PRESENTATION REPORT

Course Name:-Sensors And Signal Conditioning

Course Code:- EE-653
Name :- Jayantkumar Rammohan Bradiya
Roll No.:- 20MEE207
SEMESTER- I
MTech. Electrical Engineering
Academic year:- 2020-21
Condition Monitoring, Control and Protection of
Electrical Apparatus
राष्ट्रीय प्रौद्योगिकी संस्थान हमीरपुर
 INDEX
Sr No. Title Page no
A. Multiplexers and Demultiplexers
1. Multiplexers 1
Basic 2 input MUX 2
Basic 4 input MUX 3
IC Specifications 4
2. Cascading of MUX 6
3. Examples 8
4. Application of MUX 10
5. Demultiplexers 11
Types of DEMUX 12
6. Applications 13
7. Cost Analysis 13

B. Photo Acoustic Spectroscopy (PAS)

8. Introduction 14
9. History 14
10. Spectroscopy 15
11. Photo-acoustic Spectroscopy 17
12. Block representations 18
13. Principle 19
PAS in DGA 20
GE’s Kelman Transport X 21
14. Applications 23
15. Advantages and disadvantages 24
16. Vendors of PAS 24
17. Cost Analysis 24
18. Conclusion 24
19. References 25
 A. MULTIPLEXERS AND DEMULTIPLEXERS
1. MULTIPLEXERS
In electronics, a multiplexer (or mux; spelled sometimes as multiplexor), also known as
a data selector, is a device that selects between several analog or digital input signals and
forwards the selected input to a single output line. The selection is directed a separate set of digital
inputs known as select lines. A multiplexer of inputs has select lines, which are used to select
which input line to send to the output.
we will look at how to use multiplexers to do circuit design. So, we have seen what a
multiplexer is in the previous module, we will see how to use multiplexers. So, remember I
mention that multiplexer is a basic blog for designing digital circuits. So, we will see how to use a
multiplexer for dual circuit design.
Multiplexing means sharing .There are two types of multiplexing :- time multiplexing and
frequency multiplexing.
A common example of multiplexing or sharing occurs when several peripheral devices
share a single transmission line to communicate with a computer.
To accomplish this sharing each device in succession is allocated a brief time to send or
receive data. At any given time one and only one device is using the line. This is an example of
time multiplexing since each device is given specific time intervals to use the line. In frequency
multiplexing several devices share common line by transmitting at different frequencies. In a large
mainframe computer numerous user are time multiplex to computer in such a rapid succession that
all appear to be using the computer simultaneously. Multiplexer for data selector is a logic circuit
that accepts several data inputs and allows only one of them at a time to get through the output the
routing of decide data input to output it is controlled by select input which are sometimes referred
as address input. In the diagram shown below the input and output are drawn as large arrows to
indicate that they may constitute one or more signal line.

The multiplexer acts like a digitally controlled multi position switch. The digital code applied to
select input determine which data input will be switched to the output. for example, the output Z equals
the data input D0 for some particular input code; Z will equal D1 for another particular code.
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 In other words we can say that a multiplexer select 1 out of N input data sources and transmits
that selected data to a single output channel. This is called multiplexing.

f= (Wo.s’)+(W1. s)
Basic 2 input multiplexer
The figure shows the logic circuitry and function table for a two input
multiplexer with data input Do and D1 is the data select input. The logic level applied
to the input determine which and gate is enabled so that its data input passes through
the OR gate to the output On the E' input prevents data from going to the output that
is it disable the multiplexer. The ANSI logic symbol has been shown in the figure
Note that the four multiplexers are indicated by partition output line and
input common to all the four multiplexers are indicated as input to the notched block
at the top, which is called the common control block.

2 MSB LSB
 Z = A′.B'.I0 + A'.B.I1 + A.B'.I2 + A.B.I3

4 input multiplexer
The figure shows the logic circuitry for a 4 input multiplexer with data input d0 D1
D2 D3 and data select pin So S1. Distinct determine which and get is enabled so that the data input
passes through the or gate to the output.

