SEMI-FINALS TYPE A – ones that has single peak, has liquid limit
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING between 30-70
SOIL COMPACTION
 Increases unit weight
 Increases the strength the characteristics of
the soils, thereby increasing the bearing
capacity of the of foundation constructed to
them
 Decreases the amount of undesirable
settlements of structure and increases the
stability of slope of embankments.
Used for Soil Compaction
1. Smooth-wheel rollers
2. Sheepsfoot rollers
3. Rubber-tire rollers
4. Vibratory Rollers
5.2 COMPACTION – GENERAL PRINCIPLES
- defined as densification of soil by air
removal, which requires mechanical energy
-it is measured in terms of dry unit weight
- Water is added to the soil during
compaction, acts a lublicant between soil particles.
(further explanation on book)
- the moisture content at which the
MAXIMUM DRY UNIT WEIGHT is attained is generally
referred to as the OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT
5.3 STANDARD PROCTOR TEST
- geo lab
- soil is compacted in a mold that has a
volume of 943.3cm3, diameter of mold is 101.6 mm
- the mold Is attached to the base plate at the
bottom and to an extension at the top
- the soil is mixed with different varying
amount of water and then compacted into 3 equal
layers
- hammer (24.4N) drop (304.8mm)
- book
To obtain the theoretical variation of unit weight zav
with moisture content use the following procedure:
1. Determine the specific gravity of the soil
soilds
2. Know the unit weight of water
3. Assume several values of w, 5%, 10%, etc
4. Use Eq 5.3 unit weight zav for various value of
w with ground contact pressure (310-
5.4 FACTOR AFFECTING COMPACTION
- moisture content has great effects on degree
of compaction achieved by a given soil
EFFECTS OF SOIL TYPE – the soil type – that is the
grain size distribution, shape of soil grains, specific
gravity of the soil solid, and amount and type of clay
mineral presents – has great influence on the max. dry
unit weight and the optimum moisture content
TYPE B – one half peak curve
TYPE C – double peak curve, liquid limit less than 30
TYPE D – has do not have definite peak, they are odd-
shaped, LL is greater than 70
C AND D are not so common just like common sense.
EFFECT OF COMPACTION ENERGY -may formula,
expressed in E
- If the unit volume of soil is changed, the
moisture unit weight is also changed
From Table 5.1 and Fig. 5.6, we can reach two
inclusions:
1. As the compaction energy is increased,
the maximum dry unit weight of
compaction is also increased
2. A the compaction of energy is increased,
the optimum moisture content is
decreases to some extent
5.5 MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST – same mold is used
- 5 layers by heavier hammer that weighs 44.5
N, drop is also increased 457.2 mm, same blows at 25
Different formula for the compaction energy (E) for
unit volume of soil in the modified test can be
calculated.
- Because of increase the compactive
effort,
Modified proctor test results in an increase of the
maximum dry unit weight of the soil.
- The increase of maximum dry unit weight
is
Is accompanied by a decrease of the optimum
moisture content
5.6 EMPIRICAL RELASTIONSHIP
- FORMULASSSSS
5.7 FIELD COMPACTION
Four Common Type of Rollers
1. Smooth-wheel rollers or Smooth-drum
rollers – are suitable for proofrolling subgrade
and for finishing operation to fills with sandy
and clayey soils.
- Provide 100% coverage under the wheels
380KPa)
- not suitable for producing high unit
weight of compaction when used on
thicker layers
2. Sheepsfoot rollers – are drums with larger
number of projections. The area of each of
these projections may range from 25-80 cm2
- Most effective in compacting clayey soils,
the pressure under the projections can
range (1380-6900KPa)
 3. Pneumatic Rubber-tire rollers – are better in
many aspect than smooth-wheel rollers.
- Heavy loaded wagons with several rows of
tires, tires are closely spaced – four to six
in a row. The pressure ranges from (600-
700KPa) and they produce 70% to 80%
coverage.
- can be used for sandy and clayey soil
compaction. Compaction is achieved by a
combination of pressure and kneading
actions.
4. Vibratory Rollers – these are very efficient in
compacting granular soils,
- Vibrators can be attached to smooth
wheels, pneumatic rubber tire or
sheepsfoot to provide vibratory effects to
the soil
- Vibration is produced by rotating off-
center weights
- hand-held vibrating plates can be used for
effective compaction of granular soils over
a limited area
- Vibrating plates are also gang-mounted
on machine which can be used in less
restricted area
FACTOR CONSIDERED to achieved DESIRED UNIT
WEIGHT
1. Thickness of Lift
2. Intensity of pressure applied by compacting
equipment
3. Area over which the pressure is applied
The pressure applied at the surface decreases with
depth, resulting in a decrease in the degree of
compaction of soil
5.8 SPECIFICATION FOR FIELD COMPACTION
- must compact field dry unit weight of at
least 90% to 95% of the maximum dry unit weight
determined in the lab or by either S/M Proctor Test
- The specification for field compaction based
on relative compaction or on relative density is an
end-product specification.
- contractor is expected to achieve a minimum
dry-unit weight regardless of the field procedure
adopted
5.9 DETERMINATION OF FIELD UNIT WEIGHT AFTER
COMPACTION
Three standard procedure are used for determining
the field unit weight of compaction.
