5 to 5 m/s would require an accompanying increase of
9 °C in air temperature to maintain thermal equilibrium, whereas an
increase from 5 to 10 m/s would need a further rise of only 1.5 °C.
Walking in a wind of 5 m/s from the full sun into shade has the same
effect as a drop in air temperature of 3.6 °C. Using both graphs, the
combined effect of wind and shade can be seen; walking from full sun
and still air (u = 0.5∼ m/s) into the shade and a wind of 5 m/s is
equivalent to a drop of about 13 °C. The cooling effect of increased wind
speed can be counteracted by putting on more clothes [75].
5. Case studies
5.1. Geographic and climatic characteristics of Rasht
Rasht is an Iranian city with an area of 180 square kilometers that is
located at 37.25° N and 49.60° E at the height of 7 m below the sea
level. Weather statistics used in this study were collected from the re-
ports of Rasht synoptic meteorological station and the national me-
teorological organization of Iran. Geographical location of Rasht is
marked on the map of Fig. 4, and the climatic characteristics of this city
are listed in Table 4. Rasht is the capital of Gilan province in northern
Iran. This city has generally humid weather, but more so in summer
than in winter, and because of this high humidity, the city often ex-
periences very low diurnal temperature fluctuations. In Rasht, the
months with the highest and lowest average temperatures are July and
January, with average temperatures of 36 °C and 3 °C respectively.
According to the reports of Iran's meteorological organization, each

Fig. 3. Comfort conditions for strolling in full sun (a) and shade (b) [75].

