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ARTICLE INFO
Article ID: 03-11-05-0034
Copyright © 2018
SAE International
doi:10.4271/03-11-05-0034

Limitations of Two-Stage
Turbocharging at High
Flight Altitudes
Yehuda Fass and Leonid Tartakovsky, Technion Israel Institute of Technology

Abstract History
Received: 24 Dec 2017
High-altitude long-endurance (HALE) unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are used for high flight Revised: 06 Aug 2018
altitudes, which enable low drag and fast flight with minimal fuel consumption. Two-stage turbo- Accepted: 23 Aug 2018
charging is necessary to sustain sea-level power at high flight altitudes. In this study, the limitations e-Available: 17 Sep 2018
of two-stage turbocharging at high flight altitudes typical for HALE UAVs are analyzed for the first
time. The obtained results show that the minimum available engine power increases as the altitude Keywords
rises. This will limit the ability of the aircraft to descend rapidly. Furthermore, at high altitudes, if a UAV engine, High flight
lower operating point is required for a fast descent, further recovery to full power for climbing or altitude, Two-stage
cruising could be unavailable. In the latter cases, a lower altitude must be reached before full power turbocharging, Turbocharger
would be available again. A basic algorithm for the assessment and analysis of the limitations of energy balance, Power
UAV engines with two-stage turbochargers operating at high altitudes is suggested. command

Citation
Fass, Y. and Tartakovsky, L.,
“Limitations of Two-Stage
Turbocharging at High
Flight Altitudes,” SAE Int. J.
Engines 11(5):511–524, 2018,
doi:10.4271/03-11-05-0034.

ISSN: 1946-3936
e-ISSN: 1946-3944

511
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512 Fass and Tartakovsky / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 11, Issue 5, 2018
Introduction
H
igh-altitude long-endurance (HALE) unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs) are used for high altitudes,
which enable low drag and fast flight with minimal
fuel consumption [1]. As a result, a long-endurance flight is
allowed. Furthermore, high-altitude flights are considered
stealthier and more convenient for ground flight control. The
UAV industry frequently uses internal combustion engines
(ICEs) for propulsion, converting the power produced by the
engines to thrust using a propeller. Among the main chal-
lenges of UAV engine operation at various flight altitudes,
knock and power loss can be mentioned [2]. As the aircraft
climbs to higher altitudes, air pressure, and respectively
ambient air density, rapidly drops. To enable aircrafts fly at
high altitudes without losing performance, and to take advan-
tage of low drag at high altitudes, a turbocharger is usually
applied to overcome the problem of low pressure/density air,
by compressing the ambient air back to the sea-level
pressure [3].
Although it is common practice to use automotive
turbochargers in UAVs [4], the operational characteristics
in these two functions are very different. In an automotive
setup, engine turbocharging is used to produce more power
from a given engine displacement [5, 6, 7], whereas in
aviation, the main usage of the turbocharger is to maintain
sea-level power at high flight altitudes. Furthermore, in
automotive applications, the boost pressure is set to produce
the power required by the engine manufacturer and usually
the pressure ratio will remain constant for a wide range of
engine speeds [8]. In aircrafts, the pressure ratio gradually
rises as the airplane climbs to higher altitudes. Therefore,
higher pressure ratios at high turbocharger efficiency are
required and special control loops are designed for managing
the energy balance of the turbocharger. The size of the UAV
turbocharger is chosen to produce a given intake air pressure
at the highest flight altitude, while each turbocharger has
