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Tessellation
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"Tessellate" redirects here. For the song by Alt-J, see Tessellate (song). For the
computer graphics technique, see Tessellation (computer graphics).

Zellige terracotta tiles in Marrakech, forming edge-to-edge, regular and other tessellations

A wall sculpture in Leeuwarden celebrating the artistic tessellations of M. C. Escher

A tiling or tessellation of a flat surface is the covering of a plane using one or
more geometric shapes, called tiles, with no overlaps and no gaps.
In mathematics, tessellations can be generalized to higher dimensions and a
variety of geometries.
A periodic tiling has a repeating pattern. Some special kinds include regular
tilings with regular polygonal tiles all of the same shape, and semiregular
tilings with regular tiles of more than one shape and with every corner identically
arranged. The patterns formed by periodic tilings can be categorized into
17 wallpaper groups. A tiling that lacks a repeating pattern is called "non-
periodic". An aperiodic tiling uses a small set of tile shapes that cannot form a
repeating pattern. In the geometry of higher dimensions, a space-filling
or honeycomb is also called a tessellation of space.
A real physical tessellation is a tiling made of materials such
as cemented ceramic squares or hexagons. Such tilings may be
decorative patterns, or may have functions such as providing durable and
water-resistant pavement, floor or wall coverings. Historically, tessellations were
used in Ancient Rome and in Islamic art such as in the decorative geometric
tiling of the Alhambra palace. In the twentieth century, the work of M. C.
Escher often made use of tessellations, both in ordinary Euclidean
geometry and in hyperbolic geometry, for artistic effect. Tessellations are
sometimes employed for decorative effect in quilting. Tessellations form a class
of patterns in nature, for example in the arrays of hexagonal cells found
in honeycombs.

Contents

 1History

o 1.1Etymology

 2Overview

 3In mathematics

o 3.1Introduction to tessellations

o 3.2Wallpaper groups

o 3.3Aperiodic tilings

o 3.4Tessellations and colour

o 3.5Tessellations with polygons

o 3.6Voronoi tilings

o 3.7Tessellations in higher dimensions

o 3.8Tessellations in non-Euclidean geometries

  4In art

 5In manufacturing

 6In nature

 7In puzzles and recreational mathematics

 8Examples

 9See also

 10Footnotes

 11References

 12Sources

 13External links

History[edit]

A temple mosaic from the ancient Sumerian city of Uruk IV (3400–3100 BC), showing a tessellation
pattern in coloured tiles

Tessellations were used by the Sumerians (about 4000 BC) in building wall

decorations formed by patterns of clay tiles. [1]
Decorative mosaic tilings made of small squared blocks called tesserae were
widely employed in classical antiquity,[2] sometimes displaying geometric
patterns.[3][4]
In 1619 Johannes Kepler made an early documented study of tessellations. He
wrote about regular and semiregular tessellations in his Harmonices Mundi; he
was possibly the first to explore and to explain the hexagonal structures of
honeycomb and snowflakes.[5][6][7]
Roman geometric mosaic

Some two hundred years later in 1891, the Russian crystallographer Yevgraf

Fyodorov proved that every periodic tiling of the plane features one of
seventeen different groups of isometries.[8][9] Fyodorov's work marked the
unofficial beginning of the mathematical study of tessellations. Other prominent
contributors include Aleksei Shubnikov and Nikolai Belov (1964),[10] and Heinrich
Heesch and Otto Kienzle (1963).[11]
Etymology[edit]
In Latin, tessella is a small cubical piece of clay, stone or glass used to make
mosaics.[12] The word "tessella" means "small square" (from tessera, square,
which in turn is from the Greek word τέσσερα for four). It corresponds to the
everyday term tiling, which refers to applications of tessellations, often made
of glazed clay.

Overview[edit]

A rhombitrihexagonal tiling: tiled floor in the Archeological Museum of Seville, Spain, using square,
triangle and hexagon prototiles