6
A.B. Daemei, et al.
Fig. 4. Rasht Location in the map.
year, this city experiences 135 rainy days with precipitation of more
than 10 mm. The average relative humidity of Rasht during 2004–2014
has been 80.9 percent. In this region, wind speed decreases in summer
and again increases in autumn, but the annual average of prevailing
wind speed is generally about 1.7 m/s.
5.2. Thermal comfort strategies based on the Givoni chart
The Givoni chart was used to derive and study the thermal comfort
criteria suitable for the studied region. For this purpose, temperature
and relative humidity data were decomposed into 3-hour data orga-
nized as shown in Table 5.
The information contained in Table 5 was entered into the biocli-
matic chart, and strategies suited to each month were determined ac-
cording to the chart zones. Fig. 5 shows the thermal comfort strategies
suitable for Rasht in different months of the year.
Rasht bioclimatic chart (Fig. 5), shows the location of each month
on the bioclimatic chart zones, and express the requirements for
reaching to that level of thermal comfort. The points corresponding to
January are located in zones 4 and 5, February in zone 4, March in
zones 3 and 4, April in zones 1 and 3. The points corresponding to May
Fig. 5. Rasht bioclimatic chart for the during 2006–2015.
7
Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100758
are located in zones 1 and 12, June in zones 12 and 13, July in zones 12
and 13, August in zones 12 and 14. The points corresponding to Sep-
tember are located in zones 1 and 3, October in zones 3 and 4, No-
vember in zone 4, and December in zones 4 and 5.
5.3. Thermal comfort strategies based on the Mahoney table
Mahoney table is a reference table that can be used for climatic
design and more specifically determination of night and day comfort
zones of each month according to the average annual temperature and
mean relative humidity of the area in that month. This table can serve
as a general guide to identify the thermal comfort requirements of
buildings [76,77]. To determine the thermal comfort strategies suitable
for Rasht, first, the climate group of each month was determined based
on the relative humidity of that month (Table 6).
As shown in Table 6, Rasht falls in the climate group 4 with an
average relative humidity of 70–100 percent. This means that the an-
nual average temperature of this city is more than 20 degrees and the
temperature of the comfort zone is 22–27 °C at day and 17–21 °C at
night. Next, the temperature condition of Rasht was evaluated, and the
results were organized as shown in Table 7.
A.B. Daemei, et al.
Table 8
Temperature condition of Rasht at different months.
In Table 7, the days in which maximum temperature is higher than
the comfort zone are considered Hot (H), the days in which maximum
temperature is lower than the comfort zone are considered Cold (C),
and the days in which maximum temperature is within the comfort
zone are considered Moderate (O). Thus, in Rasht, air temperature is
cold in January days and nights, Moderate in February days and nights.
It is hot in March days but moderate in March nights, hot in April and
May days and nights. It is also hot in June days but Moderate in June
nights, Moderate in July days and nights, and cold in days and nights of
August, September, October, November, and December.
Table 8 indicates that 4 months of the year (Jun, Jul, Aug, and Sep)
have H1 condition, 2 months of the year (May and Oct) have H2 con-
dition, another 2 months (Nov and Oct) have H3 condition, and 6
Table 9
Building design strategy in Mahoney table.
8
Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100758
months of the year (Jan, Feb, Mar, Apr, Nov, and Dec) have A3 con-
dition. None of the months had A1 or A2 conditions, but Oct and Nov
are associated with two temperature conditions (H2-H3 and H3-A3
respectively). Note that H is the indicator of humid weather, and A is
the indicator of dry weather.
Table 9 shows the design strategy for H3, A3, and A1. It can be
stated that A1 is associated with five design strategy including “long
east-west axis,” “Single-bank ventilation, permanent ventilation,”
“Large windows (40–80% of wall area)”, “Light walls and floors with
low heat capacity,” and “Light and well-insulated roofs.” A3 is asso-
ciated with only one strategy that is “Long east-west axis,” which is also
associated with A1. H1 is associated with three design recommenda-
tions including “Open spacing for breeze penetration,” “Open spacing
A.B. Daemei, et al.
Fig. 6. Internal heat gain factors.
for protection against the wind.” “Single-bank, permanent ventilation”
is associated with H1-A1, and lastly, H2 is associated with only one
design strategy that is “Double-bank, temporary ventilation."
6. Results and discussion
6.1. Comfort zone
The comfort zone is defined in terms of a range of operative tem-
peratures that provide acceptable thermal environmental conditions or
in terms of the combinations of air temperature and mean radiant
temperature that people find thermally acceptable. According to Fig. 5,
the comfort zone is represented by zone 1. The zones corresponding to
the months May, September and April are partially located in this zone,
which indicates that during these months, in some hours of the day,
comfort conditions are provided.
6.2. Internal heat gain
Internal heat gain is an important parameter that needs to be con-
sidered in any indoor thermal comfort evaluation. Internal heat gain is
the sensible and latent heat emitted within an internal space from any
source that is to be removed by air conditioning or ventilation, and
results in an increase in the temperature and humidity within the space.
Fig. 7. Passive solar heating: (a) direct daylighting through tall south-side windows; (b) Trombe wall system; (c) greenhouse effect; (d) atrium; and (e) DSF system.
9
Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100758
It includes the following source bodies (human and animal), lighting,
computers and office equipment, electric motors, cooking appliances
and other domestic equipment [78]. In this case, the months March,
April, September, October, and November were found to be in this
zone. It is known that internal heat gain is a function of factors such as
general lighting, equipment, metabolic rate, catering and miscellaneous
[79] (Fig. 6), so to achieve desired thermal conditions, these factors
need to be controlled.
6.3. Passive solar heating
According to Fig. 5, the months February, March, October, and
November have fallen in zone 4, and the months December and January
are in both zones 4 and 5. This zone is titled passive solar heating and
refers to the time when solar energy can be converted into the required
energy. Solar heating is the use of solar energy to meet heating needs.
Passive solar heating systems must be designed in a way that cooling,
heating and daylighting requirements of the building would be natu-
rally provided. Passive solar heating systems can, therefore, minimize
the need for mechanical air conditioning equipment and thus the costs
associated with the use of such appliances [80]. Passive solar heating
solution can be divided into several categories such as direct day-
lighting through tall south-side windows (Fig. 7 a), Trombe wall (Fig. 7
b), glass chambers designed to create greenhouse effect (Fig. 7 c),
A.B. Daemei, et al. Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100758

Fig. 8. Conventional heating strategy: (a) heat transfer by the use of radiators and hot water; and (b) use of fireplaces for conventional heating.