efficiency limitations depending on the pressure ratio and
other parameters such as weight, size, inertia, and losses
[9]. To achieve high pressure ratio at high-altitude flights,
a large turbocharger needs to be  used. However, a large
turbocharger with high pressure ratio has many disadvan-
tages. Its efficiency is low at low altitudes. It has limited
minimum airflow rate, has high inertia, and leads to diffi-
culties in engine-to-UAV integration owing to its size.
Alternatively, two or more turbochargers can be used in
series, wherein the overall pressure ratio is the product of
the pressure ratios of the turbochargers. This approach
allows overcoming some of the efficiency limitations of a
single turbocharger yet maintaining the desired high
pressure ratio [10, 11]. Hence, applying two or more turbo-
chargers is a promising way for achieving high-altitude
flights [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17].
A configuration of two turbochargers in series comprises
a high-pressure (HP) stage assembly and a low-pressure (LP)
stage assembly [18]. In an ICE with a two-stage turbocharger
(see Figure 1), the LP stage turbocharger is designed to provide
the HP stage with a higher air pressure than the ambient at a
given altitude, thereby increasing the critical altitude of the
engine [19].
As the aircraft climbs, the operating boundaries of a two-
stage turbocharging system become narrow. This phenom-
enon is related to the engine energy balance as illustrated
below. The power exerted by the turbines of the HP and LP
stages can be calculated using a known expression [9]:
é ÷ù
æ g -1 ö
ç
 ê æ Pout öè g ø ú
Wturbine = ht × c p × Tin × m
 engineout × 1 - ç
ê ÷ ú Eq. (1)
P
êë è in ø úû
Here, Pin is the turbine inlet pressure (engine exhaust
pressure or HP turbine outlet pressure for HP and LP stages,
respectively), Pout is the turbine outlet pressure (can be assumed
to be equal to ambient pressure for the LP turbine), Tin is the
gas temperature at the turbine inlet, cP is the exhaust gas
specific heat, γ is the exhaust gas specific heat ratio, and
m engine _ out is the engine exhaust gas mass flow. The HP turbine
work is utilized to activate the HP compressor, which further
compresses the LP air and delivers it to the engine inlet
manifold (see Figure 1). Note that the gas temperature at the
LP turbine inlet is determined by the HP turbine exhaust gas
expansion. Certainly, the power of both HP and LP turbines
is linearly related to the engine exhaust mass flow and temper-
ature and is proportional to the pressure ratio on the turbine.
Since these parameters depend on the engine operating mode,
any change in the engine operation regime directly affects the
turbine output.
Similar to Equation 1, the power consumed by each
compressor (both HP and LP) can be  calculated by
Equation 2 [9]:
é g -1
ù
C P ·Tin ê æ Pout ö g ú
W compressor = ×m
 engine × ç - 1 Eq. (2)
hC êè Pin ÷ø ú
êë ûú
Here, m  engine is the engine intake air mass flow, Pout and
Pin are the compressor outlet and inlet pressures, respectively,
and Tin is the compressor inlet air temperature. Clearly, the
compressor power demand is a consequence of the pressure
ratio required [20]. The latter is determined by the desired
flight altitude. Generally, in normal operating conditions, the
work produced by the turbine is greater than the work required
by the compressor to produce the desired pressure ratio owing
to the relatively high enthalpy of the exhaust gases. The
following inequality holds (Equation 3) [21]:
W turbine > W compressor Eq. (3)
This allows the compressor to supply intake air to the
engine at an adequate air pressure, thereby preserving the
engine full power and maintaining a positive energy balance
of the turbocharger. Note that in these conditions, a part of
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Fass and Tartakovsky / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 11, Issue 5, 2018 513

