Thus, populism, authoritarianism and nationalism can occur separately, they are

interlinked and can be mutually reinforcing. Few nationalist movements do not

resort to populist strategies and do not appeal to authoritarian personalities.

3. Assessing the Rise of Nationalism

Nationalism appears to be on the rise globally, but here we have to examine

whether we are genuinely witnessing a widespread rise of nationalism, and if this
rise is indeed global and what explains this transnational and trans-continental
dynamics.

So what do we mean when we talk about the spread or rise of nationalism? First,
there are attitudes: Do citizens around the world give priority to the nation, value
it over identities and give it greater weight. Thus, is there a visible shift from
endemic to more virulent nationalism in terms of attitudes? Second, how are
attitudes reflected in terms of political choices? Do citizens around the world vote
for nationalists? Finally, does this support lead to either policies or violent
nationalism, in the form of ethnic violence, such as hate crimes or civil war?
Finally, how does nationalism spread and is the current visible expression of
nationalism temporary, or more structural and permanent?

Nationalism is notoriously difficult to measure. First, attitudes and their social and
political manifestations can differ. Second, in most countries, nationalism has a
negative association, thus measuring nationalism requires proxies. These will
differ around the world. The fear of immigrants is more salient in post-industrial
societies, but less in others. The desire for homogeneity is an important
dimension of nationalism in countries that have a dominant core nation, but not
necessarily in very diverse societies. When we are considering the recent rise of
nationalism, in its various forms we can therefore only indicate trends and
patterns, not give a definitive narrative.

In taking a global perspective, we are not interested in whether there is endemic

nationalism. We assume there is in many countries around the world. We are
seeking to ascertain whether, or not, there has been a notable shift over the past
decade, indicating a rise of more virulent nationalism.