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 The 2 4 8 16 input multiplexer are readily available in the TTL and CMOS families.
This basic IC can be combined for multiplexing many inputs. Some packages contain more than 1
multiplexer for example 74157 quad 2 to 1 multiplexer and 74153 quad 4 to 1 multiplexer

Specifications: -

74HC157 is a 16 Pin Quad 2-Input Multiplexer IC having 2V to 6V Operating

Voltage range with 1uA Low Input current and high noise immunity. It select 4 bits of data from
two sources under the control of a common data select input (S). The enable input (E) is active
LOW. When E is HIGH, all of the outputs (1Y to 4Y) are forced LOW regardless of all other
input conditions.

• Package Type: DIP

• Voltage Rating: 2 to 6V
• Current Rating: 1µA low input current
• Temperature Rating: -55 to 125 Deg C
• Number of Pins: 16
• Noise Immunity: NIL = 30%, NIH = 30% of VCC at VCC = 5V

Applications:-
Expand any data input point
Multiplex dual data buses
Generate four functions of two variables (one variable is common)
Source programmable counters
Features: -
Buffered inputs and outputs
Typical propagation time 9 ns
Typical power dissipation 150 Mw
Alternate Military/Aerospace device (54157) is available.

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 The data sheets of the following is attached in Appendix.

General Description:-These data selectors multiplexers contain full on-chip de-coding to select
the desired data source The 150 selects one-of-sixteen data sources the 151A selects one-of-eight
data sources The 150 and 151A have a strobe input which must be at a low logic level to enable
these devices A high level at the strobe forces the W output high and the Y output (as applicable)
low The 151A features complementary W and Y outputs where- as the 150 has an inverted (W)
output only The 151A incorporates address buffers which have symmetrical propagation delay
times through the complementary paths This reduces the possibility of transients occurring at the
output(s) due to changes made at the select inputs even when the 151A outputs are enabled (i e
strobe low).

Features:-
150 selects one-of-sixteen data lines
151A selects one-of-eight data lines
Performs parallel-to-serial conversion
Permits multiplexing from N lines to one line
Also for use as Boolean function generator
Typical average propagation delay time data input to W
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Output:-
150 11 ns
151A 9 ns

Typical power dissipation:-

150 200 mW
151A 135 mW
Alternate Military Aerospace device (54150 54151A) is available

2. CASCADING OF MUX

Let us implement 16x1 Multiplexer using 8x1 Multiplexers and 2x1 Multiplexer. We know
that 8x1 Multiplexer has 8 data inputs, 3 selection lines and one output. Whereas, 16x1
Multiplexer has 16 data inputs, 4 selection lines and one output.
So, we require two 8x1 Multiplexers in first stage in order to get the 16 data inputs. Since,
each 8x1 Multiplexer produces one output, we require a 2x1 Multiplexer in second stage by
considering the outputs of first stage as inputs and to produce the final output.
Let the 16x1 Multiplexer has sixteen data inputs I15 to I0, four selection lines s3 to s0 and
one output Y. The Truth table of 16x1 Multiplexer is shown below.
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 We can implement 16x1 Multiplexer using lower order Multiplexers easily by considering the
above Truth table. The block diagram of 16x1 Multiplexer is shown in the following figure.

The same selection lines, s2, s1 & s0 are applied to both 8x1 Multiplexers. The data inputs
of upper 8x1 Multiplexer are I15 to I8 and the data inputs of lower 8x1 Multiplexer are I7 to I0.
Therefore, each 8x1 Multiplexer produces an output based on the values of selection lines, s2, s1
& s0.
The outputs of first stage 8x1 Multiplexers are applied as inputs of 2x1 Multiplexer that is
present in second stage. The other selection line, s3 is applied to 2x1 Multiplexer. If s3 is zero,
then the output of 2x1 Multiplexer will be one of the 8 inputs Is7 to I0 based on the values of
selection lines s2, s1 & s0.If s3 is one, then the output of 2x1 Multiplexer will be one of the 8

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inputs I15 to I8 based on the values of selection lines s2, s1 & s0.Therefore, the overall
combination of two 8x1 Multiplexers and one 2x1 Multiplexer performs as one 16x1 Multiplexer.