 FIGURE 1   Two-stage turbocharger configuration.

© SAE International

the available exhaust energy is not being used; thus, the engine
efficiency is lower than could be achieved when engine waste
heat would be  utilized more effectively. As the aircraft
continues climbing to higher altitudes, the difference between
the power produced by the turbine and the power required
by the compressor becomes smaller [22, 23, 24, 25].
At high altitudes, especially at altitudes that can only
be achieved with two-stage turbocharging, the positive energy
balance enabling the compressor to meet the engine inlet
pressure can exist only at certain operating modes of the engine.
These modes depend on the engine and turbocharger
parameters, and usually determine the minimal engine power
output, where the exhaust mass flow, pressure, and tempera-
ture are high enough to provide the turbine with a gas of
sufficiently high enthalpy to maintain a positive energy
balance of the turbocharger. Any decrease in engine power
below this operating point will result in a negative energy
balance of the turbocharger system.
The limiting operating points can be determined by using
turbine maps of the two-stage turbocharger. An example of a
typical turbine map is shown in Figure 2. Point 1 on the turbine
map corresponds to normal operation. The engine exhaust mass

 FIGURE 2   Typical turbine map.

1
2
Engine Idle –

3
Engine Idle –
at high altitude

Maximal turbine rpm line

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514 Fass and Tartakovsky / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 11, Issue 5, 2018
flow rate is sufficient for operating the turbine. When the engine
power output is reduced, the engine exhaust mass flow rate
normally decreases as well (denoted by point 2 in Figure 2). In
a one-stage turbocharger, despite a decreased exhaust mass flow
rate, the turbine operating point is still inside the operating
limits, because the turbocharger is matched for the specific
engine and altitudes. Thus, opening the throttle will result in
an acceptable response of the turbine, and an adequate pressure
ratio for full engine power will be achieved.
However, when using a two-stage turbocharger, the oper-
ating limits are different. The altitude, to which the UAV
climbs, is not fitted anymore to any singular turbine map or
turbocharger that comprises the two-stage configuration.
Only a combination of both turbochargers allows producing
the necessary high pressure ratio. As in the case of one-stage
turbocharging, an engine power reduction at an altitude
where the two turbochargers are required will result in an
exhaust mass flow rate reduction. At this point, it is possible
that the turbine does not produce enough power to drive the
compressor. Thus, the compressor pressure ratio decreases,
followed by a further engine exhaust mass flow rate reduction.
Eventually, the engine exhaust mass flow rate can decrease to
a level that lies outside the operating range of the turbine, as
denoted by point 3 in the turbine map (Figure 2). Thus, no
work will be  produced by the turbine for operating the
compressor and no air compression occurs in the turbo-
charger. In the latter case, even if the engine throttle will
be fully opened, the turbocharger will not operate. The reason
is the low turbine efficiency (determined by the turbine blade
geometry), which is insufficient for producing adequate power
for the compressor. Thus, the following inequality holds:
W turbine < W compressor Eq. (4)
In situations described above, the UAV must descend to
an altitude where the engine exhaust gas enthalpy would
be adequate again for operating the turbine. This issue can
harm the aircraft mission and therefore should be investigated
in detail to develop a basis for the problem solution.
This phenomenon is unique for a series two-stage turbo-
charger configuration because the altitude that the UAV
reaches is only achieved through a joint operation of both
turbochargers. As the UAV climbs, the lowest power operating
point of the engine (below which a loss of pressure ratio
occurs) shifts to higher power levels. This is a result of
narrowing the turbine operating zone as the pressure ratio of
the turbine rises (Figure 2).
Because UAV engines need to operate in a wide range of
loads [26], particularly with low throttle at loiter speed, the
engine power output must be  reduced from time to time
during normal operation at high altitudes. In this case,
following the described scenario above, the turbocharger
system can lose its positive power balance and, consequently,
the ability to increase engine power output by throttle opening.
When this happens at high altitudes, after reducing the engine
power below the limiting power operating point, the only way
to recover the engine power output is by lowering the UAV to
an altitude where the turbocharger energy balance will return
to positive, thereby allowing the engine power to increase
again for climbing.
Engine operation at low power demand and high altitudes
is unique for UAVs. Kim et al. [27] investigated the combustion
and impact of ignition quality of a UAV diesel engine at various
flight altitudes. However, data on turbocharger performance
with low power demands at high altitudes are fragmentary.
A joint operation of a series two-stage turbocharging system
and UAV engine at high altitudes has not been investigated.
The problem of engine power reduction at high altitudes can
be a major concern in UAV operation, adversely affecting its
maneuverability and limiting its operation range. Thus, the
ability to predict the operating limits of the UAV engine at high
altitudes is of great importance to develop appropriate problem
mitigation measures and enable reliable aircraft operation.
The study reported in this article attempts to close the
abovementioned gaps. It is focused on understanding the
energy balance of a two-stage turbocharging system at high
altitudes and its dependence on engine parameters and oper-
ating conditions. In particular, the research concentrates on
engine low-power operation and power recovery from idle at
high altitudes. Addressing mechanical issues of turbocharger
operation must include experiments and measurements at
high altitudes. Usually, turbo running inside safe limits of its
performance is ensured by an appropriate definition of opera-
tion limitations in turbo control unit. For the purpose of this
study, a simulation model of an ICE with a series two-stage
turbocharger was developed, validated, and deployed. The
limitations of two-stage turbocharging at high flight altitudes
were investigated. Finally, a basic algorithm for assessment
and analysis of the operation peculiarities of an engine with
two-stage turbocharging at high altitudes was suggested.
Methodology
Engine
The engine considered in this study is the ROTAX-914, which
is widely used in various UAV platforms. This engine is
equipped with a single-stage turbocharger that maintains a
critical altitude of 16,000 ft. The engine cylinders are air-
cooled and the heads are water-cooled. The main engine
parameters are listed in Table 1.
TABLE 1  Main parameters of the ROTAX-914 engine.
Displacement 1211 cm3
Stroke 61 mm
Bore 79.5 mm
Connecting rod length 105.5 mm
Compression ratio 9:1
© SAE International
Number of valves 2
Rated power 100 HP/73.5 kW at 5500 rpm
Maximum torque 106 ft-lb/144 N-m at 4900 rpm
Spark timing 26° BTDC
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Fass and Tartakovsky / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 11, Issue 5, 2018 515