Tessellation in two dimensions, also called planar tiling, is a topic in geometry

that studies how shapes, known as tiles, can be arranged to fill a plane without
any gaps, according to a given set of rules. These rules can be varied. Common
ones are that there must be no gaps between tiles, and that no corner of one
tile can lie along the edge of another.[13] The tessellations created by bonded
brickwork do not obey this rule. Among those that do, a regular tessellation has
both identical[a] regular tiles and identical regular corners or vertices, having the
same angle between adjacent edges for every tile. [14] There are only three
shapes that can form such regular tessellations: the equilateral triangle, square,
and regular hexagon. Any one of these three shapes can be duplicated infinitely
to fill a plane with no gaps.[6]
Many other types of tessellation are possible under different constraints. For
example, there are eight types of semi-regular tessellation, made with more
than one kind of regular polygon but still having the same arrangement of
polygons at every corner.[15] Irregular tessellations can also be made from other
shapes such as pentagons, polyominoes and in fact almost any kind of
geometric shape. The artist M. C. Escher is famous for making tessellations
with irregular interlocking tiles, shaped like animals and other natural objects.
[16]
 If suitable contrasting colours are chosen for the tiles of differing shape,
striking patterns are formed, and these can be used to decorate physical
surfaces such as church floors.[17]

The elaborate and colourful zellige tessellations of glazed tiles at the Alhambra in Spain that

attracted the attention of M. C. Escher

More formally, a tessellation or tiling is a cover of the Euclidean plane by

a countable number of closed sets, called tiles, such that the tiles intersect only
on their boundaries. These tiles may be polygons or any other shapes.[b] Many
tessellations are formed from a finite number of prototiles in which all tiles in the
tessellation are congruent to the given prototiles. If a geometric shape can be
used as a prototile to create a tessellation, the shape is said to tessellate or
to tile the plane. The Conway criterion is a sufficient but not necessary set of
rules for deciding if a given shape tiles the plane periodically without reflections:
some tiles fail the criterion but still tile the plane. [19] No general rule has been
found for determining if a given shape can tile the plane or not, which means
there are many unsolved problems concerning tessellations. [18]
Mathematically, tessellations can be extended to spaces other than the
Euclidean plane.[6] The Swiss geometer Ludwig Schläfli pioneered this by
defining polyschemes, which mathematicians nowadays call polytopes. These
are the analogues to polygons and polyhedra in spaces with more dimensions.
He further defined the Schläfli symbol notation to make it easy to describe
polytopes. For example, the Schläfli symbol for an equilateral triangle is {3},
while that for a square is {4}.[20] The Schläfli notation makes it possible to
describe tilings compactly. For example, a tiling of regular hexagons has three
six-sided polygons at each vertex, so its Schläfli symbol is {6,3}. [21]
Other methods also exist for describing polygonal tilings. When the tessellation
is made of regular polygons, the most common notation is the vertex
configuration, which is simply a list of the number of sides of the polygons
around a vertex. The square tiling has a vertex configuration of 4.4.4.4, or 4 4.
The tiling of regular hexagons is noted 6.6.6, or 63.[18]

In mathematics[edit]
Introduction to tessellations[edit]
Further information: Euclidean tilings by convex regular polygons, Uniform tiling,
and List of Euclidean uniform tilings
Mathematicians use some technical terms when discussing tilings. An edge is
the intersection between two bordering tiles; it is often a straight line. A vertex is
the point of intersection of three or more bordering tiles. Using these terms,
an isogonal or vertex-transitive tiling is a tiling where every vertex point is
identical; that is, the arrangement of polygons about each vertex is the same.
[18]
 The fundamental region is a shape such as a rectangle that is repeated to
form the tessellation.[22] For example, a regular tessellation of the plane with
squares has a meeting of four squares at every vertex.[18]
The sides of the polygons are not necessarily identical to the edges of the tiles.
An edge-to-edge tiling is any polygonal tessellation where adjacent tiles only
share one full side, i.e., no tile shares a partial side or more than one side with
any other tile. In an edge-to-edge tiling, the sides of the polygons and the edges
of the tiles are the same. The familiar "brick wall" tiling is not edge-to-edge
because the long side of each rectangular brick is shared with two bordering
bricks.[18]
A normal tiling is a tessellation for which every tile is topologically equivalent to
a disk, the intersection of any two tiles is a single connected set or the empty
set, and all tiles are uniformly bounded. This means that a single circumscribing
radius and a single inscribing radius can be used for all the tiles in the whole
tiling; the condition disallows tiles that are pathologically long or thin. [23]