Atrium (Fig. 7 d) and DSF (Fig. 7 d). Other researchers [81–83] have
also conducted similar studies on this subject.
6.4. Conventional heating
Based on GBT in Fig. 5, Zone 2 refers to the use of conventional
heating systems to heat indoor space. Although none of the months of
the year have fallen into this zone, this strategy must be generally
available to be used when necessary. The strategy can be implemented
by the use of radiators and hot water pipes (a) or fireplace (b) (Fig. 8).
To reduce the environmental pollution of conventional heating systems,
they can be fueled by renewable sources such as biomass [84–86].
6.5. Solar protection
climate-appropriate methods of shading is the use of deciduous plants
[88]. The leaves of deciduous plants provide excellent shading in
summer, and their absence in winter let through the much-needed
sunlight into the building (Fig. 9 a). Shades are generally classified into
two types: fixed and movable. Roof overhang is a form of fixed shade
(Fig. 9 b). It should be noted that for the depth of shades to be ap-
propriate for a climate, it must take account of sun path and its varia-
tions during different seasons. Shade can be placed horizontally on top
of a window (Fig. 9 e) or vertically on its either side (Fig. 9 d). To keep
the sunlight at the desirable level, movable shades or louvers can be
opened and closed manually or electronically according to a scheduled
program. Other examples of this approach are kinetic and weather
sensitive facades, which react to changes in atmospheric conditions
(Fig. 9 c).

This zone in Fig. 5 refers to protection against sunlight. Shades are
among the critical components of architectural design and play a cen-
tral role in controlling the direct penetration of sunlight into the
building [87]. When used correctly in the southern façade, shades can
adequately protect the indoor against undesirable summer sunlight but
let the sunlight through during winter. Different types of shade can be
chosen depending on the case-specific requirements. One of the
6.6. Thermal-mass assisted night cooling (night purge)
In this type of cooling system, a high thermal mass absorbs the in-
door heat during the day and releases it during the night so that it can
be flushed out by natural ventilation [89]. In other words, during the
night, the fresh outside air cools the thermal mass and makes it ready
for another round of absorption during the next day [90]. Night

Fig. 9. Solar protection strategy: (a) Solar protection by trees and plants; (b) roof overhang; (c) kinetic facade; (d) side fin shade; (e) overhang shade; and (f) louver
shade (exterior, interior, and mid pane).

Fig. 10. Thermal mass assisted night cooling: (a) closing of all windows during the day; and (b) natural night purge.

10
A.B. Daemei, et al. Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100758

Fig. 11. Cooling by natural ventilation: (a) single sided ventilation; (b) cross ventilation; (c1) stack wind catcher ventilation; (c2) Atrium ventilation; (c3) stack roof
opening ventilation; and (d) addition of a partition to create positive and negative pressures.

flushing (night purge) can be controlled by automatic windows or
louvers programmed to remain open during the night to let the air flow
naturally through the building (Fig. 10). Night ventilation or purge can
be used to naturally enhance the ventilation performance of building
[91] and to reduce cooling load during summer [92,93].
stack ventilation. In this method, openings could be placed at different
levels and could be in the form of wind catcher, atrium or roof opening
(Fig. 11 c) [98,99]. In the cases where positive and negative pressures
need to be created on the same wall, a partition can be used for this
purpose (Fig. 11d).

6.7. Cooling natural ventilation and conventional dry 6.8. Long east-west axis

The months May, July, and June have fallen within zone 12 and
August has fallen in both zones 12 and 14 (Fig. 5). The presence of high
humidity in the studied climate highlights the importance of due at-
tention to the draft and natural ventilation [94,95]. There are many
ways to use this type of ventilation. The first approach is Single-sided
ventilation [96], in which air will flow in and out through the same
opening (Fig. 11 a). This type of natural ventilation has poor perfor-
mance. The second approach is cross ventilation, in which air supply
and extraction openings should be placed at the same level but could be
in the walls, floors or ceiling [97,98]. This method provides an excellent
natural ventilation performance (Figs. 7 and 11). The third approach is
In Table 9, IDs 1 and 2 represent this strategy. According to the sun
path diagram of Rasht (Fig. 12) for different seasons, buildings are
better to be designed along the east-west axis to maximize south-side
daylighting and thus provide the best indoor thermal comfort with the
least need for mechanical heating.
6.9. Open spacing for breeze penetration and protection against wind
In Table 9, IDs 3 and 4 represent this strategy. The strategy re-
presented by ID 3 recommends that in humid subtropical climates,
houses should be designed with an open plan to allow free circulation of

Fig. 12. Stretching of the design along the east-west axis.