Experimental Setup This model was calibrated and validated using data from labo-
ratory experiments. Then, using this validated model as a
The engine measurements for validating the simulation model basis, a model of the same engine, but with a two-stage turbo-
were conducted using a laboratory experimental setup based charging system was developed and used in further simulations.
on an engine dynamometer (Hoffman 160) and equipped with The engine model was developed in GT-Suite software.
various measuring instruments for temperature, pressure, The inlet and exhaust manifolds were modeled using the
flow rate, and in-cylinder instantaneous pressure measure- GEM3D feature, which enables accurate manifold discretiza-
ment. A schematic layout of the experimental setup is shown tion to 1D approximation, using the available 3D models of
in Figure 3. Type K thermocouples were used to measure the these components. Two engine carburetors were modeled as
exhaust temperature. Low-pressure sensors (−1 to 1 barg) were two injectors, one for each intake pipe. Excess air factor
applied for measurement of inlet and exhaust piping pressures. (lambda) values used in the modeling approach were kept the
The in-cylinder pressure and crank angle measurement system same as the values measured in the engine laboratory tests.
included a Kistler pressure sensor 6052C31U20, Kistler charge The compressor and turbine of the engine turbocharger were
amplifier 5018A1000, and AVL 365C encoder with multiplier. modeled using the full performance map provided by the
The pressure transducer was installed in the cylinder head engine manufacturer. The burn rate profile was modeled using
according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The intercooler the Wiebe function (Equation 5), and the heat transfer inside
and water cooler temperature were controlled using the water the cylinder was modeled using the Woschni correlation
circuit. Furthermore, measurements of fuel flow, cylinder head (Equation 6):
temperature, and oil temperature were monitored to ensure
æ æ q - q0 ö m +1
ö
adequate repeatability of experiments. X b = 1 - exp ç -a ç ÷÷ Eq. (5)
ç è Dq ÷ø
è ø

Model N u = 0.035 × Rem Eq. (6)

The engine simulation model was developed in two stages. The model calibration was conducted as follows. A set of
First, the engine was modeled in its original configuration. working points, ref lecting the full spectrum of engine

 FIGURE 3   Schematic configuration of the test bench.

Ambient
Temperature Ambient Pressure Air filter
PP
Expansion Exhaust
tank Pressure
Wave
Fuel
Damper Linear Actuator
Filter Flowmeter Throttle Low Pressure Control
Pump Pressure
Fuel Tank Regulator
P
P
Compressor Inlet Turbine Outlet
Intercooler Inlet

Intercooler Pressure Turbine

P P
Turbo RPM Inlet
(calculated)
Air Box P P
Turbine Inlet
Carburetor Position
Water Tower
throttle
Linear Actuator
Position RPM Control
Calculated Power
Carburetor Calculated SFC
Carburet ors
throttle
P
Intake air P Intake air
Intake Manifold
cylinders 1+3 pressure Cylinders 2+4

FI
Rotameter CHT 2+3
Water Coolant
4 EGT
Cooler inlet
RPM
Sensor

Engine
Engine
Coolant
outlet Load
Reductor Cell
Overflow
Tank
Oil
P P
Tourqe Control
Oil Pressure Dynamometer
Knock
Sensor
Pump
Oil Tank
Oil Radiator
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516 Fass and Tartakovsky / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 11, Issue 5, 2018

operation, were measured by running the engine on a labora- TABLE 2  Accuracy of measured parameters and maximal
tory setup with an engine dynamometer. For each working uncertainty of calculated parameters.
point, the following parameters were recorded: torque, speed, Measured parameters Accuracy
excess air factor, fuel flow rate, and various temperatures and
Ambient temperature [°C] ±1
pressures. Indicatory diagrams were built based on measure-
Engine speed [RPM] ±5
ments of instantaneous in-cylinder pressure and
piston position. Torque [Nm] ±0.2
For every measured parameter, the average value and Throttle position [%] ±1
standard deviation were calculated using Equation 7: AirBox temperature [°C] ±1
AirBox pressure [mBar] ±10
1 N
x= åxi
N i =1
Cylinder head temperature [°C] ±1
Eq. (7) Fuel flow [%] ±1
1
å ( xi - x ) Lambda [% relative] ±5
N 2
s»
N - 1 i =1 Crank shaft encoder [Deg CAD] ±0.02
The accuracy of the measured parameters was deter- In-cylinder pressure [%] ±0.3
mined using Equation 8: Calculated parameters Uncertainty
æ s ö Power 5%
Dx = max ç Dx MA ,1.96 ÷ Eq. (8)