The 15th convex monohedral pentagonal tiling, discovered in 2015

A monohedral tiling is a tessellation in which all tiles are congruent; it has only

one prototile. A particularly interesting type of monohedral tessellation is the
spiral monohedral tiling. The first spiral monohedral tiling was discovered by
Heinz Voderberg in 1936; the Voderberg tiling has a unit tile that is a
nonconvex enneagon.[1] The Hirschhorn tiling, published by Michael D.
Hirschhorn and D. C. Hunt in 1985, is a pentagon tiling using irregular
pentagons: regular pentagons cannot tile the Euclidean plane as the internal
angle of a regular pentagon, 3π/5 , is not a divisor of 2π.[24][25][26]
An isohedral tiling is a special variation of a monohedral tiling in which all tiles
belong to the same transitivity class, that is, all tiles are transforms of the same
prototile under the symmetry group of the tiling.[23] If a prototile admits a tiling, but
no such tiling is isohedral, then the prototile is called anisohedral and
forms anisohedral tilings.
A regular tessellation is a highly symmetric, edge-to-edge tiling made up
of regular polygons, all of the same shape. There are only three regular
tessellations: those made up of equilateral triangles, squares, or
regular hexagons. All three of these tilings are isogonal and monohedral. [27]

A Pythagorean tiling

A semi-regular (or Archimedean) tessellation uses more than one type of

regular polygon in an isogonal arrangement. There are eight semi-regular tilings
(or nine if the mirror-image pair of tilings counts as two). [28] These can be
described by their vertex configuration; for example, a semi-regular tiling using
squares and regular octagons has the vertex configuration 4.8 2 (each vertex has
one square and two octagons).[29] Many non-edge-to-edge tilings of the
Euclidean plane are possible, including the family of Pythagorean tilings,
tessellations that use two (parameterised) sizes of square, each square
touching four squares of the other size. [30] An edge tessellation is one in which
each tile can be reflected over an edge to take up the position of a neighbouring
tile, such as in an array of equilateral or isosceles triangles. [31]
Wallpaper groups[edit]
Main article: Wallpaper group

This tessellated, monohedral street pavement uses curved shapes instead of polygons. It belongs to
wallpaper group p3.

Tilings with translational symmetry in two independent directions can be

categorized by wallpaper groups, of which 17 exist.[32] It has been claimed that
all seventeen of these groups are represented in the Alhambra palace
in Granada, Spain. Though this is disputed,[33] the variety and sophistication of
the Alhambra tilings have surprised modern researchers. [34] Of the three regular
tilings two are in the p6m wallpaper group and one is in p4m. Tilings in 2D with
translational symmetry in just one direction can be categorized by the seven
frieze groups describing the possible frieze patterns.[35] Orbifold notation can be
used to describe wallpaper groups of the Euclidean plane. [36]
Aperiodic tilings[edit]
Main articles: Aperiodic tiling and List of aperiodic sets of tiles
A Penrose tiling, with several symmetries but no periodic repetitions

Penrose tilings, which use two different quadrilateral prototiles, are the best
known example of tiles that forcibly create non-periodic patterns. They belong to
a general class of aperiodic tilings, which use tiles that cannot tessellate
periodically. The recursive process of substitution tiling is a method of
generating aperiodic tilings. One class that can be generated in this way is
the rep-tiles; these tilings have surprising self-replicating properties.[37] Pinwheel
tilings are non-periodic, using a rep-tile construction; the tiles appear in infinitely
many orientations.[38] It might be thought that a non-periodic pattern would be
entirely without symmetry, but this is not so. Aperiodic tilings, while lacking
in translational symmetry, do have symmetries of other types, by infinite
repetition of any bounded patch of the tiling and in certain finite groups of
rotations or reflections of those patches.[39] A substitution rule, such as can be
used to generate some Penrose patterns using assemblies of tiles called
rhombs, illustrates scaling symmetry.[40] A Fibonacci word can be used to build
an aperiodic tiling, and to study quasicrystals, which are structures with
aperiodic order.[41]

A set of 13 Wang tiles that tile the plane only aperiodically

Wang tiles are squares coloured on each edge, and placed so that abutting
edges of adjacent tiles have the same colour; hence they are sometimes called
Wang dominoes. A suitable set of Wang dominoes can tile the plane, but only
aperiodically. This is known because any Turing machine can be represented
as a set of Wang dominoes that tile the plane if and only if the Turing machine
does not halt. Since the halting problem is undecidable, the problem of deciding
whether a Wang domino set can tile the plane is also undecidable. [42][43][44][45][46]
Random Truchet tiling

Truchet tiles are square tiles decorated with patterns so they do not

have rotational symmetry; in 1704, Sébastien Truchet used a square tile split
into two triangles of contrasting colours. These can tile the plane either
periodically or randomly.[47][48]
Tessellations and colour[edit]
Further information: Four colour theorem

If the colours of this tiling are to form a pattern by repeating this rectangle as the fundamental
domain, at least seven colours are required; more generally, at least four colours are needed.