3. EXAMPLE OF MUX BASED LOGIC

Example :- Implement the function f(a,b,c) = Ʃm(𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟓, 𝟔, 𝟕, 𝟗, 𝟏𝟑, 𝟏𝟒)
Let see another example, f of a b c is sigma of 1, 2, 4, 7; I want to do this using the
4 is to 1 mux. So, in this case, I am going to use variable a as the mux input and b and c will be
the select inputs. So, I write it as sigma of 1, 2, 4, 7; these are the terms and I can take things out
a bar into m 1. So, b bar c is equivalent to m 1 of a two variable function, BC bar is m 2 as a
variable function, b bar c bar is m 0 of a two variable function, b c is m 3 of a two variable function.
So, now, you have in terms of two variable things m 1, m 2, m naught m 3 and there
are inputs a, a bar and so on. Now, you can implement this using a 4 is to 1 mux, you give b and c
as the inputs, for input 0 and input 3, a should go un complemented. So, the zeroth min and the

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third pin get un complemented versions of a, for minterm 1 and 2, suppose to get a bar, so you put
a inverter here.
So, a bar goes to d 1 and d 2 inputs. So, you can go and check, whether that this is
implementing the Boolean function that we needed. So, it is relatively straight forward. So, this
way of doing, we will see something called Shannon’s expansion at the end of the module, what
we are doing is, what is called Shannon’s expansion. So, in general, what you have to do is, if you
are given a n plus 1 variable function and if you are last implement that is using a 2 power n is to
1 mux of the n plus 1 inputs, you take n of them and give a select lines. And each combination
form will contain some of these things will either have 0 1 or the one variable that you are
eliminated or the un complemented version of the variable that you eliminated. So, each
combination of these n variables will select exactly two rows from the truth table. So, then you do
a truth table to multiplexer mapping. So, what you do is, let us assume that we have the inputs I 1,
I 2, I n up to I n plus 1 and the function is f. Then, what you can do is, you go and look at two rows
at a time, you take these as select inputs and you take two consecutive rows of I n plus 1. So,
whenever 0 1, if it is 0 0, then f is 0 it iself, if you say that is the 0 1, this is 0 1, then f is the same
as I n plus 1. If it gets to 1 0, then it is I n plus 1 complement or if it remains at 1 1, which at 1. So,
I am not saying that this is the 4 output function, if f is the single output function and if it takes the
value 0 0 for these two rows, then you put a 0. If you 0 1, you put I n plus 1, if it is 1 0, you put I
n plus 1 complement, if it is 1 1, you put 1 and it do this for every pair of two rows. You take two
rows at a time starting from the top and you do this for every pair of two rows at a time and you
will have to do this 2 power n times. So, you will have 2 power n vector, the output which is in
terms of 0 1 and I n plus 1, that is the general way to do this.

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We have to implement these functions also. ese terms are taking care of one more level, so we
going to put x as the select lines for these. So, you can that here x is coming as a select line to two
MUXES, this mux is implementing x bar plus y bar plus z and this mux is implementing x bar plus
z bar and now, here we have z bar 1 0. So, all these are okay, but we have a two-input function
here y bar plus z, we can now break it down further and get something very similar.

In this way we can plot a function using MUX

4. APPLICATION OF MUX
A practical application for a multiplexer is actually what is called a cross bar switch.
So, let say there are two people on the other side of the telephone line, so there are two people you
want to make phone calls and there are two people who can receive the phone calls and over is call
in should be able to call both of them, these what we want. So, there are two people trying to make
phone calls and there are two people who can receive them, we want to be able to make any one
of them connect to any one of them. So, such a circuit is called a cross bar switch, so cross bar
switch is 1 in which any of the inputs can connect to any of the outputs, based on what is the select.
So, we this is the very useful application, because you will see this in telephone
which was an inside circuits and so on. The internal implementation of a cross bar switch is as
follows, so you use 2 mux on the top and mux in the bottom and it takes one external line call the
control line which is select and there are 2 inputs x 1 and x 2. So, what we want is if s is 0, so let
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us look at what happens when s is 0, if s is 0, x 1 will be passed on to y 1 and x 2 will be passed
on to y 2. Because, if you put s equal to 0 look at which line is connected, x 2 is connected to the
0th pin and here’s 1 is connected to the 0th pin of this mux. So, if s is 0, x 1 will be connected to
y 1 and x 2 will be track by y 2; however, if s 1 is 1 then x 2 will be passed on to y 1 and x 1 will
be passed on to y 2. So, this is simple circuit which actually does what is called a cross bar. So,
the name cross bar comes because of this cross connected fashion you have, you do not have lines
going from x 1 to y 1 and x 2 to y 2. You also have this cross connection or x connection that is
there, which is needed for this cross bar switch and this is a circuit which actually does the cross
bar. So, if you want a cross bar like this, you need 2 muxes which can take care of it. So, one think
I want you to go and think about this how to design a 4 cross 4 cross bar. So, 4 cross 4 cross bar
will have 4 inputs here and 4 outputs here, it should be able to connect any 4 to any 4 here and you
should have an appropriate number of select lines. So, go and think about how many select lines
you need for this, you also go and think about how to design that using a mux.
Moreover other application of the MUX are as:-
• Data selection
• Data routing
• Operation sequencing
• Parallel to serial converter
• Waveform generator
• Logic and functional generator