è Nø
The symbol Δx MA denotes the measurement device
accuracy. Since every parameter was measured above 100
times (for each working point: N > 100), the accuracy of the
measurement devices was larger than the standard deviation
for all measured parameters (for 95% confidence level). For
each operating mode and each parameter of interest, the
average value of all measurements was taken as the parameter
value and used in all further analyses. For every calculated
parameter, the uncertainty value was calculated using
Equation 9:
2 2
éæ ¶f ö ù éæ ¶f ö ù was defined using a PID controller. The throttle controller
f = f ( x ,y ) ± êç ÷ × Dx ú + êç ÷ × Dy ú +  Eq. (9)
ëè ¶x ø û ëè ¶y ø
û
Table 2 lists the accuracy values of measured parameters
and maximal uncertainty of calculated parameters. The
measured and calculated parameters (torque, speed, excess
air factor, fuel flow rate, indicatory diagrams, etc.) were
inserted to the complete model, which allowed calculating the
initial conditions in the combustion chamber. The initial
conditions and the engine parameters were applied in a
simplified one-cylinder model, and a design of experiments
© SAE International
Airflow 6%
Air density 5%
Volumetric efficiency 1.2%
Brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) 5%
method was used to find the Wiebe and Woschni function
variables for each working point. The combustion calibration
results are shown in Figure 4.
The calculated values of combustion and heat transfer
variables were inserted into the complete model. The model
was run in the predefined working points, thereby allowing
validation of the prediction results. The throttle position
was validated also under transient response. The model
validation results are shown in Figure 5. As can be observed,
a good agreement between the experiment and the predic-
tion results was achieved. The maximum error did not
exceed 3%.
A model of the engine with two-stage turbocharging,
used in further high-altitude simulations and analysis, was
built using the LP turbocharger performance map, which was
acquired from the manufacturer catalog. An accurate
modeling of the second-stage turbine is crucial for correctly

 FIGURE 4   Model calibration results for two working points: 31 kW (left) and 72 kW (right).
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Fass and Tartakovsky / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 11, Issue 5, 2018 517

 FIGURE 5   Model validation results.

90.0 500

80.0 450

70.0 400
350
60.0

BSFC [g/kW.hr]
300
Power [kW]

50.0
250
40.0
Simulaon - Power 200
30.0
150
Experiment - Power
20.0 100
Simulaon - BSFC
10.0 50
Experiment - BSFC
© SAE International

0.0 0
3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000
RPM

simulating the high-altitude engine performance. Moreover, The complete model of the engine with two-stage turbo-
a fixed-pitch propeller was modeled and connected to the charging is shown in Figure 6.
engine shaft. Therefore, engine simulation according to the The simulation was performed for the working points
propeller curve (when the torque is applied by the fixed-pitch (engine operation regimes) given in Table 3. The basic engine
propeller, which in turn is dependent on its speed) was model (with a single turbocharger) was previously validated
enabled. Including the propeller to the engine model was exactly for these points, which were measured in the experi-
crucial to simulate the engine load correctly at various speeds. ment. Because we were unable to validate the model at different
Methodological virtual experiments revealed that modeling altitude conditions, the uncertainty of the prediction results
the engine without a propeller leads to inaccurate results. at different altitudes cannot be accurately assessed.

 FIGURE 6   Model of the engine with two-stage turbocharging and fixed-pitch propeller.
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518 Fass and Tartakovsky / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 11, Issue 5, 2018

TABLE 3  Working points for simulation runs.

Engine speed RPM 3600 3610 3630 3760 4940 5200 5260 5450 5465
Brake torque Nm 40.5 60.5 82.5 93 100 100.5 112 120.5 125.5
Brake power kW 15.3 22.8 31.4 36.7 51.9 54.7 61.9 68.7 71.8
BSFC g/kW-h 449 278 280 277 290 289 292 283 280
© SAE International