11
A.B. Daemei, et al.
Fig. 13. Open spacing for breeze: (a) free movement of wind throughout the house, plan view; (B) free movement of wind throughout the house, cross-section view;
and (c) wind deflection with trees.
wind flow throughout the building. Vegetation can also be used to di-
rect the wind into the building (Fig. 13 a). This strategy allows the
northeastern breeze to be used for indoor cooling and creates a drift
throughout the rooms, which help the building flush out the indoor
humidity. With proper design, air flow can be directed toward the roof
space or into the space between the ground and the floor of the building
[100,101] (Fig. 13 b). The strategy represented by ID 4, however, states
that given the design requirements of this climate, when the flow of hot
or cold air into the indoor space needs to be prevented, trees and ve-
getation used can be to deflect the wind toward the other direction
(Fig. 13 c).
6.10. Single and double bank ventilation
In Table 9, IDs 5, 6 and 7, represents this strategy. Ventilation
louvers act as air inflow and outflow vents. Typically, these systems
have vertical and horizontal blades, which can be adjusted manually.
This feature allows the resident to control the natural ventilation by
merely manipulating the amount of air that penetrates the building
(Fig. 14).
6.11. Large windows
In Table 9, ID 8 represents this strategy. This strategy states that
40–80 percent of the north and south facing walls should be covered by
Fig. 14. Single and double bank ventilation.
Fig. 15. Large windows on 40–80 percent of the area of northern and southern walls.
12
Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100758
windows to allow satisfactory daylight and natural ventilation (Fig. 15).
In the presence of vegetation around the building, this strategy provides
not only desirable daylight but also beautiful views for the building.
6.12. Light walls and well-insulated roofs
In Table 9, IDs 9 and 10 represent this strategy. The outer shell of
the building acts as an intermediary between the inside and outside
spaces, and thus plays a significant role in moderation of weather
conditions, provision of thermal comfort, and reduction of heating and
cooling loads [102]. Chartered Institution of Building Services En-
gineers standard has provided a method for expressing the ability of a
material to exchange heat with the environment per degree of tem-
perature difference between the material and the environment [78].
According to the strategy obtained from the Mahoney table, the roof is
recommended to have excellent thermal insulation, and outer walls are
best to be built with light materials with low thermal mass and short
time lag. Fig. 16 provided schematic details of light walls and roof with
low thermal mass.
6.13. Vegetation (wall, roof, and site)
This strategy has also been stated as a suggestion. Vegetation cover
can be used for purposes such as oxygen generation and reduction of
environmental pollutants, introduction of aesthetic views to urban
A.B. Daemei, et al. Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100758

Fig. 16. Details of light walls and roof with low thermal mass.

Fig. 17. Humidification strategy: (a) green wall system; (b) planting trees around the building and site; and (c) green pitched roof system.

space, removal of inefficient materials such as galvanized sheets in the
roof and aluminum composites in the building's body, and also as a
form of thermal insulation [103] (Pérez et al., 2011). These covers can
be used to pursue the aforementioned goals in the form of green walls
[104,105] (Francis and Lorimer 2011), by building plants around the
site [106], or in the form of green roof [107–111] (Fig. 17).
7. Case studies with similar climate
7.1. Humid subtropical climate (Cfa)
A humid subtropical climate is a zone of climate characterized by
hot and humid summers, and mild winters. Under the Köppen climate

Fig. 18. Cfa climate zones of the world [112].

13
A.B. Daemei, et al. Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100758

Fig. 19. The selected cities are located in Cfa climate zones.