Sometimes the colour of a tile is understood as part of the tiling; at other times
arbitrary colours may be applied later. When discussing a tiling that is displayed
in colours, to avoid ambiguity one needs to specify whether the colours are part
of the tiling or just part of its illustration. This affects whether tiles with the same
shape but different colours are considered identical, which in turn affects
questions of symmetry. The four colour theorem states that for every
tessellation of a normal Euclidean plane, with a set of four available colours,
each tile can be coloured in one colour such that no tiles of equal colour meet at
a curve of positive length. The colouring guaranteed by the four colour theorem
does not generally respect the symmetries of the tessellation. To produce a
colouring which does, it is necessary to treat the colours as part of the
tessellation. Here, as many as seven colours may be needed, as in the picture
at right.[49]
Tessellations with polygons[edit]

A Voronoi tiling, in which the cells are always convex polygons.

Next to the various tilings by regular polygons, tilings by other polygons have

also been studied.
Any triangle or quadrilateral (even non-convex) can be used as a prototile to
form a monohedral tessellation, often in more than one way. Copies of an
arbitrary quadrilateral can form a tessellation with translational symmetry and 2-
fold rotational symmetry with centres at the midpoints of all sides. For an
asymmetric quadrilateral this tiling belongs to wallpaper group p2.
As fundamental domain we have the quadrilateral. Equivalently, we can
construct a parallelogram subtended by a minimal set of translation vectors,
starting from a rotational centre. We can divide this by one diagonal, and take
one half (a triangle) as fundamental domain. Such a triangle has the same area
as the quadrilateral and can be constructed from it by cutting and pasting. [50]
If only one shape of tile is allowed, tilings exists with convex N-gons for N equal
to 3, 4, 5 and 6. For N = 5, see Pentagonal tiling, for N = 6, see Hexagonal
tiling,for N = 7, see Heptagonal tiling and for N = 8, see octagonal tiling.
For results on tiling the plane with polyominoes, see Polyomino § Uses of
polyominoes.
Voronoi tilings[edit]
Voronoi or Dirichlet tilings are tessellations where each tile is defined as the set
of points closest to one of the points in a discrete set of defining points. (Think
of geographical regions where each region is defined as all the points closest to
a given city or post office.)[51][52] The Voronoi cell for each defining point is a
convex polygon. The Delaunay triangulation is a tessellation that is the dual
graph of a Voronoi tessellation. Delaunay triangulations are useful in numerical
simulation, in part because among all possible triangulations of the defining
points, Delaunay triangulations maximize the minimum of the angles formed by
the edges.[53] Voronoi tilings with randomly placed points can be used to
construct random tilings of the plane.[54]
Tessellations in higher dimensions[edit]
Main article: Honeycomb (geometry)

Tessellating three-dimensional space: the rhombic dodecahedron is one of the solids that can be
stacked to fill space exactly.

Tessellation can be extended to three dimensions. Certain polyhedra can be

stacked in a regular crystal pattern to fill (or tile) three-dimensional space,
including the cube (the only Platonic polyhedron to do so), the rhombic
dodecahedron, the truncated octahedron, and triangular, quadrilateral, and
hexagonal prisms, among others.[55] Any polyhedron that fits this criterion is
known as a plesiohedron, and may possess between 4 and 38 faces.
  Naturally occurring rhombic dodecahedra are found
[56]

as crystals of andradite (a kind of garnet) and fluorite.[57][58]

Illustration of a Schmitt-Conway biprism, also called a Schmitt–Conway–Danzer tile

Tessellations in three or more dimensions are called honeycombs. In three

dimensions there is just one regular honeycomb, which has eight cubes at each
polyhedron vertex. Similarly, in three dimensions there is just one
quasiregular[c] honeycomb, which has eight tetrahedra and six octahedra at each
polyhedron vertex. However, there are many possible semiregular
honeycombs in three dimensions.[59] Uniform polyhedra can be constructed using
the Wythoff construction.[60]
The Schmitt-Conway biprism is a convex polyhedron with the property of tiling
space only aperiodically.[61]
A Schwarz triangle is a spherical triangle that can be used to tile a sphere.[62]
Tessellations in non-Euclidean geometries[edit]

Rhombitriheptagonal tiling in hyperbolic plane, seen in Poincaré disk model projection