Results and Discussion temperature and pressure, outlet pressure set points of LP and
HP compressors, and performance maps of both HP and LP
turbochargers. The pressure ratio of the LP compressor is
The simulations were performed at different altitudes and
engine operating modes (given in % of rated power) as Pset
presented in Table 4. The altitude conditions, ambient PRLP-Comp = Eq. (10)
Pamb
pressure, and temperature used in all calculations were taken
from the International Standard Atmosphere model. For each and the LP compressor corrected mass flow is
altitude, the initial conditions considered in each simulation
are the 1st working point of 15.3 kW, which will be referred Tin / Tref
hereinafter as the engine “idle power.” After the simulation  LP- comp- corr =
m  air
m Eq. (11)
Pin / Pref
for the 1st working point converged, the 2nd working point
was applied by changing the throttle position and applying Having the LP compressor performance map, the
the appropriate values of the Wiebe function and Woschni compressor efficiency and speed can be found based on the
correlation variables. The initial conditions for the 2nd previously calculated pressure ratio and corrected air mass
working point are the results of the 1st working point. The flow rate values. This allows calculation of the power consump-
simulation is then run until convergence, and the engine tion and outlet temperature of the LP compressor:
speed, torque, and power were derived. This sequence was
continued until the 9th working point, which will be referred  air c p ,i Tin é
m g -1
ù
hereinafter as the engine’s “full power.” The predicted values -W LP- c = ê( PRLP- comp ) - 1ú Eq. (12)
g

of the engine power are shown in Figure 7. h LP- c ë û

As shown in Figure 7, at all altitudes of the “idle power”
working point, the engine does not provide the expected ìï 1 é g -1
ù üï
TLP- out = Tamb í1 + ê( PRLP- comp ) - 1ú ý Eq. (13)
g
power. The expected power is denoted by the line “Target
Power,” which was produced by running the simulation at sea îï h LP- comp ë û ïþ
level. The reason for the difference between the achieved power
Then, similar calculations are repeated for the HP
and the power command at this operation mode is the low-
compressor. Assuming negligible leaks, the exhaust gas flow
efficiency working point of both HP and LP turbines (see
rate can be calculated as
Figures 8 and 9). Furthermore, as the flight altitude becomes
higher, the lowest working point where the engine still delivers m  f éë1 + l ( A / F )st ùû
 exh = m Eq. (14)
the expected power also becomes higher. For example, at
25,000 ft, the lowest working point where the engine power After finding the power required by the LP and HP
is equal to the target power is 31.4 kW, whereas at 33,000 ft, compressors and knowing m  exh, the turbine work can be calcu-
the lowest working point moves to 51.9 kW. lated using Equation 1. Using the HP turbine performance
To allow the prediction of two-stage turbocharging limi- map and knowing the engine exhaust flow rate and HP turbine
tations for any engine type, we summarized below a basic speed (equal to the HP compressor speed), we can find the HP
algorithm for analytic calculation of the engine and turbo- turbine efficiency. Considering the known HP compressor
charger working points using well-known turbomachinery power demand, we can calculate the HP turbine pressure drop:
expressions. The following inputs should be  known ge
(predefined, measured, or predicted using any engine perfor- æ Pout ö æ W HP-turb ö g e -1
mance simulation model): engine power command, flight ç ÷ = çç 1 - ÷÷ Eq. (15)
è Pin ø è m  e c p ,e ×hT × Tin ø
altitude, fuel consumption, excess air factor, exhaust gas

TABLE 4  Simulated operating modes and altitudes.

Engine power command [kW]
© SAE International

Case number - % Rated power

Altitude [ft] 1 - “Idle” 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 - “Full Power”
20% 30% 40% 50% 70% 75% 85% 95% 100%
0 → 38000 15.3 22.8 31.4 36.7 51.9 54.7 61.9 68.7 71.8
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Fass and Tartakovsky / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 11, Issue 5, 2018 519

 FIGURE 7   Engine power at different altitudes.

Full Power Target Power

80 Command 15000
Minimal Power Command
16000
70
17000

60 18000
19000
Engine Power [kW]

50 20000
Idle
25000
0
40
30000

0
30 32000
32500
0
20 33000
Mi i l Power
Minimal
Command Available 34000
10 @33kft
35000
© SAE International

0 36000
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Power Command [% rated power]

Hence, the HP turbine outlet pressure can be calculated.
We also calculate the HP turbine outlet temperature as follows:
é æ
THP-turb- out = THP-turb-in × ê1 - h HP-turb × ç 1 - ( Pout / Pin ) g e ÷ ú pressure and known ambient pressure, the energy balance on
ë è
Now, using the known exhaust mass flow rate and LP
turbine speed (equal to that of the LP compressor), we can
find the LP turbine efficiency from the respective turbine
performance map. Similarly, having the LP compressor power
demand, we can calculate the LP turbine pressure drop. This
allows calculation of the LP turbine outlet pressure.
g e -1
öù Based on the predicted value of the LP turbine outlet
øû
Eq. (16) the LP turbine is evaluated. If it is positive, to maintain LP
compressor boost pressure at the desired level, the LP turbine
wastegate needs to be opened. This will result in a change in
the LP turbine inlet pressure and will also affect the HP
turbine energy balance. Thus, a new configuration of the two

 FIGURE 8   Turbine performance maps and working points at 32000 ft - full power and idle.

