K.C.

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AL. y197(2020)106213
4. Synthetic routes for the synthesis of levulinate ester
compounds

Basically there are four pathways to synthesize the levulinate

esters as shown in Scheme 1 [40–42], First pathway is the direct one-
pot synthesis of levulinate ester from cellulose via isomerization,
dehy- dration, rehydration and alcoholysis reaction in acidic media
[41]. One- pot synthesis has few advantages like skipping of various
reaction processing however, this method has several drawbacks
such as lower mass yield, lesser conversion, sluggish selectivity,
multiple products, humin formation etc. which limits the scope of
this route [41,42].
The second pathway involves the catalytic alcoholysis of furfuryl
alcohol which directly offers levulinate ester [43]. Advantage of this
method is the easiness of reaction, higher yield, moderate reaction
conditions, and lesser by-product formation [43,44]. Disadvantage of
this protocol is production and availability of the furfuryl alcohol as
compared to sole biomass and levulinic acid feedstock [43,44].
The third pathway involves reduction of furfural to furfuryl
alcohol followed by catalytic alcoholysis which directly offers
levulinate ester [45]. Disadvantage of this method is the use of
hazardous hydrogen gas for reduction at the high reaction
temperature and pressure [45].
Fourth pathway is the direct esterification of the levulinic acid
using various acidic sites possessing catalyst [23]. This is the simplest
and sustainable pathway which is creating water as a side-product
[23]. Various kinds of solid acid catalysts (zeolites, silica based,
hetero- polyacids, mixed metal oxide, resins, nano-structured solid
acid

Scheme 1. Various pathways of synthesis of levulinate esters.

material etc.) are used to obtain the respective levulinate ester [23].
Moreover levulinic acid is well commercialized product and available
easily in the market. In the present review, we have highlighted the
recent scientific literature which focusing the basic catalytic pathways
(its processing, advantages and challenges) to obtain levulinate esters
from levulinic acid