The regular {3,5,3} icosahedral honeycomb, one of four regular compact honeycombs in hyperbolic
3-space
It is possible to tessellate in non-Euclidean geometries such as hyperbolic
geometry. A uniform tiling in the hyperbolic plane (which may be regular,
quasiregular or semiregular) is an edge-to-edge filling of the hyperbolic plane,
with regular polygons as faces; these are vertex-transitive (transitive on
its vertices), and isogonal (there is an isometry mapping any vertex onto any
other).[63][64]
A uniform honeycomb in hyperbolic space is a uniform tessellation of uniform
polyhedral cells. In 3-dimensional hyperbolic space there are nine Coxeter
group families of compact convex uniform honeycombs, generated as Wythoff
constructions, and represented by permutations of rings of the Coxeter
diagrams for each family.[65]

In art[edit]
Further information: Mathematics and art

Roman mosaic floor panel of stone, tile and glass, from a villa near Antioch in Roman Syria. 2nd
century AD

In architecture, tessellations have been used to create decorative motifs since

ancient times. Mosaic tilings often had geometric patterns. [4] Later civilisations
also used larger tiles, either plain or individually decorated. Some of the most
decorative were the Moorish wall tilings of Islamic architecture,
using Girih and Zellige tiles in buildings such as the Alhambra[66] and La
Mezquita.[67]
Tessellations frequently appeared in the graphic art of M. C. Escher; he was
inspired by the Moorish use of symmetry in places such as the Alhambra when
he visited Spain in 1936.[68] Escher made four "Circle Limit" drawings of tilings
that use hyperbolic geometry.[69][70] For his woodcut "Circle Limit IV" (1960),
Escher prepared a pencil and ink study showing the required geometry.
[71]
 Escher explained that "No single component of all the series, which from
infinitely far away rise like rockets perpendicularly from the limit and are at last
lost in it, ever reaches the boundary line." [72]
A quilt showing a regular tessellation pattern

Tessellated designs often appear on textiles, whether woven, stitched in or

printed. Tessellation patterns have been used to design interlocking motifs of
patch shapes in quilts.[73][74]
Tessellations are also a main genre in origami (paper folding), where pleats are
used to connect molecules such as twist folds together in a repeating fashion. [75]

In manufacturing[edit]
Tessellation is used in manufacturing industry to reduce the wastage of material
(yield losses) such as sheet metal when cutting out shapes for objects like car
doors or drinks cans.[76]
Tessellation is apparent in the mudcrack-like cracking of thin films[77][78] – with a
degree of self-organisation being observed using micro and nanotechnologies.[79]

In nature[edit]
Main article: Patterns in nature §  Tessellations

A honeycomb is a natural tessellated structure.

The honeycomb is a well-known example of tessellation in nature with its

hexagonal cells.[80]

Tessellate pattern in a Colchicum flower

In botany, the term "tessellate" describes a checkered pattern, for example on a
flower petal, tree bark, or fruit. Flowers including the fritillary[81] and some species
of Colchicum are characteristically tessellate.[82]
Many patterns in nature are formed by cracks in sheets of materials. These
patterns can be described by Gilbert tessellations,[83] also known as random
crack networks.[84] The Gilbert tessellation is a mathematical model for the
formation of mudcracks, needle-like crystals, and similar structures. The model,
named after Edgar Gilbert, allows cracks to form starting from randomly
scattered over the plane; each crack propagates in two opposite directions
along a line through the initiation point, its slope chosen at random, creating a
tessellation of irregular convex polygons.[85] Basaltic lava flows often
display columnar jointing as a result of contraction forces causing cracks as the
lava cools. The extensive crack networks that develop often produce hexagonal
columns of lava. One example of such an array of columns is the Giant's
Causeway in Northern Ireland.[86] Tessellated pavement, a characteristic
example of which is found at Eaglehawk Neck on the Tasman
Peninsula of Tasmania, is a rare sedimentary rock formation where the rock has
fractured into rectangular blocks.[87]
Other natural patterns occur in foams; these are packed according to Plateau's
laws, which require minimal surfaces. Such foams present a problem in how to
pack cells as tightly as possible: in 1887, Lord Kelvin proposed a packing using
only one solid, the bitruncated cubic honeycomb with very slightly curved faces.
In 1993, Denis Weaire and Robert Phelan proposed the Weaire–Phelan
structure, which uses less surface area to separate cells of equal volume than
Kelvin's foam.[88]