LP Turbine Map HP Turbine Map

Full Power Full Power

Idle
Idle
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520 Fass and Tartakovsky / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 11, Issue 5, 2018

 FIGURE 9   Compressor performance maps and working points at 32000 ft - full power.

LP Compressor Map HP Compressor Map

wastegates should be set. Through several iterations, we find
the final working points, which are stable for both LP and
HP turbochargers.
Using the described algorithm above and data on the
engine considered in this study (Table 1, Figures 8 and 9), the
engine and the turbocharger working points for all studied
altitudes and power commands given in Table 4 were calcu-
lated. For illustration purposes, a detailed example of the
calculation results is provided in Table 5 for an altitude of
32,000 ft and 100% power.
For the considered earlier example of an engine operating
at 32,000 ft and 100% power, if the engine power command
is set to idle power, we can calculate the flow rates and energy
balance of the two turbochargers using the same algorithm,
as described above.
The power demands of the LP and HP compressors
decrease to 2.1 kW and 1.5 kW, respectively, owing to the
reduced airf low rate. Calculating the turbine working
points for the considered case will result in a negative LP
turbocharger energy balance, that is, W LP-turb = 1.8 kW, and
thus, W LP-turb < W LP- comp = 2.1 kW. Hence, the LP compressor
will slow down, leading to a reduction in engine mass flow
TABLE 5  Turbocharger working points at 32000 ft and
full power.
Predicted
Parameter value
LP turbine mass flow rate - kg/sec 0.068
HP turbine mass flow rate - kg/sec 0.048
LP turbine pressure ratio Pout/Pin 0.5
HP turbine pressure ratio Pout/Pin 0.49
© SAE International
© SAE International
rate and power. Eventually, this will also result in slowing
down the HP turbocharger. The process will be stabilized
at lower engine idle power working points than was
expected by the operator (see results shown in Figure 7).
This phenomenon becomes very clear when the turbine
efficiency graphs, similar to those shown in Figures 10 and
11, are used.
As shown in the said figures, the turbine efficiency is
reduced when the idle power command is applied to both the
HP and LP turbochargers. Therefore, the turbine is not able
to deliver sufficient power to the compressor, and eventually
no turbocharging takes place in both turbochargers. At these
working points, where the turbochargers are shut off, the
engine operates as a naturally aspirated one.
To further illustrate the engine ability to recover to full
power from a lower idle working point, we consider herein-
after an example of two working points at 25,000  ft and
36,000 ft. First, we calculate the HP and LP turbine power
when the engine is reduced to idle power. For both altitudes
mentioned above, at idle power command, the engine
behaves as naturally aspirated because no turbocharging is
available. Thus, the LP and HP turbochargers are completely
off at both altitudes. Only after the HP turbocharger will
recover that the engine power will increase and the LP turbo-
charger will start to recover as well (see Figure 1). Therefore,
we first calculate the energy balance on the HP turbocharger.
In our model, the engine exhaust temperature is calculated
as a function of the air mass flow rate [TExh = f ( m  air ) [28]],
exhaust pressure (using an in-cylinder pressure-based
model), and prediction (or measurement) of the exhaust
piping pressure loss (at 25,000 ft → Pexh = 41 kPa, Texh = 800 K;
at 36,000 ft → Pexh = 25 kPa, Texh = 750 K). The HP turbine
work is calculated using Equation 1.

LP compressor corrected mass flow rate - kg/sec 0.222

After finding the HP turbine working point, we calculate
HP compressor corrected mass flow rate - kg/sec 0.115 the HP compressor efficiency and pressure ratio using the
LP compressor pressure ratio 2.25 engine corrected mass flow rate, compressor speed, and its
HP compressor pressure ratio 1.9 performance map. Then the compressor power demand is

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 FIGURE 10   HP turbine efficiency at different altitudes.

Full 15000
70 Power
16000
Command
17000
65 18000
Idle
19000
HP Turbine Efficiency [%]

Power
60 Command 20000
25000
55 30000
32000

50 32500
33000
34000
45
35000
© SAE International

36000
40
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Power Command [% rated power]

 FIGURE 11   LP turbine efficiency at different altitudes.