5. DE-MULTIPLEXER
De-Multiplexer is a combinational circuit that performs the reverse operation of
Multiplexer. It has single input, ‘n’ selection lines and maximum of 2n outputs. The input will be
connected to one of these outputs based on the values of selection lines.
Since there are ‘n’ selection lines, there will be 2n possible combinations of zeros and ones.
So, each combination can select only one output. De-Multiplexer is also called as De-Mux.have
a multiplexer takes several inputs and transmits run off them to the output .A demultiplexer
performed the reverse operation; it takes a single input and distributes it over several outputs .so
a demultiplexer can be thought as of a distributor since it transmits the same data to different
destination .That's where a multiplexer is an N to1 device , a demultiplexer is 1 to N device. The
figure shows the functional diagram for the multiplexer (DEMUX).the large arrows for input and
output can represent one or more lines .the selecting boot code determine the output line to which
the input data will be transmitted .in other words the demultiplexer take one input data source and
selectively distribute it to 1 OF N output channel just like a multiposition switch .
A demultiplexer routes (or connects) the data input to the selected output. The value of the
control inputs determines the output that is selected.

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 A demultiplexer has N control inputs,1 data input AND 2N outputs

Out0 W
Out1 X
I In Out2 Y
S1 S0 Out3 Z

A B
1-Line to 4 Line Demultiplexer
The figure shows the logic diagram for one line two 490 multiplexer circuit .the
input data line goals to all of the AND gate .The two select line S0 and S1 enable only
one gate at a time ,and data appearing under input line will pass through selected gate to
the associated output line .
1-Line to 8 Line Demultiplexer
The figure above shows the logic diagram for the multiplexer that distribute one
input line to 8 output line . the single data input from line D is connected to all 8 AND
gates, what only one of those gate will be enabled by the Select input lines .have the
enable input E’ have is used as the data input D in the binary code inputs are used to
select inputs .depending upon the select input the data will be routed to a particular output
. So ,various I see manufacturers often called this type of device a decoder or
demultiplexer
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 6. APPLICATION OF DEMUX
There are several applications of demultiplexers in industry .more ever Most of its
applications is used in computing industries and data transfer schemes .following are the
typical examples of demultiplexes :
• Data selection
• Microprocessors and microcontrollers
• Serial to parallel data conversion
• Communication systems
• Memory selection
• Data acquisition system
• Security monitoring system

7. COST ANALYSIS of MUX AND DEMUX

Do too wide technological advances in industrial applications and high-tech
machines it is becoming easy for manufacturer to construct the IC precisely and very
easily. The multiplexers IC 74157 and IC 74151A Comes in dual inline package DIP in
ceramic and plastic make. the least possible cost for this I see range over from ₹20 to ₹40
.
More ever some typical multiplexer system may range from several ₹1000 to
₹10000.
The same is for demultiplexers IC’s too. They also come in DIP turn ceramic and
plastic make. IC 74139 and IC 74325 are decoder /DEMUX ICs , these also range from
several ₹20 to ₹40 .Typical demultiplexer system may range from several ₹1000 to
₹10000 .