Table 10
Climate Indicators of cities in Cfa climate zones (∼) (explanation).
Durban Tokyo Kutaisi Houston Buenos Aires Brisbane Trieste

Mean annual RH (%) 77 65 70 75 71 52 65

Mean annual rainfall (mm) 1020 1530 1330 1300 1230 1020 1000
Max mean annual Temp. (C) 34 20 19 26 23 26 17
Min mean annual Temp. (C) 5 11 10 16 13 16 12

classification, Cfa climates are either described as humid subtropical classification of the climate indicators in the explanation and com-
climates or mild temperate climates [112]. Fig. 18 shows the Cfa cli- parative, respectively.
mate zones of the world according to a modified Köppen climate clas-
sification.
8. Conclusion
In this case based on Fig. 18, the zones identified in the Cfa region
were provided. These zones included the African, East, South, and West
This paper has studied the development of bioclimatic design stra-
of Asia, North and South America, Australia and Europe. Fig. 19 shows
tegies. Accordingly to the aims of this research, in the first phase,
selected cities in the Cfa climate zones.
theoretical principles comprising introductions for indoor thermal
According to Fig. 19, cities with a humid climate include Durban
comfort indicators have been presented. Furthermore, useful para-
(South Africa), Tokyo (Japan), Kutaisi (Georgia), Houston (United
meters on outdoor thermal comfort namely metabolic rate, clothing
States), Buenos Aires (Argentina), Brisbane (Queensland) and Trieste
insulation, air temperature, mean radiant temperature, air speed, and
(Italy). In the following, Table 10 and Fig. 20 show the statistical
relative humidity have been discussed so far. A wide range of prior

Fig. 20. Climate charts of cities in Cfa climate zones (comparative).

14
A.B. Daemei, et al.
studies around thermal comfort and bioclimatic design have mentioned
in the introduction of the present paper and in the following studies on
thermal comfort in temperate and humid climates were introduced. The
second phase of this research have been allocated to developing stra-
tegies related to bioclimatic designs based on the GBC and the Mahoney
table. After identifying the climatic indicators of Rasht, design strate-
gies suitable for achieving indoor thermal comfort in this city were
obtained from the GBC (Fig. 5) and the Mahoney table (Table 9). After
entering the temperature and RH data into the GBC, the following re-
lations between the zones 1, 3, 4, 5, 12, 13, 14, and different months of
the year were determined: Zone 1 (Comfort zone): April, May & Sep-
tember, Zone 3 (internal heat gain): March, April, September, October
& November, Zone 4 (Passive solar heating): January, February, Oc-
tober, November & December, Zone 5 (Active solar heating): January &
December, Zone 12 (natural cooling): May, January, July & August,
Zone 13 (Air conditioning): June & July and Zone 14 (Conventional
dry): August. As shown on GBC in Fig. 5, the zones 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11
were not associated with any particular month, meaning that Humidi-
fication, Convectional Heating, Solar protection and night purge were
not recommended for any of the months. However, this study also
briefly discussed these strategies so that they can be used when ne-
cessary. Some diagrams were also presented to facilitate understanding
of these strategies.
In the following, according to the results obtained from the
Mahoney table, the months November, December, January, February,
March, and April have the thermal status A3, which is recommended to
be handled with strategies such as extended east-west axis ،Single-bank
ventilation, permanent ventilation, Large windows (40–80% of wall
area) Light walls and floors with low heat capacity, and Light and well-
insulated roofs. The Mahoney table did not recommend the status A2
for any of the months. Based on Table 9, all strategies about the status
A1 apply to all months of the year and the strategies about the status
H1are applicable to June, July, August, and September. The strategies
about the status H3 apply to October and November, however, ac-
cording to Table 7, design strategies for H3 (need for protection against
heavy rain) are recommended only if the related condition lasts for at
least three months a year. But according to research findings and cli-
matic indicators of these cities, RH can be considered as the major
important factor. Accordingly, we should use the proposed design
strategies e.g. natural ventilation and night ventilation for de-humidi-
fication.
Aside, it seems that these strategies can be applied in any part of the
world with Cfa climate zones, assuming that the same strategy can work
in a different area with a similar exterior climate. In this way, we in-
troduced eight cities with similar climate zones that the findings of this
research can also have an executive function in these cities.
Abbreviations
A Arid indicator
AMR Annual Mean Range
AMT Annual Mean Temperate
C Centigrade
clo Clothing level
DSF Double Skin Facade
E East
H Humid indicator
HVAC Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning
ID Identifier
M Meter
m/s Meters per Second
Max Maximum
met Metabolic rate
Min Minimum
mm Millimeter
N North
15
Journal of Building Engineering 25 (2019) 100758
PCM Phase Change Material
RH Relative Humidity
Temp. Temperature
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