Full 15000
60 Power
Idle Command 16000
Power
Command 17000
50 18000
19000
LP Turbine Efficiency [%]

40 20000
25000

30 30000
32000
32500
20
33000
34000
10
35000
© SAE International

36000
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Power Command [% rated power]

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522 Fass and Tartakovsky / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 11, Issue 5, 2018

TABLE 6  Comparison of full power recovery from idle power. TABLE 7  LP and HP turbochargers’ energy balance
at 35000 ft and 36.7 kW.
Parameter 25000 ft 36000 ft
HP turbine work 0.053 kW 0.02 kW Turbocharger LP HP

© SAE International
LP turbine work 0 0 Turbine work 4.4 kW 4.7 kW
(wastegate closed)
HP compressor work 0.01 kW 0.02 kW

© SAE International
Compressor work 3.8 kW 3.6 kW
LP compressor work 0 0
Balance W > W W > W
Balance W LP-turb = W LP-comp = 0 W LP-turb = W LP-comp = 0 LP-turb LP-comp HP-turb HP-comp

W HP-turb > W HP-comp W HP-turb = W HP-comp

calculated using Equation 2. The comparison results for the
considered example are summarized in Table 6. The green
and red shades indicate positive and negative energy
balance respectively.
The turbine working points on the performance maps are
shown in Figure 12.
As observed from Figure 12, the working point of the HP
turbine at 25,000 ft has a higher flow rate at the same pressure
ratio compared to that at 36,000 ft. This results in a higher
turbine efficiency and work (see Table 6). Consequently,
because at 25,000 ft the HP turbine power output is larger
than the power demand of the HP compressor, the turbo-
charger can recover, and finally, the engine will recover to full
power. However, in the case of 36,000  ft altitude, the HP
turbine power is equal to the HP compressor power demand,
and therefore, no recovery will occur.
After finding the operating curves of the engine at various
altitudes, we run the simulation at altitudes where full power
recovery is not possible from the idle power working point.
The simulations were performed at different initial conditions
and for altitudes of 35,000, 36,000, and 37,000 ft. For each
altitude, the lowest working point, which enables full power
recovery, was found. For example, at an altitude of 35,000 ft,
a full power recovery is not possible if the initial conditions
for recovery are of the idle power working point. However,
increasing the power command to 36.7 kW (approximately
50% of rated power) enables full power recovery. This is due
to the positive energy balance on both turbochargers, as indi-
cated in Table 7.
The results illustrating the engine ability to recover to
higher power are summarized in Figure 13. For each flight
altitude, two important points are shown: the minimal power
command at which the engine is still able to deliver the
expected power after reduction to idle power working point,
and the minimal power command at which the engine can
recover to full power.
The data shown in Figure 13 demonstrate that, from an
altitude of 25,000 ft (altitudes typical for HALE UAVs are
>25,000 ft), the higher the altitude, the higher the minimal
power command available at which the engine can deliver
the expected power after reduction to idle power working
point. This means that the available power range of the
engine will be narrower with altitude. For example, at an
altitude of 32,500 ft and after reduction to idle, engine opera-
tion at power commands lower than 52 kW (70% of rated
power) will be impossible. For altitudes above 35,000 ft, if
the engine power is reduced to idle, there is no ability
anymore to recover back to full power. In the latter cases,
an aircraft will have to descend first to a lower altitude, where
the engine power can be recovered to full power. The lowest
operating point where full power can be recovered increases
as the aircraft climbs.

 FIGURE 12   HP turbine performance maps and working points.

HP Turbine Map @36000ft - Idle HP Turbine Map @25000ft - Idle

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Fass and Tartakovsky / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 11, Issue 5, 2018 523

 FIGURE 13   Limiting working points for full power recovery and power command availability.

90
Minimal Power Command for Recovery to Full Power
Engine Power Command [% rated power]
80
Minimal Power Command Available - Starng at Idle
70

60

50

40

30

20

10
© SAE International

0
10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000
Altude []

Conclusions Acknowledgment
The author and publisher would like to acknowledge that this
In this study, the limitations of two-stage turbocharging article is based on an oral-only presentation at 7th Conference
at high f light altitudes typical for HALE UAVs were on UAV Propulsion Technologies, Haifa, Israel, January 25, 2018.
analyzed for the first time. The obtained results show that
the power range of the aircraft engine will be  narrower
with f light altitude rise. The minimum available engine
power increases as the altitude rises. This will limit the
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