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 B. PHOTO ACOUSTIC SPECTROSCOPY (PAS)

8. INTRODUCTION

Condition monitoring (colloquially, CM) is the process of monitoring a parameter of

condition in machinery (vibration, temperature etc.), in order to identify a significant change which
is indicative of a developing fault. It is a major component of predictive maintenance. The use of
condition monitoring allows maintenance to be scheduled, or other actions to be taken to prevent
consequential damages and avoid its consequences. Condition monitoring has a unique benefit in
that conditions that would shorten normal lifespan can be addressed before they develop into a
major failure. Condition monitoring techniques are normally used on rotating equipment, auxiliary
systems and other machinery (compressors, pumps, electric motors, internal combustion engines,
presses), while periodic inspection using non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques and fit for
service (FFS) evaluation are used for static plant equipment such as steam boilers, piping and heat
exchangers.
In most of the power equipment devices ,oil as a cooling medium an insulator is widely
used . Several times oil is also called as blood for machines .For diagnosing of a faulty Equipment
oil sample is taken ,where after it's analysis is done .the oil collecting methodology comprises of
very important points and procedure thus making oil sample collection process a tedious one .
Some Advanced technological Methods comprising of gas analysis where gas extraction
method are tedious and must be taken with proper care .Moreover the laboratories for testing of
oil are not in big number which brings delay in outcome of the result for the sample taken .the
procedure is also time taking .most of these methods are destructive types of methods which leads
to loss of sample taken resulting economic loss .What testing it is mandatory that a highly skilled
chemist must test on this .also there are qualitative constraints resulting less accuracy of the result
.All this point mentioned above states that its need off such a technology that is are nondestructive
testing nature ,having high accuracy ,and give results in less time .The photo acoustic spectroscopy
may bring a solution over this .

9. HISTROY of PAS
The discovery of the photoacoustic effect dates to 1880, when Alexander Graham Bell was
experimenting with long-distance sound transmission. Through his invention, called
"photophone", he transmitted vocal signals by reflecting sun-light from a moving mirror to
a selenium solar cell receiver.[ As a byproduct of this investigation, he observed that sound waves
were produced directly from a solid sample when exposed to beam of sunlight that was rapidly
interrupted with a rotating slotted wheel. He noticed that the resulting acoustic signal was
dependent on the type of the material and correctly reasoned that the effect was caused by the
absorbed light energy, which subsequently heats the sample. Later Bell showed that materials
exposed to the non-visible (ultra-violet and infra-red) portions of the solar spectrum can also
produce sounds and invented a device, which he called "spectrophone", to apply this effect for
spectral identification of materials. Bell himself and later John Tyndall and Wilhelm
Röntgen extended these experiments, demonstrating the same effect in liquids and
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gases. However, the results were too crude, dependent on ear detection, and this technique was
soon abandoned. The application of the photoacoustic effect had to wait until the development of
sensitive sensors and intense light sources. Since then, research and applications grew faster and
wider, acquiring several fold more detection sensitivity.
While the heating effect of the absorbed radiation was considered to be the prime cause of
the photoacoustic effect, it was shown in 1978 that gas evolution resulting from a photochemical
reaction can also cause a photoacoustic effect. Independently, considering the apparent anomalous
behaviour of the photoacoustic signal from a plant leaf, which could not be explained solely by
the heating effect of the exciting light, led to the cognition that photosynthetic oxygen evolution
is normally a major contributor to the photoacoustic signal in this case.

10.What is SPECTROSCOPY ???

Spectroscopy is used as a tool for studying the structures of atoms and molecules. The large
number of wavelengths emitted by these systems makes it possible to investigate their structures
in detail, including the electron configurations of ground and various excited states. Spectroscopy
15
also provides a precise analytical method for finding the constituents in material having unknown
chemical composition. In a typical spectroscopic analysis, a concentration of a few parts per
million of a trace element in a material can be detected through its emission spectrum.
Electromagnetic radiation is characterized by the wave properties of frequency (ν), wavelength
( λ), and velocity (c). All electromagnetic radiation travels in a vacuum at a constant velocity: c =
3.00 x 108 m/s, the speed of light.
ν λ= c
The energy (E) of electromagnetic radiation is directly proportional to its frequency:
E=hν
h is Planck's Constant, equal to 6.626 x 10-34 J-sec/photon Or 3.99 x 10-13 kJ·s·mol-1.