1) San Cone Method
2) Rubber balloon method
3) Nuclear Method
1. SAND CONE METHOD
- consist of a glass or plastic jar with a metal
cone attached to its top. The jar is filled with uniform
dry Ottawa sand. (book)
2. RUBBER BALLOON METHOD
- similar to sand-cone method; a hole is made,
and a moist weight of the soil removed from the hole
and its moisture content is determined. Volume of
hole is determined by introducing a rubber balloon
filled with water from a calibrated vessel into the
hole, from which the volume can be read directly.
3. NUCLEAR METHOD
- Nuclear density meters are now used to
often determine the compacted dry unit weight of the
soil. The density meters operate either in drilled holes
or from the ground surfaces. The instrument
measures the weight of wet soils per unit volume and
also the weight of water present in a unit volume of
soil.
5.10 EFFECTS OF COMPACTION ON COHESIVE SOIL
PROPERTIES
CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY
1) Standard and Modified Proctor Test are conducted
in the laboratory to determine the maximum dry unit
weight of compaction and the optimum moisture
content which are used to develop the specifications
for the field compaction
2) The maximum dry unit weight compaction is a
function of the compaction energy
3) Smooth-wheel roller, sheepsfoot roller and rubber-
tire roller are generally used for soil compaction
4) Vibratory rollers are very effective in the
compaction of granular soils
5) Sand cone method, rubber balloon and nuclear
density meter are used to check if the field
compaction meets the desired compaction
specification
6) The hydraulic conductivity of clayey soil decreases
with the increase in the molding moisture content and
reaches an approximate minimum value at optimum
moisture content
CHAPTER 6
HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
6.1 INTRODUCTION
- the study of water flow on soil is necessary
for estimating the quantity of underground seepage
under various hydraulic conditions, for problems
involving pump, and for making stability analyses of
earth dams and structures that are subject to seepage
forces
 - hydraulic conductivity is important
parameter for a soil in the study of seepage
6.2 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
Bernoulli’s equation with respective heads
6.3 DARCY’S LAW
- In 1856, Henri Philibert Gaspard Darcy,
publish a simple emipircal equation for
the discharge velocity of water through
saturated soils.
V = ki
Where; v = discharge velocity, which is the quantity of
water flowing in unit time through a unit gross
sectional area of soil at right angle to the direction of
flow
K = hydraulic conductivity (coefficient of
permeability)
- Hydraulic permeability is expressed in
cm/s or m/s
6.4 HYDDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
- it depends on several factor: fluid viscosity,
pore-size distribution, grain-size distribution, void
ratio, roughness of mineral particle, and degree of
saturation
- in clayey soil, structure plays an important
role in the hydraulic conductivity
- other major factors affect the hydraulic
conductivity of clays are the ionic concentration and
the thickness of the layers of water held to the clay
particle
Note: The value of k varies widely for different soil.
The hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soil is
significantly lower and increases rapidly with the
degree of saturation
The absolute permeability K bar is expressed in unit
of length squared (cm2). It is independent of the
permeant properties.
6.5 LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC
CONDUCTIVITY
Two standard laboratory test are used to determine
the hydraulic conductivity of soil
1) The constant head test
2) The falling head test
1) The constant head test – is used primarily for
coarse-grained soil.
2) Falling Head Test – it is used for fine-grained soil,
because the flow rates through the soil are too small
6.6 EMPIRICAL RELATIONS FOR HYDRAULIC
CONDUCTIVITY
- puro formulas
- Tavenas (1983) also gave correlation
between the void ratio and the hydraulic conductivity
of clayey soil for flow in vertical directions
- According to their experimental observatios,
Samarasinghe (1982) suggested that the hydraulic
conductivity of normally consolidated clay can be
given by an equation.
6.7 EQUIVALENT HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY IN
STRATIDIED SOIL
- Soil are anisotripic, showing directional
variation in their properties
- Hydraulic conductivity is one of the soil
parameters that can be sometimes anisotropic.
Note: In stratified soil deposit where the hydraulic
conductivity for the flow in one directions changes
from layer to layer, an equivalent hydraulic
conductivity determination becomes necessary to
simplify calculations.
6.8 PERMEABILITY TEST IN THE FIELD BY PUMPING
FROM WELLS
CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY
1. Hydraulic gradient (i) is the ration of the loss head
to the length of flow over which the loss of head
occurred
2. Hydraulic conductivity is defined as:
K=v/i
3. Hydraulic conductivity varies over a wide range
depending on the soil type. For the coarse sand, it
may be in range of 1 to 0.001 cm/s and for the clays, it
may be less than 10-6 cm/s
4. Hydraulic conductivity can be determined in the
laboratory by constant head and falling head test
5. The Kozeny- Carman equation can be somewhat
modiefied to estimate the hydraulic conductivity of
granular soil
6. For flow through layered soils, the equivalent
hydraulic conductivity can be calculated via given
equation, provided the hydraulic conductivity of the
individual conductivity of the individual layer is known
7. Hydraulic conductivity in the field can be
determined by means of pumping test from wells.