In puzzles and recreational mathematics[edit]

Traditional tangram dissection puzzle

Main articles: Tiling puzzle and recreational mathematics

Tessellations have given rise to many types of tiling puzzle, from
traditional jigsaw puzzles (with irregular pieces of wood or cardboard) [89] and
the tangram[90] to more modern puzzles which often have a mathematical basis.
For example, polyiamonds and polyominoes are figures of regular triangles and
squares, often used in tiling puzzles.[91][92] Authors such as Henry
Dudeney and Martin Gardner have made many uses of tessellation
in recreational mathematics. For example, Dudeney invented the hinged
dissection,[93] while Gardner wrote about the rep-tile, a shape that can
be dissected into smaller copies of the same shape.[94][95] Inspired by Gardner's
articles in Scientific American, the amateur mathematician Marjorie Rice found
four new tessellations with pentagons.[96][97] Squaring the square is the problem of
tiling an integral square (one whose sides have integer length) using only other
integral squares.[98][99] An extension is squaring the plane, tiling it by squares
whose sizes are all natural numbers without repetitions; James and Frederick
Henle proved that this was possible.[100]

Examples[edit]


Triangular tiling, one of the three regular tilings of the plane.

 

Snub hexagonal tiling, a semiregular tiling of the plane

 

Floret pentagonal tiling, dual to a semiregular tiling and one of 15

monohedral pentagon tilings.
 

The Voderberg tiling, a spiral, monohedral tiling made of enneagons.

 
 

Alternated octagonal or tritetragonal tiling is a uniform tiling of the hyperbolic plane.

 

Topological square tiling, isohedrally distorted into I shapes.

See also[edit]
 Discrete global grid
 Space partitioning
 Honeycomb (geometry)

Footnotes[edit]
1. ^ The mathematical term for identical shapes is "congruent" – in mathematics,
"identical" means they are the same tile.
2. ^ The tiles are usually required to be homeomorphic (topologically equivalent) to
a closed disk, which means bizarre shapes with holes, dangling line segments or
infinite areas are excluded.[18]
3. ^ In this context, quasiregular means that the cells are regular (solids), and the
vertex figures are semiregular.

References[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:    Pickover, Clifford A. (2009).  The Math Book: From Pythagoras to the
a b

57th Dimension, 250 Milestones in the History of Mathematics. Sterling.

p.  372. ISBN 9781402757969.
2. ^ Dunbabin, Katherine M. D. (2006). Mosaics of the Greek and Roman world.
Cambridge University Press. p.  280.
3. ^ "The Brantingham Geometric Mosaics". Hull City Council. 2008. Retrieved  26
May  2015.
4. ^ Jump up to:a b Field, Robert (1988).  Geometric Patterns from Roman Mosaics.
Tarquin.  ISBN  978-0-906-21263-9.
5. ^ Kepler, Johannes  (1619). Harmonices Mundi  [Harmony of the Worlds].
6. ^ Jump up to:      Gullberg 1997, p. 395.
a b c

7. ^ Stewart 2001, p. 13.

8. ^ Djidjev, Hristo; Potkonjak, Miodrag (2012).  "Dynamic Coverage Problems in
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Sources[edit]
 Coxeter, H.S.M. (1973). "Section IV : Tessellations and
Honeycombs". Regular Polytopes. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-
61480-9.
 Escher, M. C. (1974). J. L. Locher (ed.). The World of M. C. Escher (New
Concise NAL ed.). Abrams. ISBN 978-0-451-79961-6.
  Gardner, Martin (1989). Penrose Tiles to Trapdoor Ciphers. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-88385-521-8.
 Grünbaum, Branko; Shephard, G. C. (1987). Tilings and Patterns. W. H.
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 Stewart, Ian (2001). What Shape is a Snowflake?. Weidenfeld and
Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-60723-6.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Tiling.

 Tegula (open-source software for exploring two-dimensional tilings of the

plane, sphere and hyperbolic plane; includes databases containing millions
of tilings)
 Wolfram MathWorld: Tessellation (good bibliography, drawings of regular,
semiregular and demiregular tessellations)
 Tilings Encyclopedia (extensive information on substitution tilings, including
drawings, people, and references)
 Tessellations.org (how-to guides, Escher tessellation gallery, galleries of
tessellations by other artists, lesson plans, history)
 Eppstein, David. "The Geometry Junkyard: Hyperbolic Tiling". (list of web
resources including articles and galleries)

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