Using spectroscopy, chemists can identify different species present in a sample or "map out"
the structure of a molecule.All atoms of all elements do has its own unique emission spectrum
that consists only of a few narrow lines.

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 11.PHOTOACOUSTIC SPECTROSCOPY
Photo acoustic spectroscopy (PAS) uses acoustic waves produced from materials which
are exposed to light to measure its concentration. PAS is unique in that it combines heat
measurements with optical microscopy. Gases have been the ideal samples used but more research
has been increasing gradually to use PAS efficiently for solid and liquid samples. When measuring
a sample, it takes measurements directly through looking at the internal heat instead of the effects
of the light on the surroundings. This makes PAS highly accurate and useful for sensitive detectors.

Process diagram for light absorption to acoustic waves

As light is absorbed electrons are excited either electronically or vibrationally. When

looking at electronic excitation, electrons jump to a higher energy level. As they drop back to its
ground state, the extra energy is given off as heat. Collision deactivation, another form of heat
formation, involves the colliding of atoms. The collision of atoms give off energy in the form of
heat. However in the case of electronic excitation, the energy can also be dissipated through
chemical reactions or radioactive emissions as seen in figure. Chemical reactions involve any
reactions with its surroundings as energy is used to initiate those reactions. Radioactive emissions
involve the energy given off as photons, rendering it useless for PAS which requires heat. This
reduces the amount of heat formed as energy is spent somewhere else. It is possible to have
chemical reactions form heat, but only a portion of the energy absorbed goes towards heat. On the
other hand, with vibrational energy, chemical reactions and radioactive emissions have little effect.
The lifetimes of the vibrations are long enough prevent chemical reactions and radioactive
emissions from interfering. Therefore, the atoms have as much time as needed to complete the
process of collision deactivation which will effectively use the full amount of energy to transfer to
heat.

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 12.BLOCK REPRESENTATION

The generation of gas photoacoustic voltage signal is a complex energy conversion

process of light, heat, sound, electricity, as shown in Fig The production of heat and stimulation
of sound are the two most important segments. If the light beam suffers only a small attenuation
when traversing the photoacoustic (PA) cell, then the light power absorbed by the gas.

18
 13.PRINCIPLE

Photo Acoustic Spectroscopy (PAS) works along the following principle: A gas substance
absorbs light energy following local heating by an IR light and transforms it into kinetic energy
(by the energy exchange process). Regularly interrupting this process causes a series of pressure
waves (sound) that can be detected by microphones. By measuring the sound at different
wavelengths, the photo acoustic spectrum of a gas sample can be recorded. This spectrum can then
be used to identify the absorbing components of the sample. When the target gases are known,
such as in the DGA application, IR filters are used to select regions of theinfrared spectrum that
overlap with the target gas absorption spectrum. Broadband IR is produced by a black body IR
source. This method achieves parts per million gas detection levels for multiple gas species

19
 Generic location of bond absorptions that can lead, through vibrational excitation to the
acoustic effect in a Photoacoustic Spectrometer. When the exact compounds of interest are
known specific regions of the spectrum can be focused upon for quantitative and qualitative analysis.

❖ PAS IN DGA :-

Methodology:
• Traceable gas mixtures were provided directly to a calibrated photoacoustic gas analyzer
and measured. This process was repeated ten times and an analysis for accuracy and
repeatability performed. This work was performed in a laboratory environment and so
may not account for possible variability associated with environmental conditions.
However it does illustrate the ability of PAS detectors to measure accurately each of the
target gases at medium concentrations.
• Standard gas-in-oil samples were prepared and tested on a portable DGA instrument
which employs a PAS detector in conjunction with an automated headspace gas
extraction system. Six samples were analyzed, and comparison made between the
standard sample quantity and the measured gas quantity. This provided an assessment of
the capability of the instrument to measure gas-in-oil where the levels of gas are known.
• Oil samples from field transformers were collected and analyzed on the same portable
instrument, with duplicate samples analyzed on a laboratory GC. This allows for
detection of any variability in measurement capability when dealing with real situations.
• Oil samples were collected from various transformers with online PAS based systems.
These samples were analyzed in a laboratory GC system and results compared

• The gases that are associated with specific fault types are
o Hydrogen (H2)
o Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
o Carbon Monoxide (CO)
o Ethane (C2H6)
o Methane (CH4)
o Ethylene (C2H4)
o Acetylene (C2H2).
• They are known collectively as the “diagnostic gases”.
• Analysis of these gases allows for the diagnosis of developing faults using a variety of
methods
o Duval’s Triangle
o Key Gas Method
o Rogers’ Ratios
o Japan ETRA
o Gas Pattern Analysis Method

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 ❖ Portable Dissolved Gas Analysis :- GE Energy TRANSPORT X:-
Accurate knowledge of the condition of oil-filled equipment is of paramount importance to
electrical utilities. Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) has been essential in this area for many years, allowing
faults to be detected in their early stages, costly outages to be avoided and assets to be optimized.
The TRANSPORT X represents a new generation of test equipment for DGA in equipment oil, allowing
accurate, rapid, reliable results in the field. To ensure optimum performance of the TRANSPORT X it is
important to read this manual fully before using the equipment
System description:- The TRANSPORT X utilizes photo-acoustic spectroscopy (PAS) to
perform extremely high quality DGA analyses, giving measurements of all the fault gases plus moisture.
The gases extracted from the oil sample using a highly stable headspace equilibrium extraction method are
then measured using infrared photo-acoustic spectroscopy (a semiconductor sensor for hydrogen). The
TRANSPORT X can also test gas samples taken from a Buchholz relay (although with reduced accuracy
due to a very large dilution factor). The wide dynamic range of measurement of the TRANSPORT X means
it is also very suitable for testing tap-changer and circuit breaker oil.
The TRANSPORT X is contained within a rugged, impact-resistant, carrying case.
Accessories for DGA tests of oil are contained within a separate lightweight case. These include a sample
bottle with connections and pipes, and a syringe for extracting a 50-mL oil sample from the equipment and
injecting it directly into the bottle.
The TRANSPORT X contains an embedded PC and touch screen. The incorporated software
contains instructions to guide the user through the operation of the system and algorithms to assist the
diagnosis of the electrical equipment. The PC has an internal database that can store over 16,000 records.
Communication with external PC’s is possible via USB connections, allowing databases to be downloaded
to a laptop or desktop PC and then shared as required.A 2-inch thermal printer is provided, enabling the
user to maintain hard copy records of all samples tested on the instrument.
The power supply requirements are 115/230 Vac, 50/60 Hz. A System Check Kit is available to
allow the user to check the calibration accuracy of the TRANSPORT-X

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 The sample bottle provided includes a “lid assembly” as shown in Figure 2. Each
lid assembly is labelled with unique coefficient parameters. For this reason, the lid assembly is
not interchangeable with other TRANSPORT X units unless the parameters have been updated
on the unit. The lid assembly incorporates airtight compression fittings and a temperature probe
incorporating a capacitance moisture sensor, all of which are to be connected to the top panel of
the TRANSPORT X. These gas connectors are of the simple “snap-in” type but they are
“polarized” so that only one order of connection of the input and return is possible. Users must
ensure that these connections are fully made when using the TRANSPORT X
Technical Specifications of TRANSPORT X

FAULT GAS CALIBRATED RANGE (ppm)

Hydrogen (H2) 5 – 5,000

Carbon dioxide (CO2) 2 – 50,000
Carbon monoxide (CO) 1 – 50,000
Methane (CH4) 1 – 50,000
Ethane (C2H6) 1 – 50,000
Ethylene (C2H4) 1 – 50,000
Acetylene (C2H2) 0.5 – 50,000
Water (H2O) 0 – 100 % relative saturation

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 14.APPLICATIONS: -
Because of the high sensitivity and accuracy of PAS, it is ideal to use it in gas
detectors. Gas levels in the atmosphere can be measured and provide details on any dangers of
rising toxic gases. It is also useful in determining the materials of an unknown samples. Each
material has its own unique spectrum and by observing the acoustic waves produces, one can
match the waves to specific profiles of materials. PAS is also used for high resolution imaging
by analyzing the topography of the sample. Using the topography and the profiles of electric
signals, one can create an image with shaded colors to indicate the different materials. The cost
of creating these devices have decreased and is gradually being used more widely in gas
detectors and sample analysis in labs.
➢ The research applications of PAS are as:

a. Hydrocarbon Fuels , Coals , Liquid Fuels

b. Organic Chemistry ,Spectra of Aromatic Hydrocarbons &Far-Infrared PA Spectra
of Aromatic Hydrocarbons
c. Inorganic Chemistry ,Carbonyl Compounds 176
d. Semiconductors ,Superconductors
e. Biology and Biochemistry
f. Medical Applications
g. Food Products ,Agricultural Grains
h. Clays and Minerals
i. Textiles
➢ The commercial applications of PAS are as:
a. Flue gas monitoring
b. Effluent treatment
c. food processing industries
d. Minerals and Oil extraction
e. Conditioning monitoring of power apparatus.
f. GIS , BREAKERS , TRANSFORMERS, VALVE COOLING , ETC.
g. Diagnosis of diseases
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 15.PROS AND CONS:-
Tha PAS has wide advantage over other techniques. The are :
(1) Characterized by high monitoring sensitivity -it directly measures the energy absorbed by
gases without background noise
(2) Doesn’t require chromatographic columns and sensors,
(3) does not require a calibration gas
(4) displays a high level of versatility
(5) Pc environment friendly
(6) Less interference of noise signal
(7) High sensitivity
However it it associated with some demerits such as:-
➢ Temperature dependent
➢ Sound wave dependant
➢ Costlly equipments.

16.Market suppliers of PAS

Following are some of the market suppliers of photoacoustic spectrometer:-

I. General Electric – GE
a. GE Hydran M2
b. GE Kelman Transport X2
II. FUJIFILM Vevo LAZR-X
III. Huazhao Inc.
IV. Linkel group
V. Shimadzu corp.

17.COST ANALYSIS:
As previously stated that photo plastic spectrometer is a very costly equipment as it is associated with
very delicate and highly technological advanced machinery .due to this the cost of spectrometer
available in market is somewhat higher inrange .following are cost analysis Off most renowned
photoacoustic spectrometer available in market
➢ GE Kelman Transport X2 Portable Dissolved Gas Analyser With 5 Year Warranty
3.5 – 4 lacs Rs
➢ GE Hydran M2 gas analyser – 1500 rs./ piece
.

18.CONCLUSION

PAS based DGA instruments have been developed with the express purpose of addressing
the shortcomings of online GC based instruments. They provide a real alternative to GC by
matching their performance and operating successfully in the field. Utilising a technology
historically designed for online application, PAS instruments are very stable and repeatable
monitoring instruments suited for the tough environmental and operational demands associated
with remote transformer monitoring. PAS is the new highend standard for monitoring critical
transformers.
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 19. REFERENCES
1] McQuarrie, Donald A. Physical Chemistry. 2nd ed. United States Of America: University Science
Books, 2008. 321-24
[2] https://www.gegridsolutions.com/md/catalog/transportx.html
[3] Detection of Dissolved Gas in Oil–Insulated Electrical Apparatus by Photoacoustic Spectroscopy ;
Zhixin Mao and Jingyu Wen ,Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
[4] Photoacoustic IR Spectroscopy , Kirk H. Michaelian , Second, Revised and Enlarged edition ; Wiley.
[5] Study on the Gas Pressure Characteristics of Photoacoustic Spectroscopy Detection for Dissolved
Gases in Transformer Oil, Fu Wan, Weigen Chen, Xiaojuan Peng, Jing Shi ; Chongqing University,China
[6] Photo-Acoustic Spectroscopy for dissolved gas analysis , Donal Skelly ,GE Energy ; IEEE 2012
[7] Photoacoustic Spectroscopy in Trace Gas Monitoring , Frans J.M. Harren and Simona M.
CristescuRadboud University Nijmegen.
[8] https://chem.libretexts.org
[9] https://soundandscience.de/text/production-and-reproduction-sound-light
[10] Digital Circuit by Anand Kumar , PHI , 4TH edition
[11] IC DATASHEETS
[12] https://www.ti.com/lit/ds/sdls014/sdls014.pdf
[13] https://www.nteinc.com/specs
[14] https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/multiplexers-in-digital-logic/
[15] https://www.electronicshub.org/multiplexer-and-demultiplexer/
[16] https://dir.indiamart.com/

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